Hippopotamus

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For its genus, see Hippopotamus (genus). For other uses, see Hippopotamus (disambiguation).
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Hippopotamus
Temporal range: Pleistocene–Recent
↓
A hippopotamus in Saadani National Park, Tanzania
CITES Appendix II (CITES)[1]
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Artiodactyla
Family: Hippopotamidae
Genus: Hippopotamus
Species:
H. amphibius
Binomial name
Hippopotamus amphibius
Current distribution of the hippopotamus

The hippopotamus (

family Hippopotamidae, the other being the pygmy hippopotamus (Choeropsis liberiensis or Hexaprotodon liberiensis). Its name comes from the ancient Greek
for "river horse" (ἱπποπόταμος).

After

even-toed ungulates, the closest living relatives of the hippopotamids are cetaceans (whales, dolphins, porpoises, etc.), from which they diverged about 55 million years ago. Hippos are recognisable for their barrel-shaped torsos, wide-opening mouths with large canine
tusks, nearly hairless bodies, pillar-like legs, and large size: adults average 1,500 kg (3,300 lb) for bulls (males) and 1,300 kg (2,900 lb) for cows (females). Despite its stocky shape and short legs, it is capable of running 30 km/h (19 mph) over short distances.

Hippos inhabit rivers, lakes, and

habitat loss and poaching for their meat and ivory
(canine teeth).

Etymology

The

plural is "hippopotamuses", but "hippopotami" is also used.[7]

Taxonomy and origins

Classification

The modern hippopotamus and the

Artiodactyla.[8]
: 39–40 

Detail of the head

Five subspecies of hippos have been described based on morphological differences in their skulls as well as differences in geographical range:[8]: 3 [9][10][11]

The suggested subspecies above were never widely used or validated by field biologists; the described morphological differences were small enough that they could have resulted from simple variation in nonrepresentative samples.[8]: 2  A study examining mitochondrial DNA from skin biopsies taken from 13 sampling locations found "low, but significant, genetic differentiation" among H. a. amphibius, H. a. capensis, and H. a. kiboko. Neither H. a. tschadensis nor H. a. constrictus have been tested.[10]

Evolution

Evolutionary relationships among hippo and Cetacea (whales, dolphins)[12]

Until 1909,

Ruminantia and the rest of the even-toed ungulates; the cetacean and hippo lineages split soon afterwards.[14][17]

   
Artiodactyla
   

 Tylopoda

   Artiofabula   

 Suina    

   Cetruminantia   

 

Ruminantia

   Whippomorpha   
Anthracotherium magnum from the Oligocene of Europe

The most recent theory of the origins of Hippopotamidae suggests hippos and whales shared a common semiaquatic ancestor that branched off from other artiodactyls around 60 million years ago.[14][16] This hypothesised ancestral group likely split into two branches again around 54 million years ago.[13]

One branch would

aquatic adaptation into the completely aquatic cetaceans.[17] The other branch became the anthracotheres, a large family of four-legged beasts, the earliest of which in the late Eocene would have resembled skinny hippos with comparatively smaller, narrower heads. All branches of the anthracotheres, except that which evolved into Hippopotamidae, became extinct during the Pliocene, leaving no descendants.[16][17]

A rough evolutionary lineage of the hippo can thus be traced from Eocene and

Middle Pleistocene, though there are possible Early Pleistocene records.[23]

Choeropsis madagascariensis skeleton with a modern hippopotamus skull

Extinct species

Three species of Malagasy hippopotamus became extinct during the Holocene on Madagascar, the last of them within the past 1,000 years. The Malagasy hippos were smaller than the modern hippo, a likely result of the process of insular dwarfism.[24] Fossil evidence indicates many Malagasy hippos were hunted by humans, a factor in their eventual extinction.[24] Isolated individual Malagasy hippos may have survived in remote pockets; in 1976, villagers described a living animal called the kilopilopitsofy, which may have been a Malagasy hippo.[25]

Middle Pleistocene epochs, before being replaced by the modern H. amphibius in Europe during the latter part of the Middle Pleistocene.[28] The Pleistocene also saw a number of dwarf species evolve on several Mediterranean islands, including Crete (Hippopotamus creutzburgi), Cyprus (the Cyprus dwarf hippopotamus, Hippopotamus minor), Malta (Hippopotamus melitensis), and Sicily (Hippopotamus pentlandi). Of these, the Cyprus dwarf hippo survived until the end of the Pleistocene or early Holocene. Evidence from the archaeological site Aetokremnos continues to cause debate on whether or not the species was driven to extinction, or even encountered, by man.[29][30]

Characteristics

Hippo's skull, showing the large canines and incisors used for fighting

The hippopotamus is a megaherbivore and is exceeded in size among land animals only by elephants and some rhinoceros species. The mean adult weight is around 1,480 kg (3,260 lb) for bulls and 1,365 kg (3,009 lb) for cows. Exceptionally large males have been recorded reaching 2,660 kg (5,860 lb).[31] Male hippos appear to continue growing throughout their lives, while females reach maximum weight at around age 25.[32] Hippos measure 2.90 to 5.05 m (9.5 to 16.6 ft) long,[33] including a tail of about 35 to 56 cm (1.15 to 1.84 ft) in length and 1.30 to 1.65 m (4.3 to 5.4 ft) tall at the shoulder,[34][35] with males and females ranging 1.40 to 1.65 m (4.6 to 5.4 ft) and 1.30 to 1.45 m (4.3 to 4.8 ft) tall at the shoulder respectively.[35] The species has a typical head-body length of 3.3–3.45 m (10.8–11.3 ft) and an average standing height of 1.4 m (4.6 ft) at the shoulder.[36]

Hippos have barrel-shaped bodies with short tails and legs, and an hourglass-shaped skull with a long snout.

vocal folds of the hippo are more horizontally positioned, much like cetaceans. Underneath are throat tissues, where vibrations are transmitted to produce underwater calls.[41]

Characteristic "yawn" of a hippo

The hippo's jaw is powered by huge masseter and digastric muscles which give them large, droopy cheeks.[40]: 259  The jaw hinge allows the animal to open its mouth at almost 180°.[8]: 17  A folded orbicularis oris muscle allows the hippo to attain an extreme gape without tearing any tissue.[42] On the lower jaw, the incisors and canines grow continuously, the former reaching 40 cm (1 ft 4 in), while the latter can grow to up to 50 cm (1 ft 8 in). The lower canines are sharpened through contact with the smaller upper canines.[37] The canines and incisors are used mainly for combat instead of feeding. Hippos rely on their flattened, horny lips to grasp and pull grasses which are then ground by the molars.[40]: 259, 263  The hippo is considered to be a pseudoruminant; it has a complex three-chambered stomach, but does not "chew cud".[8]: 22 

Completely submerged hippo (San Diego Zoo)

Hippo skin is 6 cm (2 in) thick across much of its body with little hair.[37][40]: 260  The animal is mostly purplish-grey or blue-black, but brownish-pink on the underside and around the eyes and ears.[40]: 260  Their skin secretes a natural, red-coloured sunscreen substance that is sometimes referred to as "blood sweat" but is neither blood nor sweat. This secretion is initially colourless and turns red-orange within minutes, eventually becoming brown. Two highly acidic pigments have been identified in the secretions; one red (hipposudoric acid) and one orange (norhipposudoric acid), which inhibit the growth of disease-causing bacteria and their light-absorption profile peaks in the ultraviolet range, creating a sunscreen effect.[43][44] Regardless of diet, all hippos secrete these pigments so food does not appear to be their source; rather, they may be synthesised from precursors such as the amino acid tyrosine.[44] This natural sunscreen cannot prevent the animal's skin from cracking if it stays out of water too long.[45]

The testes of the males do not fully descend and a scrotum is not present. In addition, the penis retracts into the body when not

diverticula. Both of these have an unknown function.[8]
: 28–29 

A hippo's lifespan is typically 40 to 50 years.

Mesker Park Zoo in Evansville, Indiana, in the US[46][47] until her death in 2012 at the age of 61.[48] The oldest hippo ever recorded was called Bertha; she had lived in the Manila Zoo in the Philippines since it first opened in 1959. When she died in 2017, her age was estimated to be 65.[49] The oldest living hippopotamus in captivity is Lu the Hippo, from the Ellie Schiller Homosassa Springs Wildlife State Park. As of 2024, he is 64 years old.[50]

Distribution and status

Ugandan tribespeople with hippo slain for food (early 20th century)
Incised hippopotamus ivory tusk (upper canine) with four holes around top (Naqada Tomb 1419, Egypt; Naqada period)

Hippopotamus amphibius arrived in Europe around 560-460,000 years ago, during the Middle Pleistocene.

Eemian interglacial (130–115,000 years ago).[55][56][57] The youngest records of the species in Europe are from the Late Pleistocene of Greece, dating to around 40-30,000 years ago.[54][52]

Archaeological evidence exists of its presence in the

Natal Province were made at the end of the 19th century.[61] Hippos are still found in the rivers and lakes of the northern Democratic Republic of the Congo, Uganda, Tanzania, and Kenya, north through to Ethiopia, Somalia, and Sudan, west to The Gambia, and south to South Africa.[1]

Genetic evidence suggests common hippos in Africa experienced a marked population expansion during or after the

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) meaning international export/import (including in parts and derivatives) requires CITES documentation to be obtained and presented to border authorities.[1][62]

As of 2017, the IUCN Red List drawn up by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) lists the species as vulnerable, with a stable population estimated between 115,000 and 130,000 animals.[1] The hippo population has declined most dramatically in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.[63] By 2005, the population in Virunga National Park had dropped to 800 or 900 from around 29,000 in the mid-1970s.[64] This decline is attributed to the disruptions caused by the Second Congo War.[64] The poachers are believed to be Mai-Mai rebels, underpaid Congolese soldiers, and local militia groups.[64][65] Reasons for poaching include the belief hippos are harmful to society, as well as financial gain.[66] As of 2016, the Virunga hippo population appears to have increased again, possibly due to better protection from park rangers, who have worked with local fishermen.[67] The sale of hippo meat is illegal, but black-market sales are difficult for Virunga National Park officers to track.[65][66] Hippo meat is highly valued in some areas of central Africa and the teeth may be used as a replacement for elephant ivory.[68]

A population of hippos exists in Colombia, descended from captive individuals that escaped from Pablo Escobar's estate after his death in 1993. Their numbers grew to 100 by the 2020s and ecologists believe the population should be eradicated, as they are breeding rapidly and are an increasing menace to humans and the environment. Attempts to control them include sterilisation and culling.[69]

Behaviour and ecology

Video of hippos in the wild

Hippos are

estuaries.[1] Despite being semiaquatic, an adult hippo is not a particularly good swimmer, nor can it float. It rarely enters deep water; when it does, the animal moves by bouncing off the bottom. An adult hippo surfaces every four to six minutes, while young need to breathe every two to three minutes.[8]
: 3–4 

Hippos spend most the day in water to stay cool and hydrated. Just before night begins, they leave the water to forage on land. Hippos usually trot to move quickly on land and can gallop at 30 km/h (19 mph) when needed. They are incapable of jumping but can walk up steep banks. A hippo will travel 3–5 km (1.9–3.1 mi) per night, eating around 40 kg (88 lb) of grass. By dawn, they are back in the water.[37] The hippopotamus sleeps with both hemispheres of the brain resting, as in all land mammals, and usually sleeps on land or in water with the nostrils exposed. Despite this, it may be capable of sleeping while submerged, intermittently surfacing to breathe without waking. They appear to transition between different phases of sleep more quickly than other mammals.[71]

Because of their size and their habit of taking the same paths to feed, hippos can have a significant impact on the land across which they walk, keeping the land clear of vegetation and depressing the ground. Over prolonged periods, hippos can divert the paths of swamps and channels.[72] By defecating in the water, the animals also appear to pass on microbes from their gut, affecting the biogeochemical cycle.[73] On occasion, hippos have been filmed eating carrion, usually near the water. There are other reports of meat-eating and even cannibalism and predation.[74] Hippos' stomach anatomy lacks adaptions to carnivory and meat-eating is likely caused by lack of nutrients or just an abnormal behaviour.[8]: 82–84 

Social life

Hippopotamus pod

It is challenging to study the interaction of bulls and cows because hippos are not sexually dimorphic, so cows and young bulls are almost indistinguishable in the field.[75] Hippo pods fluctuate but can contain over 100 hippos. Although they lie close together, adults develop almost no social bonds. Males establish territories in water but not land, and these may range 250–500 m (270–550 yd) in lakes and 50–100 m (55–109 yd) in rivers. Territories are abandoned when the water dries up. The bull has breeding access to all the cows in his territory. Younger bachelors are allowed to stay as long as they defer to him. A younger male may challenge the old bull for control of the territory. Within the pods, the hippos tend to segregate by sex and status. Bachelor males lounge near other bachelors, females with other females, and the territorial male is on his own. When hippos emerge from the water to graze, they do so individually.[8]: 4–5, 49–50 

Male hippos fighting

Hippos engage in "muck-spreading" which involves defecating while spinning their tails to distribute the faeces over a greater area. Muck-spreading occurs both on land and in water and its function is not well understood. It is unlikely to serve a territorial function, as the animals only establish territories in the water. They may be used as trails between the water and grazing areas.[8]: 5, 51–52  "Yawning" serves as a threat display.[37] When fighting, bulls use their incisors to block each other's attacks and their large canines as offensive weapons.[40]: 259–260  When hippos become over-populated or a habitat shrinks, bulls sometimes attempt infanticide, but this behaviour is not common under normal conditions.[76]

The most common hippo vocalisation is the "wheeze honk", which can travel over long distances in air.[77] This call starts as a high-pitched squeal followed by a deeper, resonant call.[8]: 5  The animals can recognise the calls of other individuals. Hippos are more likely to react to the wheeze honks of strangers than to those they are more familiar with.[77] When threatened or alarmed, they produce exhalations,[37] and fighting bulls will bellow loudly.[8]: 5  Hippos are recorded to produce clicks underwater which may have echolocative properties.[78] They have the unique ability to hold their heads partially above the water and send out a cry that travels through both water and air; individuals respond both above and below water.[79]

Reproduction

Preserved hippopotamus fetus

Cows reach sexual maturity at five to six years of age and have a

spermatozoa and can breed year-round.[8]: 59–61, 66  After becoming pregnant, a female hippo will typically not begin ovulation again for 17 months.[81] Hippos mate in the water, with the cow remaining under the surface,[8]: 63  her head emerging periodically to draw breath. Cows give birth in seclusion and return within 10 to 14 days. Calves are born on land or shallow water[37] weighing on average 50 kg (110 lb) and at an average length of around 127 cm (4.17 ft). The female lies on her side when nursing, which can occur underwater or on land. The young are carried on their mothers' backs in deep water.[8]
: 4, 64 

Mother hippos are very protective of their young, not allowing others to get too close.

K-strategists, in this case typically producing just one large, well-developed infant every couple of years (rather than many small, poorly developed young several times per year, as is common among small mammals such as rodents).[81][76] Calves no longer need to suckle when they are a year old.[8]
: 64 

Interspecies interactions

A hippopotamus and Nile crocodile side by side in Kruger National Park

Hippos coexist alongside a variety of large predators in their habitats.

riparian habitats; crocodiles may be either aggressively displaced or killed by hippos.[85] In turn, very large Nile crocodiles have been observed preying occasionally on calves, "half-grown" hippos, and possibly also adult female hippos. Groups of crocodiles have also been observed finishing off still-living male hippos that were previously injured in mating battles with other males.[86][87]

Hippos occasionally visit

allochthonous deposits of organic matter along the river beds. These deposits have an unclear ecological function.[70] A 2015 study concluded hippo dung provides nutrients from terrestrial material for fish and aquatic invertebrates,[89] while a 2018 study found that their dung can be toxic to aquatic life in large quantities, due to absorption of dissolved oxygen in water bodies.[90][91]

The parasitic monogenean flatworm Oculotrema hippopotami infests hippopotamus eyes, mainly the nictitating membrane. It is the only monogenean species (which normally live on fish) documented to live on a mammal.[92]

Hippos and humans

Hippopotamus ("William"), Middle Kingdom of Egypt, c. 1961–1878 BC

Cut marks on bones of H. amphibius found at

Bolomor Cave, a site in Spain preserving fossils dating from 230,000 to 120,000 years ago, provides evidence for Neanderthal butchery of hippopotamuses.[93][94] The earliest evidence of modern human interaction with hippos comes from butchery cut marks on hippo bones found at the Bouri Formation and dated to around 160,000 years ago.[95] 4,000–5,000 year art showing hippos being hunted have been found in the Tassili n'Ajjer Mountains of the central Sahara near Djanet.[8]: 1  The ancient Egyptians recognised the hippo as a ferocious denizen of the Nile and representations on the tombs of nobles show the animals were hunted by humans.[96]

The hippo was also known to the

Naturalis Historia (written circa 77 AD).[60][97] The Yoruba people called the hippo erinmi, which means "elephant of the water".[98] Some individual hippos have achieved international fame. Huberta became a celebrity during the Great Depression for trekking a great distance across South Africa.[99][100]
: 111–112 

Attacks on humans

The hippo is considered to be extremely aggressive and has frequently been reported charging and attacking boats.[101] Small boats can easily be capsized by hippos and passengers can be injured or killed by the animals, or drown in the water. In one 2014 case in Niger, a boat was capsized by a hippo and 13 people were killed.[102] Hippos will often raid farm crops if the opportunity arises, and humans may come into conflict with them on these occasions. These encounters can be fatal to either humans or hippos.[103]

According to the

Ptolemaic historian Manetho, the pharaoh Menes was carried off and then killed by a hippopotamus.[104]

In zoos

Obaysch lounging at the London Zoo in 1852

Hippos have long been popular zoo animals. The first record of hippos taken into captivity for display is dated to 3500 BC in Hierakonpolis, Egypt.[105] The first zoo hippo in modern history was Obaysch, who arrived at the London Zoo on 25 May 1850, where he attracted up to 10,000 visitors a day and inspired a popular song, the "Hippopotamus Polka".[106]

Hippos generally breed well in captivity; birth rates are lower than in the wild, but this can be attributed to zoos' desire to limit births, since hippos are relatively expensive to maintain.

Cincinnati Zoo built a US$73 million exhibit to house three adult hippos, featuring a 250,000 L (66,000 US gal) tank. Modern hippo enclosures also have a complex filtration system for the animal's waste, an underwater viewing area for the visitors, and glass that may be up to 9 cm (3.5 in) thick and capable of holding water under pressures of 31 kPa (4.5 psi).[100]
: 158–159 

Cultural significance

Ijaw hippopotamus masks

In

Tawaret is depicted as a pregnant woman with a hippo head, representing fierce maternal love.[108] The Ijaw people of the Niger Delta wore masks of aquatic animals like the hippo when practising their water spirit cults,[109] and hippo ivory was used in the divination rituals of the Yoruba.[110] Hippo masks were also used in Nyau funerary rituals of the Chewa of Southern Africa.[100]: 120  According to Robert Baden-Powell, Zulu warriors referred to hippos in war chants.[111] The Behemoth from the Book of Job, 40:15–24 is thought to be based on the hippo.[112]

Hippos have been the subjects of various

African folktales. According to a San story, when the Creator assigned each animal its place in nature, the hippos wanted to live in the water, but were refused out of fear they might eat all the fish. After begging and pleading, the hippos were finally allowed to live in the water on the condition they would eat grass instead of fish, and fling their dung so it can be inspected for fish bones. In a Ndebele tale, the hippo originally had long, beautiful hair, but it was set on fire by a jealous hare and the hippo had to jump into a nearby pool. The hippo lost most of his hair and was too embarrassed to leave the water.[113]

The "Hippopotamus Polka"

Hippopotamuses were rarely depicted in European art during the Renaissance and Baroque periods, due to less access to specimens by Europeans. One notable exception is Peter Paul Rubens' The Hippopotamus and Crocodile Hunt (1615–1616).[100]: 122–123  Ever since Obaysch inspired the "Hippopotamus Polka", hippos have been popular animals in Western culture for their rotund appearance, which many consider comical.[106] The Disney film Fantasia featured a ballerina hippo dancing to the opera La Gioconda. The film Hugo the Hippo is set in Tanzania and involves the title character trying to escape being slaughtered with the help of local children. The Madagascar films feature a hippo named Gloria.[100]: 128–129  Hippos even inspired a popular board game, Hungry Hungry Hippos.[114]

Among the most famous poems about the hippo is "The Hippopotamus" by T. S. Eliot, where he uses the animal to represent the Catholic Church. Hippos are mentioned in the novelty Christmas song "I Want a Hippopotamus for Christmas" that became a hit for child star Gayla Peevey in 1953. They also featured in the popular "The Hippopotamous Song" by Flanders and Swann.[100]: 128, 136 

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External links

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