History of African Americans in Los Angeles
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The history of African Americans in Los Angeles includes participation in the culture, education, and politics of the city of
The first blacks in Los Angeles were
Contributions to the city’s culture have particularly been in music, dance, visual arts, stage, and film.
African Americans are concentrated in
The Black population in Los Angeles has declined since 2017, due to gentrification and more Latinos such as Mexicans and Central Americans moving to their neighborhoods.[5] Many African-Americans from Los Angeles are moving to the Southern United States.[6][7][8] Including partly Black people, Los Angeles proper is 10% Black (estimated 385,000 residents in 2021).[9] Many African Americans have become homeless in the city. African Americans make up 34% of Los Angeles's homeless, while only being 8% of the city's population in 2020.[10]
Blacks in Los Angeles have a lower life expectancy and die younger than other racial groups in Los Angeles.[11]
Los Angeles also has a sizable East African and black immigrant population. Los Angeles has the largest Ethiopian population in the United States after Washington, D.C.. 45,000 Ethiopians live in the Los Angeles area. 6,000 Eritreans live in Los Angeles.[12]
History
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (July 2023) |
18th century
In 1781, the
Pío Pico, California's last governor under Mexican rule, was of mixed Spanish, Native American, and African ancestry.[15] Pico spent his last days in Los Angeles dying in 1894 at the home of his daughter Joaquina Pico Moreno in Los Angeles. He was buried in the old Calvary Cemetery in downtown Los Angeles. His brothers and their descendants were also early influencers in the same era.
19th century
Many
In 1872, the First African Methodist Episcopal Church of Los Angeles (First A.M.E. or FAME) was established under the sponsorship of Biddy Mason, an African American nurse and a California real estate entrepreneur and philanthropist, and her son-in-law Charles Owens. The church now has a membership of more than 19,000 individuals.[citation needed]
20th century
Between the 1890s and 1910, African Americans migrated to Los Angeles from Southern places like
The African American population did not significantly increase during the first Great Migration.[20] From approximately 1920 to 1955, Central Avenue was the heart of the African American community in Los Angeles, with active rhythm and blues and jazz music scenes.[21][22]
Central Avenue had two all-black segregated fire stations. Fire Station No. 30 and Fire Station No. 14 were segregated in 1924. They remained segregated until 1956 when the Los Angeles Fire Department was integrated. The listing on the National Register notes, "All-black fire stations were simultaneous representations of racial segregation and sources of community pride."[23] In 1928, World War I veteran William J. Powell founded the Bessie Coleman Aero Club. In 1931, Powell organized the first all-black air show in the United States for the Club in Los Angeles, an event that drew 15,000 visitors. Powell also established a school to train mechanics and pilots.[citation needed]
Areas in Los Angeles that were once predominantly white, such as South Central Los Angeles, Watts, and Compton became predominantly African American after the white flight.[24]
William Parker became police chief in 1952. He largely refused to hire black police officers. During most of his tenure, those already on the force were prohibited from having white partners.[25]
The 1965
In 1972, Wattstax, also known as the Black-Woodstock, took place in the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum. Over 100,000 black residents of Los Angeles attended this concert for African American pride. Later, in 1973, a documentary was released about the concert.[citation needed]
In 1973,
In 1991, Rodney King was beaten by police officers. His videotaped beating was controversial, and heightened racial tensions in Los Angeles.[28] Just 13 days after the videotaped beating of King, a 15-year-old African American girl named Latasha Harlins was shot and killed by a 51-year-old Korean American store owner named Soon Ja Du after being falsely accused of stealing in a store. A jury found Du guilty of voluntary manslaughter, an offense that carries a maximum prison sentence of 16-years. However, trial judge, Joyce Karlin, sentenced Du five years of probation, four hundred hours of community service, and a $500 fine. The lenient response by the courts over the murder was one of the contributing factors to the 1992 Los Angeles riots.[29] When four Los Angeles Police Department officers were acquitted of charges associated with the beating of Rodney King, the decision led to the 1992 Los Angeles riots.[28]
The trial of the
21st century
In 2004, singer-songwriter Ray Charles's music studio on Washington Blvd. was declared a historic landmark.[31]
Many African Americans in Los Angeles live in poverty in 2019.[32] In 2020, 34% of homeless people in Los Angeles are African Americans despite being only 8% of the population.[33]
In 2021, African Americans in Los Angeles County were more at risk for COVID-19.[34][35] In the 2021, African Americans in Los Angeles had the highest COVID-19 hospitalization rate, as well as one of the lowest COVID-19 vaccination rates.[36]
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The Black Gallery (1984–1998), exhibition space for African American photographers
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Destination Crenshaw, an open air museum of African American street art
Geography and population
1950s and 1960s
Philip Garcia, a population specialist and the assistant director of institutional research for
1970s and 1980s
In 1970, there were 763,000 African Americans in Los Angeles.
Of the blacks who left the City of Los Angeles between 1975 and 1980 who moved away from the Los Angeles area, over 5,000 moved to the
1990s
In the late 1990s, many African Americans moved away from the traditional African Americans neighborhoods, which overall reduced the black population of the City of Los Angeles and
Many new African American businesses appear in the Inland Empire, and many of these businesses have not been previously established elsewhere. The Inland Empire African American Chamber of Commerce began with six members in 1990 and the membership increased to 90 by 1996. According to Denise Hamilton of the Los Angeles Times, as of 1996 "there has been no large-scale migration from the traditional black business districts such as Crenshaw, black business people say."[41] During the 1990s, the black population of the Moreno Valley increased by 27,500,[40] and by 1996 13% of Moreno Valley was African American.[41]
In the 1990s many African Americans moved to cities and areas in north Los Angeles County such as Palmdale and Lancaster and closer-in cities in Los Angeles County such as Hawthorne and Long Beach. In the 1990s, the black population of Long Beach increased by 66,800.[40]
2000s and 2010s
In the 2019 census, 8% of the Los Angeles County population identified as black or African American.[42]
In the 2000s, new black immigrants from Africa, the Caribbean and the Americas have arrived in Los Angeles. Nigerians, Ethiopians, Ghanaians, Belizeans, Jamaicans, Haitians, and Trinidadians are clustered in African American neighborhoods in Los Angeles.
Culture
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (September 2014) |
There is a black Christian community in Los Angeles, the first black church to be established in the city was First African Methodist Episcopal Church (FAME) which was organized in the year 1872.[46]
The Compton Cowboys formed in the late 1990s and are a group of friends from childhood who use horseback riding and equestrian culture to provide a positive influence on inner-city youth, and to combat negative stereotypes about African Americans in the city of Compton.[47]
African Americans in Los Angeles have contributed to gangsta rap, particularly in the early years between 1988 until 1992.[48] African Americans influenced West Coast hip hop with African American rappers such as Ice Cube and Dr. Dre.[49]
There are black-owned soul food restaurants in Los Angeles.
There is a black Muslim community in Los Angeles, and Islam has had a large influence on the African American population in California. African American make up around 15% of mosque attendants in Southern California in 2021.[50]
There is many graffiti murals dedicated to African Americans in the city such as the Crenshaw Wall located in Destination Crenshaw, an open-air African American museum.[51]
Gangs
There are many black gangs in Los Angeles. Black gangs emerged in the late 1940s to the early 1970s.[52] The most notable are the Crips and Bloods, both of which trace their origins back to the 1960s.[53]
Lesbian, gay and bisexual
In 2007, 4% of African American adults in Los Angeles County identified as lesbian, gay, or bisexual.[54]
Most Black LGBTQIA+ persons live in Black neighborhoods. Of black LGBTQ+ persons, 38% lived in
Little Ethiopia
Little Ethiopia is home to the third largest Ethiopian American after Washington, D.C. and Minneapolis, Minnesota.[citation needed] Little Ethiopia is the only area in the city to recognize the culture of the African continent.[55] There are many Ethiopian restaurants in the neighborhood, serving Ethiopian cuisine.[56]
Discrimination
Blacks in Los Angeles County are often affected by homelessness, poverty and incarceration due to discrimination. Anti-black hate crimes increased in Los Angeles in 2023.[57] African Americans in Los Angeles are also more likely to be killed by police officers; with African Americans representing 24% of law enforcement killings, from 2000 to 2023.[58] Racial violence against black women in Los Angeles remains high.[59]
Gentrification
African American neighborhoods in South Los Angeles have been gentrified. Many Latinos have moved to their historical neighborhoods.[60]
Notable people
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- Jhené Aiko (born 1988), singer of African American, Japanese, Dominican, Spanish, Native American and German-Jewish descent.[61]
- Yvonne Brathwaite Burke (born 1932), an attorney from Los Angeles, became the first African American woman in the California Legislature and in 1972 became the first African American woman elected to the U.S. Congress from the West Coast. She served in Congress from 1973 until the end of 1978.[62]
- Doja Cat (born 1995), South African American musician born and raised in Los Angeles.[63]
- Nat King Cole (1919–1965), singer and jazz pianist[64]
- Dorothy Dandridge (1922–1965), the first black actress to be nominated for an Academy Award for Best Actress in 1954.[65]
- Mervyn Dymally (1926–2012), teacher and politician, the first African American to serve in the California State Senate. He went on to be elected as Lieutenant Governor in 1974.[66]
- Larry Elder (born 1952), talk radio host and attorney[67]
- Etta James (1938–2012), noted singer born the Watts neighborhood of Los Angeles; in 1993,[68] she was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame
- Magic Johnson (born 1959), basketball player with the Los Angeles Lakers and businessmen;[69] in 1981 he signed a 25-year, $25-million contract with the Lakers, which was the highest-paying contract in sports history up to that point.[70]
- Florence Griffith Joyner (also known as Flo-Jo; 1959–1998), track and field hurdle athlete; she won three gold medals at the 1988 Olympics in Seoul and was considered the fastest woman of all time.[71]
- Carl Lewis (born 1961), track and field athlete; he came to prominence at the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles, where he won four gold medals.[72]
- Tim Moore (comedian) (1887–1958), actor and comedian[73]
- Nipsey Hussle (1985–2019), rapper of Eritrean descent.[74]
- Regina King (born 1971), actress and film director
- Charles Mingus (1922–1979), jazz musician; was born in Los Angeles and raised largely in the Watts area; he recorded in a band in Los Angeles in the 1940s.
- Tavis Smiley (born 1964), talk show host and author
- Maxine Waters (born 1938), politician
- Georgia Ann Robinson (1879–1961), police officer; she was the first black woman to be hired by the LAPD in 1919. She began as a volunteer jail matron, and was later hired as an official policewoman. Robinson worked mainly on juvenile cases and cases involving black women.[75]
- Tiffany Haddish (born 1979), actress and comedian of Eritrean descent.[76]
- African-American architect west of the Mississippi River.[77]
- Serena Williams (born 1981), tennis player; she was raised in Los Angeles, and in 2002 she became the Women's Tennis Association's World No. 1 player.
- Tyga (1989), rapper, of Black and Vietnamese ancestry.
- Blasian
- Kofi Siriboe (born 1994), actor and model
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Tom Bradley
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Doja Cat, rapper and singer
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Jhené Aiko, singer
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Nipsey Hussle, rapper
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Charles Mingus, jazz musician
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Tyga, rapper
See also
- African Americans in Atlanta
- African Americans in New York City
- African Americans in Chicago
- African Americans in Philadelphia
- African Americans in Detroit
- African Americans in Baltimore
- African Americans in California
- African Americans in San Francisco
- Blaxican
- Romani in Los Angeles
- Demographics of California
- Demographics of Los Angeles
- Ethnic groups in Los Angeles
- History of Central Americans in Los Angeles
- History of Mexican Americans in Los Angeles
- Little Ethiopia, Los Angeles
- Bloods
- Crips
- Los Angeles Sentinel
- California African American Museum
- Second Baptist Church (Los Angeles)
- Chris Rock–Will Smith slapping incident
- The Shifting Grounds of Race
- Black Catholicism
- Shooting of Ezell Ford
- History of Armenian Americans in Los Angeles
- History of Chinese Americans in Los Angeles
- History of Iranian Americans in Los Angeles
- History of the Japanese in Los Angeles
- History of the Jews in Los Angeles
- History of Korean Americans in Greater Los Angeles
- History of Palestinians in Los Angeles
- Filipinos in Los Angeles
- Indian Americans in Greater Los Angeles
Notes
- ^ "Early Los Angeles—An Afro-Latino Town". February 15, 2017.
- ISBN 9780295749501.
- ISBN 9781598842197.
- ^ Faith-based Social Engagement in 20th Century Los Angeles: A Historic Overview
- ^ Patel, Jugal K.; Arango, Tim; Singhvi, Anjali; Huang, Jon (December 23, 2019). "Black, Homeless and Burdened by L.A.'s Legacy of Racism". The New York Times.
- ^ "This is a Black Neighborhood. You Aren't Black. | There Goes the Neighborhood".
- ^ For Many Black People, L.A. is No Longer the Last Best Place to Live
- ^ "Still looking for a 'Black mecca,' the new Great Migration". The Washington Post. January 14, 2022. Archived from the original on June 1, 2023.
- U.S. Census Bureau.
- ^ Lopez, Steve (June 13, 2020). "Column: Black people make up 8% of L.A. population and 34% of its homeless. That's unacceptable". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved July 21, 2023.
- ^ May-Suzuki, Christian (April 24, 2023). "West Los Angeles News - L.A. County's "State of Black Los Angeles" Report Highlights Disparities in Community". Westside Voice. Retrieved July 21, 2023.
- ISBN 9780814775356.
- ISSN 0458-3035. Retrieved July 21, 2023.
- ^ "The Lost History of Los Pobladores". National Parks Conservation Association. Retrieved July 21, 2023.
- ^ "African-Americans and the Early Pueblo of Los Angeles". City of Los Angeles. 2011. Archived from the original on April 4, 2013. Retrieved April 16, 2014.
- ^ Stanford, p. 7 Archived 2021-05-18 at the Wayback Machine.
- ^ Simpson, Kelly (February 15, 2012). "The Great Migration: Creating a New Black Identity in Los Angeles". KCET. Retrieved July 3, 2022.
- ^ "From the South to Compton". KCET. August 15, 2010. Archived from the original on April 30, 2019. Retrieved April 30, 2019.
- ^ Vallianatos, Mark (April 23, 2019). "L.A.'s land use rules were born out of racism and segregation. They're not worth fighting for". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on April 25, 2019. Retrieved April 25, 2019.
- ^ a b c Simpson, Kelly (February 15, 2012). "The Great Migration: Creating a New Black Identity in Los Angeles". KCET. Archived from the original on April 30, 2019. Retrieved April 30, 2019.
- ^ Mike Sonksen (June 20, 2018). "Inglewood Today: The History of South Central Los Angeles and Its Struggle with Gentrification". USC Lusk Center of Real Estate. Archived from the original on February 25, 2020. Retrieved February 26, 2020.
- ^ Kaplan, Erin Aubry (February 1, 2020). "Hal Miller kept a key piece of L.A.'s black history alive. Now he's gone". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on February 29, 2020. Retrieved February 29, 2020.
- ^ Teresa Grimes and Jay Fantone, Christopher A. Joseph & Associates (June 1, 2008). "National Register of Historic Places Registration Form for Fire Station #30, Engine Company #30" (PDF). LA Conservancy. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 25, 2011.
- ISBN 9780739197363.
- ^ Fleischer, Matthew (August 11, 2020). "How police brutality helped white people segregate Los Angeles". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on August 12, 2020. Retrieved August 12, 2020.
- ^ Landsberg, Mitchell (December 9, 2004). "Why supervisors let deadly problems slide". Los Angeles Times. p. 1. Archived from the original on February 28, 2020. Retrieved February 28, 2020.
- ISBN 978-1-5063-5491-0. Archivedfrom the original on February 15, 2022. Retrieved August 7, 2021.
- ^ a b "When LA Erupted In Anger: A Look Back At The Rodney King Riots". NPR. April 26, 2017.
- ^ Bruney, Gabrielle (September 21, 2020). "Latasha Harlins' Death Fueled the 1991 LA Riots. A New Documentary Celebrates Her Life". Esquire. Archived from the original on February 10, 2021. Retrieved August 7, 2021.
- ^ Shapiro, Emily (October 3, 2023). "The OJ Simpson trial: Where the key players are 25 years after his acquittal". ABC News. Retrieved July 21, 2023.
- ^ "Music legend Ray Charles dies at 73". Chicago Tribune. June 11, 2004. Retrieved July 21, 2023.
- ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved March 19, 2022.
- ^ Lopez, Steve (June 13, 2020). "Column: Black people make up 8% of L.A. population and 34% of its homeless. That's unacceptable". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved March 19, 2022.
- ^ Lin II, Rong-Gong. "Black residents at highest risk for COVID-19 in L.A. County". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on August 13, 2021. Retrieved August 13, 2021.
- ^ Duara, Nigel (May 11, 2020). "Why is the coronavirus deadly for so many black residents of Los Angeles?". CalMatters. Archived from the original on February 10, 2022. Retrieved February 15, 2022.
- ^ "Black L.A. Residents have highest COVID hospitalization rate: 'A deplorable reality'". Los Angeles Times. September 25, 2021.
- ^ Powers, Kemp (August 17, 2007). "The Neighborhood Project: Baldwin Hills". LAist. Archived from the original on September 5, 2014. Retrieved April 8, 2020.
- ^ Martinez, Diana. "A Changing Population in South-Central L.A., Watts Archived 2014-04-07 at the Wayback Machine." Los Angeles Times. January 17, 1991. Retrieved on April 3, 2014.
- ^ a b c d e McMillan, Penelope. "'Black Flight' From L.A. Reverses Trend, Study Discovers Archived 2014-12-22 at the Wayback Machine." Los Angeles Times. September 22, 1987. Retrieved on July 1, 2014.
- ^ a b c d Texeira, Erin. "Migrants From L.A. Flow to Affordable Suburbs Such as Inland Empire Archived 2014-04-07 at the Wayback Machine." Los Angeles Times. March 30, 2001. Retrieved on April 3, 2014.
- ^ a b c Hamilton, Denise. "Land of Opportunity : Land of Opportunity Archived 2014-04-07 at the Wayback Machine." Los Angeles Times. December 22, 1996. Retrieved on April 3, 2014.
- ^ "U.S.Census Bureau, 2019". Archived from the original on February 7, 2021. Retrieved February 26, 2021.
- ISBN 9780520296206. Archivedfrom the original on May 18, 2021. Retrieved April 10, 2021.
- ^ Simmons, Ann M. and Abby Sewell. "Suit seeks to open Compton to Latino voters Archived 2014-04-07 at the Wayback Machine." Los Angeles Times. December 20, 2010. Retrieved on April 3, 2014.
- ^ "In L.A.'s historic African American core, a growing Latino wave represents a possible 'turning point'". Los Angeles Times. February 28, 2017. Retrieved June 30, 2022.
- ^ McDonald, Beth (June 2020). "Will the Circle be Unbroken?: Gospel Roots: African American Churches in Los Angeles". Scalar. Alliance for Networking Visual Culture.
- ^ Thompson-Hernández, Walter (March 31, 2018). "For the Compton Cowboys, Horseback Riding Is a Legacy, and Protection". The New York Times. Archived from the original on December 18, 2018. Retrieved December 18, 2018.
- .
- ^ Meares, Hadley (May 17, 2019). "How Crenshaw became black LA's main street". Curbed LA. Archived from the original on September 20, 2019. Retrieved August 28, 2019.
- ^ Parvini, Sarah (September 17, 2021). "Black Muslims: Finding community and faith in South L.A." Los Angeles Times. Retrieved March 22, 2023.
- ^ "The Great Wall of Crenshaw and the Ongoing Story of Black Los Angeles". KCET. January 28, 2022. Retrieved March 22, 2023.
- ^ Territoriality Among African-American Street Gangs in Los Angeles
- ^ African American Gang Trends
- ^ a b Moore, p. 190 Archived 2017-03-15 at the Wayback Machine.
- ^ "How to Spend a Day in los Angeles' Little Ethiopia".
- ^ "The Definitive Guide to Little Ethiopia". Discover Los Angeles. Retrieved August 17, 2022.
- ^ Stephens, Imani (February 20, 2023). "Anti-Black hate crimes continue to increase in Los Angeles". Prism. Retrieved July 21, 2023.
- ^ "L.A. police killings: Tracking homicides in Los Angeles County since 2000". Los Angeles Times. July 4, 2023. Retrieved July 21, 2023.
- ^ Jany, Libor (March 18, 2023). "Violence against Black women in L.A. remains high, even as serious crime drops". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved December 27, 2023.
- ^ Sonksen, Mike (September 14, 2017). "The History of South Central Los Angeles and Its Struggle with Gentrification". KCET.
- ^ "Musicians on Musicians: CL & Jhené Aiko". Rolling Stone. October 20, 2021. Retrieved August 17, 2022.
- ^ Jackson, Errin (April 8, 2007). "Yvonne Braithwaite Burke (1932– )". BlackPast.org. Retrieved July 21, 2023.
- ^ Seemela, Masego (March 9, 2021). "5 things you didn't know about: Doja Cat". SowetanLIVE. Retrieved July 3, 2022.
- ^ "Memorial Services". Jet. Johnson Publishing Company. November 13, 1995. p. 17.
- ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved July 21, 2023.
- ^ Merl, Jean (October 8, 2012). "Mervyn Dymally dies at 86; former lieutenant governor, congressman and legislator". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved July 21, 2023.
- ^ Michaelson, Judith; Baxte, Kevin (January 14, 1999). "The Good Times of Larry Elder". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved July 21, 2023.
- ^ Leigh, Spencer (January 20, 2012). "Etta James: Acclaimed Soul Singer Who Fought to Overcome Her Personal Demons". The Independent. Archived from the original on December 20, 2016. Retrieved July 20, 2023.
- ^ "Magic Johnson officially joins NFL's Commanders as co-owner". NBC News. July 20, 2023. Retrieved July 21, 2023.
- ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved July 21, 2023.
- ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved July 21, 2023.
- ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved July 21, 2023.
- ^ "Tim Moore". The Quad-City Times. April 28, 2015. Retrieved July 21, 2023.
- ^ Giorgis, Hannah (April 4, 2019). "Nipsey Hussle's Eritrean American Dream". The Atlantic. Retrieved August 17, 2022.
- from the original on April 23, 2021. Retrieved April 23, 2021.
- ^ Proudly Eritrean, Tiffany Haddish Finally Gets Her Citizenship
- ISSN 2165-1736. Retrieved July 21, 2023.
References
- Moore, Mignon R. "Black and Gay in L.A.: The Relationships Black Lesbians and Gay Men Have to Their Racial and Religious Communities" (Chapter 7). In: ISBN 0814773060, 9780814773062.
- Stanford, Karin L. African Americans in Los Angeles. ISBN 0738580945, 9780738580944.
Other reading
- Flamming, Douglas. Bound for Freedom: Black Los Angeles in Jim Crow America (The George Gund Foundation imprint in African American studies). ISBN 0520249909, 9780520249905.
- Hunt, Darnell and Ana-Christina Ramón (editors). Black Los Angeles: American Dreams and Racial Realities. ISBN 0814773060, 9780814773062.
- Kurashige, Scott. ISBN 1400834007, 9781400834006.
- Pulido, Laura. Black, Brown, Yellow, and Left: Radical Activism in Los Angeles (Volume 19 of American crossroads). ISBN 0520245202, 9780520245204.
- Sides, Josh. L.A. City Limits: African American Los Angeles from the Great Depression to the Present. ISBN 0520248309, 9780520248304.
- Sonenshein, Raphael. Politics in Black and White: Race and Power in Los Angeles. ISBN 0691025487, 9780691025483.
- Tolbert, Emory J. The UNIA and Black Los Angeles: ideology and community in the American Garvey movement (Volume 3 of A CAAS monograph series, Volume 3 of Afro-American culture and society). Center for Afro-American Studies, ISBN 0934934045, 9780934934046.
- Widener, Daniel. Black Arts West: Culture and Struggle in Postwar Los Angeles. Duke University Press, January 1, 2009.
External links
- #blackhistory: In February, 1781, settlers of African, Indian, and Spanish ancestry set out for what will become Los Angeles from Mexico
- Impacting Black History: Black People Make Up 8% Of L.A. Population And 34% Of Its Homeless.
- "Black Ranking". Los Angeles Times. December 30, 2021. Retrieved December 9, 2023.
- Stanford, K.L.; California State University, N.I.A.M. (2010). African Americans in Los Angeles. Images of America. Arcadia Pub. ISBN 978-0-7385-8094-4.