Hispanic Americans in World War II

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
Major General Pedro del Valle (second from left) is greeted by Colonel "Chesty" Puller on Pavuvu in late October 1944, while Major General William H. Rupertus (far left) looks on.

Asian Americans.[3]

On December 7, 1941, when the United States officially entered the war, Hispanic Americans were among the many American citizens who entered the ranks of the

draft. Not only did Hispanics serve as active combatants in the European and Pacific Theaters of war, but they also served on the home front as civilians.[4]
Hundreds of Hispanic women joined the Women's Army Auxiliary Corps (WAACs) and Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service (WAVES), serving as nurses and in administrative positions. Many worked in traditionally male labor jobs in the manufacturing plants that produced munitions and materiel, replacing men who were away at war.[5]

As conscription numbers increased, some

Robert Menendez, more than 9,000 Latinos died in the defense of the United States in World War II.[6]
Because of a lack of documentation, the total number of Hispanic Americans who died in the conflict is unknown.

Terminology

Puerto Ricans, and Cuban Americans.[7] Hispanic Americans have also been referred to as Latinos.[8]

Prelude to World War II

Before the United States entered World War II, Hispanic Americans were already fighting on European soil in the

Bert Acosta (1895–1954).[10]

General Manuel Goded Llopis (1882–1936), who was born in San Juan, Puerto Rico, was a high-ranking officer in the Spanish Army. Llopis was among the first generals to join Franco in the uprising against the government of the Second Spanish Republic. Llopis led the fight against the Anarchists in Catalonia, but his troops were outnumbered. He was captured and sentenced to die by firing squad.[11][12]

Battle of Madrid, but was captured and sentenced to die by firing squad on April 29, 1937. He was amongst the first United States (US) citizens to die in that conflict.[13]

Pearl Harbor

USS Nevada

On December 7, 1941, when the Empire of Japan attacked the United States Pacific Fleet at Pearl Harbor, many sailors with Hispanic surnames were among those who perished.[14] PFC Richard I. Trujillo of the United States Marine Corps was serving aboard the battleship USS Nevada (BB-36) when the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor. The Nevada was among the ships which were in the harbor that day. As her gunners opened fire and her engineers got up steam, she was struck by torpedoes and bombs from the Japanese attackers. Fifty men were killed and 109 wounded. Among those killed was Trujillo, who became the first Hispanic Marine casualty of World War II.[15]

Commander Luis de Florez

When the United States officially entered World War II, Hispanic Americans were among the many American citizens who joined the ranks of United States Armed Forces as volunteers or through the

draft.[16]

In 1941, Commander Luis de Florez played an instrumental role in the establishment of the Special Devices Division of the Navy's Bureau of Aeronautics (what would later become the

NAWCTSD).[17] He was later assigned as head of the new Special Devices Desk in the Engineering Division of the Navy's Bureau of Aeronautics. De Florez, who has been credited with over sixty inventions, urged the Navy to undertake development of "synthetic training devices" to increase readiness. During World War II, he was promoted to captain and, in 1944, to rear admiral.[18]

European Theater

The

141st Infantry Regiment of the 36th Infantry Division
, were made up mostly of Hispanics.

Hispanics of the 141st Regiment of the 36th Infantry Division were some of the first American troops to

land on Italian soil at Salerno. Company E of the 141st Regiment was entirely Hispanic. The 36th Infantry Division fought in Italy and France.[19]

65th Infantry Regiment

Soldiers of the 65th Infantry training in Salinas, Puerto Rico, August 1941

A small detachment of insular troops from Puerto Rico was sent to Cuba in late March as a guard for Batista Field. In 1943, the 65th Infantry was sent to Panama to protect the Pacific and the Atlantic sides of the isthmus and the Panama Canal, critical to oceangoing ships. An increase in the Puerto Rican induction program was immediately authorized. Continental troops such as the 762nd Antiaircraft Artillery Gun Battalion, 766th AAA Gun Battalion and the 891st AAA Gun Battalions were replaced by Puerto Ricans in Panama.[20][21] They also replaced troops in the bases on British Islands, to the extent permitted by the availability of trained Puerto Rican units.[4] The 295th Infantry Regiment followed the 65th Infantry in 1944, departing from San Juan, Puerto Rico to the Panama Canal Zone.

That same year, the 65th Infantry was sent to North Africa, where they underwent further training. By April 29, 1944, the regiment had

442nd Infantry Regiment, a regiment which was made up of Japanese Americans under the command of Col. Virgil R. Miller
, a native of Puerto Rico.

The 3rd Battalion fought against and defeated the German 107th Infantry Regiment, which was assigned to the 34th Infantry Division.

military occupation duties after the end of the war. The regiment suffered 23 soldiers killed in action.[24][25]

Sergeant First Class Agustín Ramos Calero

In March 1943, Private First Class Joseph (Jose) R. Martinez, a member of General George S. Patton's Seventh Army, destroyed a German infantry unit and tank in Tunis by directing heavy artillery fire, saving his platoon from being attacked in the process. He received the Distinguished Service Cross, second to the Medal of Honor.[26]

Sergeant First Class Agustín Ramos Calero, a member of the 65th Infantry who was reassigned to the 3rd U.S. Infantry Division because of his ability to speak and understand English, was one of the most decorated Hispanic soldiers in the European Theater.[24] Calero was born and raised in Isabela, in the northern region of Puerto Rico. He joined the U.S. Army in 1941 and was assigned to Puerto Rico's 65th Infantry Regiment at Camp Las Casas in Santurce, where he received training as a rifleman. Calero was later reassigned to the 3rd U.S. Infantry Division and later sent to Europe.

In 1945, Calero's company engaged in combat against a squad of German soldiers in the

French Croix de guerre.[27]

Pacific Theater

Left to right: Major General Geiger, Corps Commander; Colonel Silverthorn, Corps Chief of Staff
and Brigadier General del Valle, Corps Artillery Commander, examine a plaster relief map of Guam on board USS Appalachian.

Three units of mostly Hispanic Americans served in the

Anti-Aircraft Artillery Battalions from New Mexico, and the 158th Infantry Regiment from Arizona
.

Bataan Death March

Main article: Bataan Death March

Two

Filipinos
for three months against the attacking forces.

By April 9, 1942, rations, medical supplies, and ammunition became scarce and the decision was made to surrender. The 200th and 515th Battalions were part of the forces surrendering to the Japanese.

better source needed] These Hispanic and non-Hispanic soldiers endured the 12-day, 85-mile (137 km) march from Bataan to the Japanese prison camps. They were force-marched in scorching heat through the Philippine jungle. Survivors remained interned for 34 months in a prisoner-of-war (POW) camp. Others were wounded or killed when unmarked enemy ships transporting prisoners of war to Japan were sunk by U.S. air and naval forces.[30]

Members of New Mexico's 200th Coast Artillery (AA) manning a position near Manila

Colonel Virgilio N. Cordero Jr. (1893–1980) was a battalion commander in the 31st Infantry Regiment on December 8, 1941, when Japanese planes attacked the U.S. military installations in the Philippines.[31] Cordero and his men underwent brutal torture and humiliation during the Bataan Death March and nearly four years of captivity. Cordero was one of nearly 1,600 members of the 31st Infantry who were taken as prisoners. Half of these men perished while prisoners of the Japanese forces. Cordero was freed when Allied troops defeated the Japanese and he returned to the United States.[31] Cordero, who retired with the rank of brigadier general,[31] wrote about his experiences as a prisoner of war and what he went through during the Bataan Death March. The book, titled My Experiences during the War with Japan, was published in 1950. In 1957, he authored a revised Spanish version titled Bataan y la Marcha de la Muerte; Volume 7 of Colección Vida e Historia.[31]

American prisoners of war, in a burial detail, carry the bodies of those who died during the Bataan Death March

Private (Pvt.) Ralph Rodriguez, age 25, of the 200th Coast Artillery Battalion was a Bataan Death March survivor. According to Rodriguez, the Japanese ordered the American soldiers to begin marching. Soldiers who faltered during the march were prodded with bayonets, while those unable to continue were killed. He remembered a sense of brotherhood among the Hispanic soldiers who marched together in groups, and assisted each other along the way. When the soldiers reached their detention center, they were forced into a 30-by-100 foot fenced area. Later, the soldiers were housed in boxcars. One hundred soldiers were crammed into a car built to hold 40 or 50 men. The train took the soldiers on a four-hour ride to Camp O'Donnell where they became prisoners of war.[32]

Corporal Agapito E. "Gap" Silva (1919–2007), was another member of the 200th Coast Artillery Battalion who survived the Bataan Death March. He was held at

Fukuoka POW Camp #17, a Japanese prison camp near Omuta, Japan. There he was forced to work as a slave laborer in a coal plant.[33]
Silva narrated the following about his experiences as a prisoner of war:

"The POWs (prisoner of war) faced constant danger working in the coal mines. It was so unbearable that many of the men would resort to self-inflicted injuries such as breaking their arms and legs to avoid working 10 to 12 hour days."[34]

Silva and more than 1,900 American POWs were forced to work in coal mine camps encircled by electric fences. Silva would spend 3½ years in the Japanese POW camps before the war ended in September 1945.[citation needed] He was the recipient of the Bronze Star and Purple Heart Medal.[33]

158th Infantry Regiment

The 158th Infantry Regiment, an

liberation of the Philippine Islands (by this time the unit had been renamed the 158th Regimental Combat Team).[citation needed] General MacArthur referred to them as "the greatest fighting combat team ever deployed for battle."[35]
The 158th was selected as part of the spearhead of the
Yokohama, Japan, as part of the United States Army of occupation.[36][37]

PFC Guy Gabaldon

Private First Class Guy Gabaldon
was a young Marine who single-handedly persuaded more than 1,000 enemy civilians and troops to surrender.

Guy Gabaldon (right) poses in a group that includes Japanese prisoners in 1944

PFC Guy Gabaldon (1926–2006) was raised in East Los Angeles where he grew up around people of all races, including Japanese-Americans. Through those friendships, he was able to teach himself to speak Japanese. Gabaldon joined the Marines when he was only 17 years old; he was a Private First Class (PFC) when his unit was engaged in the Battle of Saipan in 1944. Gabaldon, who acted as the Japanese interpreter for the Second Marines, working alone in front of the lines, entered enemy caves, pillboxes, buildings, and jungle brush, frequently in the face of hostile fire, and succeeded not only in obtaining vital military information,[citation needed] but in convincing over 1,500 enemy civilians and troops to surrender. He was nominated for the Medal of Honor, but was awarded the Silver Star instead. His medal was later upgraded to the Navy Cross, the Marines' second-highest decoration for heroism.[citation needed] Gabaldon's actions on Saipan were later memorialized in the film Hell to Eternity, in which he was portrayed by actor Jeffrey Hunter.[38]

Guarding the atomic bomb

In 1945, when Kwajalein of the

atomic bomb as it was transported to Japan.[citation needed
]

United States Coast Guard

CWO2 Joseph B. Aviles Sr.

Many Hispanics also served in the United States Coast Guard. Joseph B. Aviles Sr. was the first Hispanic to be promoted to chief petty officer in the Coast Guard after transferring from the Navy in 1925. During the war he was also the first Hispanic to be promoted to chief warrant officer.

Valentin R. Fernandez was awarded a Silver Lifesaving Medal for "maneuvering a Marine landing party ashore under constant Japanese attack" during the invasion of Saipan.

Louis Rua was awarded the Bronze Star Medal for "meritorious achievement at sea December 5–6, 1944, while serving aboard a U.S. Army large tug en route to the Philippines. His craft went to the rescue of another ship which had been torpedoed by enemy action and saved 277 survivors from the abandoned ship." He was the first known Hispanic-American Coast Guardsman to be awarded the Bronze Star Medal.

Gunner's Mate Second Class Joseph Tezanos was awarded a Navy & Marine Corps Medal during World War II for "...distinguished heroism while serving as a volunteer member of a boat crew engaged in rescue operations during a fire in Pearl Harbor, Oahu, T.H. on 21 May 1944. Under conditions of great personal danger from fire and explosions and with disregard of his own safety he assisted in the rescuing of approximately 42 survivors some of whom were injured and exhausted from the water and from burning ships." He was also the second known Hispanic-American to complete OCS training at the Coast Guard Academy.[39]

Not everyone served aboard ships during the war. Some men like Jose R. Zaragoza served on atolls or other shore locations. When 19-year-old Zaragoza, a native of Los Angeles, California, joined the Coast Guard, he was sent on patrols in the Pacific coast of the United States defending against sabotage and invasion from the Japanese. He then trained in the new and classified field of

Loran navigation and was sent to Ulithi atoll, located between Guam and the Philippines. He was stationed on Ulithi Island for 15 months.[40]

Aviators

Hispanics not only served in ground and seabound combat units, they also distinguished themselves as

99th Fighter Squadron.[citation needed] The Tuskegee Airmen were the first African-American military aviators in the United States armed forces. Puerto Ricans were also involved in clerical positions with the Tuskegee unit. Among the Puerto Ricans who helped make the Tuskegee experiment a successful one were T/Sgt. Pablo Diaz Albortt, a Non Commissioned Officer (NCO) in charge of the Special Service Office, and Eugene Calderon, who was assigned to the "Red Tail" unit, as the Company Clerk.[41] By the end of the war, the Tuskegee Airmen were credited with 109 Luftwaffe aircraft shot down, a patrol boat run aground by machine-gun fire, and destruction of numerous fuel dumps, trucks and trains.[42]

A "

Oscar Francis Perdomo of the 464th Fighter Squadron, 507th Fighter Group.[44]

Lt. Oscar Francis Perdomo

First Lieutenant Perdomo, (1919–1976), the son of Mexican parents, was born in

Okinawa
.

On August 13, 1945, 1st Lt. Perdomo shot down four

Keijo/Seoul, Korea. Perdomo's unit (38 Thunderbolts of the 507th Fighter Wing) engaged approximately 50 enemy aircraft. This action was Lt. Perdomo's tenth and final combat mission. He ended the war with the Distinguished Service Cross for extraordinary heroism in action and the Air Medal with one oak leaf cluster.[44]

Not all Hispanics who served in aviation units were pilots or aces. Examples ranging from aces to air crew members show the diversity of their experiences in the air war.

  • Commander Eugene A. Valencia Jr., United States Navy (USN) fighter ace, is credited with 23 air victories in the Pacific during World War II. Valencia's decorations include the Navy Cross, six Distinguished Flying Crosses, and six Air Medals.[45]
  • Lieutenant Colonel Donald S. Lopez Sr., USAAF pilot credited with shooting down five Japanese fighters in the China theater. He eventually became the deputy director of the National Air and Space Museum[46]
  • Captain Michael Brezas, USAAF fighter ace, arrived in
    P-38 aircraft, Lt. Brezas downed 12 enemy planes within two months. He received the Silver Star Medal, the Distinguished Flying Cross, and the Air Medal with eleven oak leaf clusters.[47]
  • Captain Mihiel "Mike" Gilormini, Royal Air Force and USAAF, was a flight commander whose last combat mission was attacking the airfield at Milano, Italy. His last flight in Italy gave air cover for General George C. Marshall's visit to Pisa. Gilormini was the recipient of the Silver Star Medal, five Distinguished Flying Crosses, and the Air Medal with four oak leaf clusters. Gilormini later founded the Puerto Rico Air National Guard and retired as brigadier general.[48]
  • Captain
    P-51 Mustang fighter pilot. He was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross with four oak leaf clusters and the Air Medal with four oak leaf clusters. Nido co-founded the Puerto Rico Air National Guard and, as Gilormini, retired a brigadier general.[49]
  • Captain Robert L. Cardenas, USAAF, served as a
    B-29 launch aircraft that released the X-1 experimental rocket plane in which Chuck Yeager became the first man to fly faster than the speed of sound. Cardenas retired as a brigadier general.[50]
  • 2nd Lieutenant
    Distinguished Unit Citation for carrying out this second mission in spite of bad weather and heavy fire from enemy ground and naval forces. González died on November 22, 1943, when his plane crashed during training off the end of the runway at Castelvetrano. He was posthumously promoted to first lieutenant.[51]
  • Lieutenant Richard Gomez Candelaria, USAAF, was a P-51 Mustang pilot from the
    479th Fighter Group. With six aerial victories to his credit, Candelaria was the only "ace" in his squadron. Most of his victories were achieved on a single mission on April 7, 1945, when he found himself the lone escort protecting a formation of USAAF B-24 Liberators. Candelaria defended the bombers from at least 15 German fighters, single-handedly destroying four before help arrived. He was also credited with a probable victory on an Me 262 during this engagement. Six days later, Candelaria was shot down by ground fire, and spent the rest of the war as a POW. After the war, Candelaria served in the Air National Guard, reaching the rank of colonel prior to his retirement.[52]
Lt. Francisco Mercado Jr. awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross by General Leon W. Johnson

Servicewomen

Staff Sergeant Eva Romero Jacques

Prior to World War II, traditional Hispanic cultural values expected women to be homemakers and they rarely left the home to earn an income. This outlook discouraged women from joining the military. Only a small number of Hispanic women had joined before World War II.

Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service (WAVES), women could assume certain administrative duties vacated by the men who were reassigned to combat zones.[60] Most women who served in the military joined the WAACs. One of the first Hispanic women to serve in the USAAF was Staff Sergeant Eva Romero Jacques. Romero Jacques, who spoke Spanish and English and had three years of college spent two years in the Pacific Theater, 1944 in New Guinea and 1945 in the Philippines, as an administrative aide. She also survived a plane crash in New Guinea.[61]

In 1944, the Army recruited women in Puerto Rico for a segregated Hispanic unit in the Women's Army Corps (WAC). Over 1,000 applications were received for the unit, which was to be composed of 200 women. After their basic training at

if captured, WAACs, as "auxiliaries" serving with the Army rather than in it, did not have the same protections under international law as male soldiers.[63] This issue did not apply to the WAVES, who were granted full military benefits.[64]

Tech4 Carmen Contreras-Bozak

One of the members of the 149th WAAC Post Headquarters Company was Tech4

Fort Lee, Virginia
, for training. Contreras volunteered to be part of the 149th WAAC Post Headquarters Company, becoming the first Hispanic to serve as an interpreter.

Contreras' unit arrived in North Africa on January 27, 1943, experiencing nightly

Army Good Conduct Medal.[65]

Mercedes O. Cubria, born in Guantanamo, Cuba, became a United States Citizen in 1924. She joined the WAC in 1943 and served in U.S. Counter-Intelligence. She retired in 1973 with the rank of lieutenant colonel.[66]

Other

Lieutenant Junior Grade Maria Rodriguez-Denton. The Navy assigned Rodriguez-Denton as a library assistant at the Cable and Censorship Office in New York City. It was Rodriguez-Denton who forwarded the news (through channels) to President Harry S. Truman that the war had ended.[67]

Nurse Corps

Puerto Rican Army nurses, 296th Station Hospital, Camp Tortuguero, Vega Baja, PR.

When the United States entered World War II, the military needed nurses. Hispanic female nurses wanted to volunteer for service but they were not immediately accepted into the

Navy Nurse Corps. As more Hispanic men joined the armed forces, a need for bilingual nurses became apparent and the Army started to recruit Hispanic nurses. In 1944, the Army Nurse Corps (ANC) decided to accept Puerto Rican nurses. Thirteen women submitted applications, were interviewed, underwent physical examinations, and were accepted into the ANC. Eight of these nurses were assigned to the Army Post at San Juan, Puerto Rico, where they were valued for their bilingual abilities. Five nurses were assigned to work at the hospital at Camp Tortuguero in Puerto Rico.[67]
One of these nurses was Second Lieutenant Carmen Lozano Dumler.

Second Lieutenant Carmen Lozano Dumler was born and raised in San Juan, Puerto Rico, where she also received her primary and secondary education. After graduating from high school, she enrolled in the Presbyterian Hospital School of Nursing in San Juan where she became a certified nurse in 1944. On August 21, 1944, she was sworn in as a second lieutenant and assigned to the 161st General Hospital in San Juan, where she received further training. Upon completing her advanced training, she was sent to Camp Tortuguero where she also assisted as an interpreter.

In 1945, Lozano Dumler was reassigned to the 359th Station Hospital of Ft. Read, Trinidad and Tobago, British West Indies, where she attended wounded soldiers who had returned from Normandy, France. After the war, Lozano, like so many other women in the military, returned to civilian life. She continued her nursing career in Puerto Rico until she retired in 1975.[67]

Another Hispanic nurse who distinguished herself in service was Lieutenant Maria Roach. Roach, a recipient of two Bronze Star Medals and an Air Medal, served as a flight nurse with the Army Nurse Corps in the

China-Burma-India Theater of Operations.[5]

Other notable cases

Another very particular case was carried out by Colombian sergeant Benjamín Quintero Martínez, who served in the Pacific War in the defense of the Aleutian Islands, holding the position of technical sergeant communications in the Pacific, Aleutian Islands, and Alaska.[68]

Senior officers

Most of the Hispanics serving as senior military officers during World War II were graduates of the

Terry de la Mesa Allen
.

Generals

Major General del Valle
Lieutenant General Pedro del Valle

Lieutenant General

Florida Islands.[69]

On April 1, 1944, del Valle, as Commanding General of the Third Corps Artillery,

III Marine Amphibious Corps, took part in the Battle of Guam and was awarded a Gold Star in lieu of a second Legion of Merit. The men under his command did such a good job with their heavy artillery that no one man could be singled out for commendation. Instead each man was given a letter of commendation by del Valle, which was carried in his record books.[69]

In late October 1944, del Valle succeeded Major General

Ryukyuan kings. Seizure of Shuri Castle represented a morale blow for the Japanese and was a milestone in the Okinawa campaign.[69] The fighting in Okinawa would continue for 24 more days. Del Valle was awarded a Distinguished Service Medal
for his leadership during the battle and the subsequent occupation and reorganization of Okinawa.

Brigadier General Quesada
Lt. Gen. Elwood R. Quesada

Lieutenant General

D-Day plus one, and directed his planes in aerial cover and air support for the Allied invasion of the European continent. He was the foremost proponent of "the inherent flexibility of air power", a principle he helped prove during World War II.[70]

In December 1942, Quesada took the First Air Defense Wing to North Africa. Shortly thereafter, he was given command of the XII Fighter Command and in this capacity would work out the mechanics of close air support and Army-Air Force cooperation.[70]

The successful integration of air and land forces in the

landings in Normandy. Among Quesada's many military decorations were the Distinguished Service Medal with oak leaf cluster; Distinguished Flying Cross; Purple Heart and an Air Medal with two silver star devices.[70]

Major General Terry de la Mesa Allen
Brigadier General Terry de la Mesa Allen

Major General Terry de la Mesa Allen Sr. (1888–1969) was the son of Colonel Samuel Edward Allen and Conchita Alvarez de la Mesa. During World War II he was the commanding general of the 1st Infantry Division in North Africa and Sicily, and was made commander of the 104th Infantry Division. While in North Africa Allen and his deputy 1st Division Commander, Brigadier General Theodore Roosevelt Jr. distinguished themselves as combat leaders. Allen was reassigned to the 104th Infantry Division. The 104th Infantry Division landed in France on September 7, 1944, and fought for 195 consecutive days during World War II. The division's nickname came from its timberwolf shoulder insignia. Some 34,000 men served with the division under Allen, who came to be nicknamed "Terrible Terry". The division was particularly renowned for its night fighting prowess.[71]

Commanders

In 1941, Commander

NAWCTSD).[17] He was later assigned as head of the new Special Devices Desk in the Engineering Division of the Navy's Bureau of Aeronautics. De Florez, who has been credited with over sixty inventions, urged the Navy to undertake development of "synthetic training devices" to increase readiness. During World War II, he was promoted to captain and, in 1944, to rear admiral.[18]

A number of Hispanics served in senior leadership positions during World War II, including Admiral Horacio Rivero Jr. (USN), Rear Admiral Jose M. Cabanillas (USN), Rear Admiral Edmund Ernest García (USN), Rear Admiral Frederick Lois Riefkohl (USN), Rear Admiral Henry G. Sanchez (USN), Colonel Louis Gonzaga Mendez Jr. (USA), Colonel Virgil R. Miller (USA), Colonel Jaime Sabater Sr. (USMC) and Lieutenant Colonel Chester J. Salazar (USMC).

Colonel Louis Gonzaga Mendez Jr.

Submarine commanders

Captain Marion Frederic Ramírez de Arellano

Captain

Silver Stars Medal and a Legion of Merit Medal.[84]

After a brief stint at the Mare Island Naval Shipyard, he was reassigned to USS Skate, a Balao-class submarine. He participated in Skate's first three war patrols and was awarded a second Silver Star Medal for his contribution in sinking the Japanese light cruiser Agano on his third patrol. Agano had survived a previous torpedo attack by submarine USS Scamp.[84]

In April 1944, Ramirez de Arellano was named

Combat V and a Letter of Commendation.[84]

Among the Hispanic submarine commanders were Rear Admiral Rafael Celestino Benítez and Captain C. Kenneth Ruiz.

Rear Admiral Rafael Celestino Benítez, USN, was a lieutenant commander who saw action aboard submarines and on various occasions weathered depth charge attacks. For his actions, he was awarded the Silver and Bronze Star Medals. Benitez would go on to play an important role in the first American undersea spy mission of the Cold War as commander of the submarine USS Cochino in what became known as the "Cochino Incident".[85]

Captain Charles Kenneth Ruiz, USN, was a crew member of the cruiser

Chester Nimitz to join the Submarine Service. He served with distinction aboard the submarine USS Pollack and participated in eight war patrols in the hostile waters of the Pacific during World War II and on.[86]

Military honors

Recipients of the Medal of Honor

Main article: List of Hispanic Medal of Honor recipients

The

Joe P. Martinez was the first of 17 Hispanic Medal of Honor recipients during World War II. His posthumous award was the first for heroism in combat on American soil (other than Pearl Harbor) since the American Indian Wars.[87]

Private Joseph Pantillion Martinez

Prior to March 18, 2014, there were a total of 13 Hispanic Medal of Honor recipients awarded for their actions in World War II. On February 21, 2014, President Barack Obama announced that on March 18 that year, 4 Hispanics who served in World War II would have their Distinguished Service Cross Medals upgraded to the Medal of Honor in a ceremony at the White House. They are: Pvt. Pedro Cano, Pvt. Joe Gandara, Pfc. Salvador J. Lara and Staff Sgt. Manuel V. Mendoza. The award came through the Defense Authorization Act which called for a review of Jewish American and Hispanic American veterans from World War II, the Korean War and the Vietnam War to ensure that no prejudice was shown to those deserving the Medal of Honor.[88][89]

Of the 17 Medals of Honor awarded to Hispanics, ten were awarded posthumously. Texas accounted for the most Hispanic Medal of Honor recipients in World War II with a total of five (Marcario Garcia was raised in Sugar Land, Texas). The 17 recipients are:

  1. Lucian Adams: United States Army. Born in Port Arthur, Texas. Place and Date of Action: St. Die, France, October 1944.[90]
  2. Pedro Cano*: United States Army. Born in La Morita, Mexico. For courageous actions during combat operations in Schevenhutte, Germany, on Dec. 3, 1944.[88]
  3. Filipino ancestry to receive the medal for his actions in the war in Europe.[91]
  4. Joe Gandara*: United States Army. Born in Santa Monica, California. For courageous actions during combat operations in Amfreville, France, on June 9, 1944.[88]
  5. Marcario Garcia: United States Army. Born in Villa de Castano, Mexico. Place and Date of Action: Near Grosshau, Germany, November 27, 1944. Garcia was the first Mexican national Medal of Honor recipient.[92]
  6. Harold Gonsalves*: United States Marine Corps. Born in Alameda, California. Place and Date of Action: Ryūkyū Chain, Okinawa, April 15, 1945.[92]
  7. Pacoima, California. Place and Date of Action: Villa Verde Trail, Luzon, Philippine Islands, April 25, 1945.[92]
  8. Silvestre S. Herrera: United States Army. Born in Camargo, Chihuahua, Mexico. Place and Date of Action: Near Mertzwiller, France, March 15, 1945. At the time of his death, Herrera had been the only living person authorized to wear the Medal of Honor and Mexico's equivalent Premier Merito Militar (Order of Military Merit), Mexico's highest award for valor. Herrera was a Mexican citizen by birth.[92][93]
  9. Salvador J. Lara*: United States Army. From Riverside, California. For courageous actions during combat operations in Aprilia, Italy, May 27–28, 1944.[88]
  10. Jose M. Lopez: United States Army. Born in Mission, Texas. Place and Date of Action: Near Krinkelt, Belgium, December 17, 1944.[92]
  11. Joe P. Martinez*: United States Army. Born in Taos, New Mexico. Place and Date of Action: Attu, Aleutians, May 26, 1943. Martinez was the first Hispanic American posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor for combat heroism on American soil during World War II.[94]
  12. Manuel V. Mendoza*: United States Army. Born in Miami, Arizona. For courageous actions during combat operations on Mount Battaglia, Italy, on Oct. 4, 1944.[88]
  13. Oklahoma City, Oklahoma. Place and Date of Action: Fort William McKinley, Luzon, Philippine Islands, February 13, 1945.[94]
  14. Cleto L. Rodriguez: United States Army. Born in San Marcos, Texas. Place and Date of Action: Paco Railroad Station, Manila, Philippine Islands, February 9, 1945.[94]
  15. Alejandro R. Ruiz: United States Army. Born in Loving, New Mexico. Place and Date of Action: Okinawa, Japan, April 28, 1945.[94]
  16. Jose F. Valdez*: United States Army. Born in Governador, New Mexico. Place and Date of Action: Rosenkrantz, France, January 25, 1945.[95]
  17. Ysmael R. Villegas*: United States Army. Born in Casa Blanca, California. Place and Date of Action: Villa Verde Trail, Luzon, Philippine Islands, March 20, 1945.[95]

* Awarded

posthumously
.

Additional decorations

Hispanic Americans:
U.S. Armed Forces Awards in World War II		 Number
Medal of Honor		 17
Distinguished Service Cross		 140
Navy Cross		 25
Legion of Merit		 323
Silver Star		 2006
Bronze Star		 1352
Distinguished Flying Cross		 55
Purple Heart		 3378
Air Medal		 237

Hispanics were recipients of every major U.S. military decoration during World War II; they have also been honored with military awards from other countries. Thirty-one Hispanic-Americans were awarded the

French Croix de guerre. The figures in the following table were derived from the book Undaunted Courage Mexican American Patriots Of World War II published in 2005 by Latino Advocates for Education, Inc. and according to Rogelio C. Rodriguez of the LAE, the figures are based on listings of military service personnel that have been compiled from military records, historical documentation, or personal accounts.[96]

Hero Street, USA

In the Midwest town of Silvis, Illinois, the former Second Street is now known as Hero Street USA. The muddy block and a half long street was home to Mexican immigrants who worked for the Rock Island Railroad. The 22 families who lived on the street were a close-knit group. From this small street, 84 men served in World War II, Korea, and Vietnam. The street contributed more men to military services in World War II and Korea than any other street of comparable size in the U.S. In total, eight men from Hero Street gave their lives during World War II—Joseph Gomez, Peter Macias, Johnny Muños, Tony Pompa, Frank Sandoval, Joseph "Joe" Sandoval, William "Willie" Sandoval, and Claro Solis. Second Street's name was changed to Hero Street in honor of these men and their families.[97]

Of the 22 families on Second Street, the two Sandoval families had a total of thirteen men who served in the

armed forces. Three died in service during World War II. The Sandovals were two families of Mexican immigrants, with the same surname and lived on Second Street.[98]

"The Fighting Medinas"

Eduvigis and Angelina Sandoval immigrated to the U.S. from Romita, Mexico. Their son, Frank, was a combat engineer assigned to help build the Ledo Road in Burma. He was killed when his unit was sent unexpectedly to the front to fight for control of a key airbase. His older brother, Joe, was assigned to the 41st Armored Infantry Division in Europe. He was killed in April 1945, just days before the war ended.[98]

Joseph and Carmen Sandoval also immigrated to the United States from Mexico. When the war broke out, their son Willie asked for permission to enlist in the army, and both parents consented to their son's request. Willie Sandoval was trained as a paratrooper and was assigned to the

Operation Market-Garden
, the largest airborne operation of all time.

Other families like the Sandovals had multiple members join the Armed Forces. The Banuelo family, originally from Mexico and who resided in

Rio Grande, Puerto Rico, and Brooklyn, New York.[99]

Home front

Some Hispanics in the entertainment business served in the United Service Organizations (USO), which provided entertainment to help troop morale. One notable USO entertainer was Desi Arnaz, the Cuban bandleader who starred opposite Lucille Ball in the television show I Love Lucy. When he was drafted into the army in 1943, he was classified for limited service because of a prior knee injury. As a result, he was assigned to direct the U.S.O. programs at a military hospital in the San Fernando Valley, California, where he served until 1945.[100][101]

Hispanic Americans who lived in the mainland benefited from the sudden economic boom as a result of the war, and the doors opened for many of the migrants who were searching for jobs.[102] After the war, many Puerto Ricans migrated to the United States to find work.[103]

Hispanic women were discouraged from working outside the home prior to World War II, even more than other American women.[5] During World War II, the broad changes in the role of women caused by a need for labor on the home front affected the role of Hispanic women,[5] who worked as secretaries and nurses, helped build airplanes,[104] made ammunition in factories, and worked in shipyards.[105]

Isabel Solis-Thomas and Elvia Solis were born in

Veracruz, Veracruz, Mexico. The Solis family immigrated to the United States and moved to Brownsville, Texas. When World War II broke out, both sisters volunteered to become "Rosies", welding pipes and repairing cargo ships by the war's end with women of all races from all over the country. Mrs. Solis-Thomas said recruiters wanted women who were small, short and thin for crawling into dangerous places in the ships. She said she worked nine-hour days, six days a week, striking and sealing steel rods with precision and purpose.[106]

Josephine Ledesma, from Austin, Texas, was 24 when the war broke out and worked as an airplane mechanic from 1942 to 1944. When her husband, Alfred, was drafted she decided to volunteer to work as an airplane mechanic. Even though the army waived her husband's duty, she was sent to train at Randolph Air Force Base, Texas, where she was the only Mexican-American woman on the base. After her training, she was sent to Bergstrom Air Field. There were two other women, both non-Hispanic, at Bergstrom Air Field, and several more in Big Spring, all working in the sheet metal department. At Big Spring, she was the only woman working in the hangar. She worked as a mechanic between from 1942 to 1944.[104]

Discrimination

In the military

During World War II, the United States Army was segregated,[107] and Hispanics were categorized as white.[3][108] Hispanics, including the Puerto Ricans who resided on the mainland, served alongside their "white" counterparts, while those who were "black" served in units mostly made up of African-Americans. The majority of the Puerto Ricans from the island served in Puerto Rico's segregated units, like the 65th Infantry and the Puerto Rico National Guard's 285th and 296th regiments.

Discrimination against Hispanics has been documented in several first-person accounts by Hispanic soldiers who fought in World War II. Private First Class Raul Rios Rodriguez, a Puerto Rican, said that one of his

Fort Bragg.[109] Private First Class Felix Lopez-Santos, another Puerto Rican, said that he observed some racial discrimination against African Americans, but that he never experienced discrimination himself because of his light eyes and fair complexion.[110] Private First Class Norberto Gonzalez, a Cuban-born New Yorker, experienced discrimination in his all-white battalion, where he was frequently asked about his name and place of birth, and found he was treated differently once fellow soldiers learned he was Hispanic. After being transferred to a black battalion on request, he no longer faced the same problems.[111] Corporal Alfonso Rodriguez, a Mexican-American born in Santa Fe, New Mexico, said that he first experienced racial discrimination during recruit training. A white soldier once demanded that the Rodriguez and other Latinos stop speaking Spanish and speak English, "like Americans", and Rodriguez was involved in several physical altercations stemming from the incident. Rodriguez was also often referred to using racial insults such as "smart-ass Mexican."[112]

After returning home

Pvt. Felix Longoria Jr.

After returning home, Hispanic soldiers experienced the same discrimination felt by other Hispanic Americans. According to one former Hispanic soldier, "There was the same discrimination in Grand Falls (Texas), if not worse" than when he had departed. While Hispanics could work for $2 per day, whites could get jobs working in petroleum fields that earned $18 per day. In his town, signs read "No Mexicans, whites only", and only one restaurant would serve Hispanics.[113] The American GI Forum was started to ensure the rights of Hispanic World War II veterans.

Discrimination also extended to those killed during the war. In one notable case, the owner of a funeral parlor refused to allow the family of Private

American G.I. Forum, intervened on Longoria's behalf. Johnson, Lady Bird Johnson, Congressman John Lyle, and President Truman's military aide Gen. Harry H. Vaughan joined the Longoria family for a full military burial with honors at Arlington National Cemetery on February 16, 1949.[114] Johnson stated of the incident, "This injustice and prejudice is deplorable. I am happy to have a part seeing that this Texas hero is laid to rest with the honor and dignity his service deserves."[115][116]

Post-war commemoration

The memory of Hispanic American heroes has been honored in various ways: some of their names can be found on ships, in parks and inscribed on monuments. Captain

commemorative stamp to honor Hispanics who served in America's defense. The stamp was designed to honor the ten Hispanic Medal of Honor recipients still alive and was unveiled on October 31, 1984.[117]

Latino organizations and writers documented the Hispanic experience in World War II, most notably the U.S. Latino & Latina World War II Oral History Project, launched by Professor Maggie Rivas-Rodriguez of the University of Texas.[118]

The failure of the

PBS in September 2007, to mention Hispanic contributions to the war spurred protests by the Hispanic community. Officials in PBS announced that Burns' documentary would include additional content incorporating the Hispanic contributions to the war effort as result of public pressure.[119]

See also
  • Hispanics and Latinos in the United States Marine Corps
  • Hispanics and Latinos in the United States Navy
  • Hispanics and Latinos in the United States Coast Guard
  • Hispanics and Latinos in the American Civil War
  • Hispanics and Latinos in the United States Air Force

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Further reading

External links

Official pages
Academic Sources
Other
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