History of Barbados

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

Barbados is an island country in the southeastern Caribbean Sea, situated about 100 miles (160 km) east of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines. Roughly triangular in shape, the island measures some 21 miles (34 km) from northwest to southeast and about 14 miles (23 km) from east to west at its widest point. The capital and largest town is Bridgetown, which is also the main seaport.

Barbados was inhabited by indigenous peoples –

Sugar cane cultivation in Barbados began in the 1640s, which saw the increasing importation of black slaves from West Africa. Several black slave codes were implemented in the late-17th century which resulted in several slave rebellion attempts, however none was successful. The Consolidated Slave Law was passed following the largest slave rebellion in Barbadian history, this was then followed by the total abolition of slavery in the British Empire in 1834. Britain continued to rule the island until independence was granted in 1966 and the state became a member of the Commonwealth of Nations
.

From 1966 to 2021, Barbados was a

Queen of Barbados, as head of state. Barbados became a republic on November 30, 2021, under Mia Mottley
, thus removing the queen as its head of state.

Before colonization

Some evidence suggests that Barbados may have been settled in the second millennium BC, but this is limited to fragments of conch lip

adzes found in association with shells that have been radiocarbon-dated to about 1630 BC.[1]

Fully documented

Amerindian settlement dates to between about 350 and 650 AD, when the Troumassoid people arrived. The arrivals were a group known as the Saladoid-Barrancoid from the mainland of South America.[2]

The second wave of settlers appeared around 800 AD (the Spanish referred to these as "

Caribs" by the Spanish) ever established a permanent settlement in Barbados, though they often visited the island in their canoes.[3]

Colonial history

Early colonial history

Spanish 1632 map of the "isla del Barbado" ("island of the Bearded Man").

The Portuguese were the first Europeans to discover the island. Portuguese navigator Pedro A. Campos named it Os Barbados (meaning "bearded ones").[4]

Frequent slave-raiding missions by the Spanish Empire in the early 16th century led to a massive decline in the Amerindian population so that by 1541 a Spanish writer claimed they were uninhabited. The Amerindians were either captured for use as slaves by the Spanish or fled to other, more easily defensible mountainous islands nearby.[5]

From about 1600 the English, French, and Dutch began to found colonies in the North American mainland and the smaller islands of the West Indies. Although Spanish and Portuguese sailors had visited Barbados, the first English ship touched the island on 14 May 1625, and England was the first European nation to establish a lasting settlement there from 1627, when the William and John arrived with more than 60 white settlers and six African slaves.[6]

England is commonly said to have made its initial claim to Barbados in 1625, although reportedly an earlier claim may have been made in 1620. Nonetheless, Barbados was claimed from 1625 in the name of King

St Kitts, 1628: Nevis, 1632: Montserrat, 1632: Antigua
). Nevertheless, the Colony of Barbados quickly grew to become the third major English settlement in the Americas due to its prime eastern location.

Early English settlement

Main article: British West Indies
English quakers and tobacco planters in Barbados. Pieter vander Aa, Les Forces de l'Europe, Asie, Afrique et Amerique, 1726.

The settlement was established as a proprietary colony and funded by Sir William Courten, a City of London merchant who acquired the title to Barbados and several other islands. So the first colonists were actually tenants and much of the profits of their labor returned to Courten and his company.[7]

The first English ship, which had arrived on 14 May 1625, was captained by John Powell. The first settlement began on 17 February 1627, near what is now

Taino slaves were brought in from Guyana to help plant crops on the west coast of the island.[9]

Courten's title was transferred to James Hay, 1st Earl of Carlisle, in what was called the "Great Barbados Robbery." Carlisle established a separate settlement at what he called Carlisle Bay, which later became known as Bridgetown.[9]

Carlisle then chose as governor

House of Assembly in 1639, in an effort to appease the planters, who might otherwise have opposed his controversial appointment. That year, 12 years after the settlement was established, the white adult population stood at an estimated 8,700.[9]

In the period 1640–1660, the West Indies attracted over two-thirds of the total number of English emigrants to the Americas. By 1650, there were 44,000 settlers in the West Indies, as compared to 12,000 on the Chesapeake and 23,000 in New England.

Most English arrivals were indentured. After five years of labour, they were given "freedom dues" of about £10, usually in goods. Before the mid-1630s, they also received 5–10 acres of land, but after that time the island filled and there was no more free land. Around the time of Cromwell a number of rebels and criminals were also transported there.

Timothy Meads of Warwickshire was one of the rebels sent to Barbados at that time, before he received compensation for servitude of 1000 acres of land in North Carolina in 1666. Parish registers from the 1650s show, for the white population, four times as many deaths as marriages. The death rate was very high.

Before this, the mainstay of the infant colony's economy was the growing export of tobacco, but tobacco prices eventually fell in the 1630s, as Chesapeake production expanded.

England's civil war

Main articles: English overseas possessions in the Wars of the Three Kingdoms and Restoration in the English colonies

Around the same time, fighting during the

involved in the war until after the execution of Charles I, when the island's government fell under the control of Royalists (ironically the Governor, Philip Bell, remained loyal to Parliament while the Barbadian House of Assembly of Barbados, under the influence of Humphrey Walrond, supported Charles II). On 7 May 1650, the General Assembly of Barbados voted to receive Lord Willoughby as governor, a move which confirmed the Cavaliers as the government of Barbados.[10][11]

Willoughby rounded up and deported many Roundheads from Barbados, confiscating their property. To try to bring the recalcitrant colony to heel, the

Dutch colonies. These acts were a precursor to the First Anglo-Dutch War.[11][10]

The Commonwealth of England sent an invasion force under the command of Sir George Ayscue, which arrived in October 1651, and blockaded the island. After some skirmishing, the Royalists in the House of Assembly, feeling the pressures of commercial isolation, led by Lord Willoughby surrendered. The conditions of the surrender were incorporated into the Charter of Barbados (Treaty of Oistins), which was signed at the Mermaid's Inn, Oistins, on 17 January 1652.[11][10]

Sugar cane and slavery

Ruins of a plantation in Saint Lucy, Barbados.
Main article: Slavery in the British and French Caribbean

Sugar cane cultivation in Barbados began in the 1640s, after its introduction in 1637 by Pieter Blower. Initially, rum was produced but by 1642, sugar was the focus of the industry. As it developed into the main commercial enterprise, Barbados was divided into large plantation estates which replaced the small holdings of the early English settlers as the wealthy planters pushed out the poorer. Some of the displaced farmers relocated to the English colonies in North America, most notably South Carolina.[12] To work the plantations, black Africans – primarily from West Africa – were imported as slaves in such numbers that there were three for every one planter. Increasingly after 1750 the plantations were owned by absentee landlords living in Britain and operated by hired managers.[13] Persecuted Catholics from Ireland
also worked the plantations. Life expectancy of slaves was short and replacements were purchased annually.

The introduction of

Iberian peninsula, to end up in Dutch Brazil.[14] As the effects of the new crop increased, so did the shift in the ethnic composition of Barbados and surrounding islands. The workable sugar plantation required a large investment and a great deal of heavy labour. At first, Dutch traders supplied the equipment, financing, and African slaves, in addition to transporting most of the sugar to Europe. Barbados replaced Hispaniola as the main sugar producer in the Caribbean.[15]

In 1655, the population of Barbados was estimated at 43,000, of which about 20,000 were of African descent, with the remainder mainly of English descent. These English smallholders were eventually bought out and the island filled up with large African slave-worked sugar plantations. By 1660, there was near parity with 27,000 blacks and 26,000 whites. By 1666, at least 12,000 white smallholders had been bought out, died, or left the island. Many of the remaining whites were increasingly poor. By 1673, black slaves (33,184) outnumbered white settlers (21,309). By 1680, there were 17 slaves for every indentured servant. By 1684, the disparity grew even further to 19,568 white settlers and 46,502 black slaves. By 1696, there was an estimated 42,000 enslaved blacks, and the white population declined further to 16,888 by 1715.[16]

Due to the increased implementation of

poor whites. Black or slave codes were implemented in 1661, 1676, 1682, and 1688. In response to these codes, several slave rebellions were attempted or planned during this time, but none succeeded. Nevertheless, poor whites who had or acquired the means to emigrate often did so. Planters expanded their importation of African slaves to cultivate sugar cane. One early advocate of slave rights in Barbados was the visiting Quaker preacher Alice Curwen in 1677: "For I am persuaded, that if they whom thou call'st thy Slaves, be Upright-hearted to God, the Lord God Almighty will set them Free in a way that thou knowest not; for there is none set free but in Christ Jesus, for all other Freedom will prove but a Bondage."[17]

By 1660, Barbados generated more trade than all the other English colonies combined. This remained so until it was eventually surpassed by geographically larger islands like Jamaica in 1713. But even so, the estimated value of the Colony of Barbados in 1730–1731 was as much as £5,500,000.

Port Royal, Jamaica.) By 1700, the English West Indies produced 25,000 tons of sugar, compared to 20,000 for Brazil, 10,000 for the French islands and 4,000 for the Dutch islands.[19]
This quickly replaced tobacco, which had been the island's main export.

As the sugar industry developed into its main commercial enterprise, Barbados was divided into large plantation estates that replaced the smallholdings of the early English settlers. In 1680, over half the arable land was held by 175 large planters, each of whom used at least 60 slaves. The great plantation owners had connections with the English aristocracy and great influence on Parliament. (In 1668, the West Indian sugar crop sold for £180,000 after customs of £18,000. Chesapeake tobacco earned £50,000 after customs of £75,000).

So much land was devoted to sugar that most foods had to be imported from New England. The poorer whites who were moved off the island went to the English Leeward Islands, or especially to Jamaica. In 1670, the Province of South Carolina was founded, when some of the surplus population again left Barbados. Other nations receiving large numbers of Barbadians included British Guiana and Panama.

Roberts (2006) shows that enslaved persons did not spend the majority of time in restricted roles cultivating, harvesting and processing sugar cane, the island's most important cash crop. Rather, the enslaved were involved in various activities and in multiple roles: raising livestock, fertilizing soil, growing provisional crops, maintaining plantation infrastructure, caregiving and other tasks. One notable soil management technique was intercropping, planting subsistence crops between the rows of cash crops, which demanded of the enslaved skilled and experienced observations of growing conditions for efficient land use.[20]

"Slaveholders often counted as "married" only the enslaved with mates on the estate. For example, the manager of Newton estate... recorded 20 women with co-resident husbands and 35 with mates elsewhere. Members of the latter group were labelled single, members of extended units, or mother-child units."[21][a]

By 1750, there were about 18,000 white settlers, compared to approximately 65,000 African slaves.[22]

The slave trade ceased in 1807 and slaves were emancipated in 1834.

Bussa's rebellion

Main article: Bussa's rebellion
Sketch of a flag taken from rebels against slavery in Barbados, after the uprising known as Bussa's Rebellion (1816). The flag appears to stress the rebels' loyalty to Britain and to the Crown while conveying their earnest desire for liberty. British forces on Barbados suppressed the revolt and hundreds of the rebels were killed.
Bridgetown, Barbados
in 1848
Bridgetown, Barbados
in 1848
Blue Ensign flag of the Colony of Barbados from 1870 to 1966.
Bridgetown harbour in 1902

The British abolished the slave trade in 1807, but not the institution itself.[23] The abolition of slavery itself would only be enacted in 1833 in most parts of the British Empire.[24]

In 1816, enslaved persons rose up in what was the first of three rebellions in the British West Indies to occur in the interval between the end of the slave trade and emancipation, and the largest slave uprising in the island's history. Around 20,000 enslaved persons from over 70 plantations are thought to have been involved. The rebellion was partly fuelled by information about the growing abolitionist movement in England, and the opposition against such by local whites.[25]

The rebellion largely surprised planters, who felt that their slaves were content because they were allowed weekly dances, participated in social and economic activity across the island and were generally fed and looked after.

Bussa, and the result of a growing sentiment that the treatment of slaves in Barbados was "intolerable", and who believed the political climate in Britain made the time ripe to peacefully negotiate with planters for freedom.[27] Bussa became the most famous of the rebellion's organizers, many of whom were either enslaved persons of some higher position or literate freedmen. One woman, Nanny Grigg, is also named as a principal organizer.[28]

However, the rebellion eventually failed. The uprising was triggered prematurely, but the slaves were already greatly outmatched. Barbados' flat terrain gave the horses of the better-armed militia the clear advantage over the rebels, with no mountains or forest for concealment. Slaves had also thought they would be supported by freed men of colour, but these instead joined efforts to quell the rebellion.[29] Although they drove whites off the plantations, widespread killings did not take place. By the end, 120 slaves died in combat or were immediately executed and another 144 brought to trial and executed. The remaining rebels were shipped off the island.[30]

Towards the abolition of slavery

In 1826, the Barbados legislature passed the Consolidated Slave Law, which simultaneously granted concessions to the slaves while providing reassurances to the slave owners.[31]

Slavery was finally abolished in the British Empire eight years later, in 1834. In Barbados and the rest of the British West Indian colonies, full emancipation from slavery was preceded by a contentious apprenticeship period that lasted four years.

In 1884, the Barbados Agricultural Society sent a letter to

admitted as a member of the Canadian Confederation. Asked from Canada were the terms of the Canadian side to initiate discussions, and whether or not the island of Barbados could depend on the full influence of Canada in getting the change agreed to by the British Parliament at Westminster.[citation needed
]

Towards decolonisation

In 1952, the

Barbados Advocate newspaper polled several prominent Barbadian politicians, lawyers, businessmen, the Speaker of the House of Assembly and later as first President of the Senate, Sir Theodore Branker, Q.C.and found them to be in favour of immediate federation of Barbados along with the rest of the British Caribbean with complete Dominion Status within five years from the date of inauguration of the West Indies Federation
with Canada.

However, plantation owners and merchants of British descent still dominated local politics, owing to the high income qualification required for voting. More than 70 per cent of the population, many of them disenfranchised women, were excluded from the democratic process. It was not until the 1930s that the descendants of emancipated slaves began a movement for political rights. One of the leaders of this,

Sir Grantley Adams, founded the Barbados Progressive League in 1938, which later became known as the Barbados Labour Party
(BLP).

Adams and his party demanded more rights for the poor and for the people, and staunchly supported the monarchy. Progress toward a more democratic government in Barbados was made in 1942, when the exclusive income qualification was lowered and women were given the right to vote. By 1949, governmental control was wrested from the planters, and in 1953 Adams became Premier of Barbados.

From 1958 to 1962, Barbados was one of the ten members of the

Errol Walton Barrow, a fervent reformer, became the people's new advocate. Barrow had left the BLP and formed the Democratic Labour Party
(DLP) as a liberal alternative to Adams' conservative government. Barrow instituted many progressive social programmes, such as free education for all Barbadians and a school meals system. By 1961, Barrow had replaced Adams as Premier and the DLP controlled the government.

With the Federation dissolved, Barbados reverted to its former status, that of a

Queen of Barbados. Upon independence Barbados became a full member of the Commonwealth of Nations. A year later, Barbados' international linkages were expanded by obtaining membership of both the United Nations and the Organization of American States
.

Political history

Main articles: British Windward Islands and West Indies Federation

Carrington (1982) examines politics during the American Revolution, revealing that Barbadian political leaders shared many of the grievances and goals of the American revolutionaries, but that they were unwilling to go to war over them. Nevertheless, the repeated conflicts between the island assembly and the royal governors brought important constitutional reforms which confirmed the legislature's control over most local matters and its power over the executive.[33]

From 1800 until 1885, Barbados then served as the main seat of Government for the former

Colonial head of the Windward Islands. After the Government of Barbados officially exited from the Windward Island union in 1885, the seat was moved from Bridgetown to St. George's on the neighbouring island of Grenada
, where it remained until the territory of the Windward Islands was dissolved.

Soon after Barbados' withdrawal from the Windward Islands, Barbados became aware that Tobago was going to be amalgamated with another territory as part of a single state.[34] In response, Barbados made an official bid to the British Government to have neighbouring Island Tobago joined with Barbados in a political union.[35] The British government however decided that Trinidad would be a better fit and Tobago instead was made a Ward of Trinidad.[36][37]

African slaves worked on plantations owned by merchants of

Grantley Adams, who played an instrumental role in the bankruptcy and shutdown of The Herald newspapers, one of the movement's foremost voices. Adams would later found the Barbados Progressive League (now the Barbados Labour Party) in 1938, during the Great Depression. The Depression caused mass unemployment and strikes, and the standard of living
on the island fell drastically. With the death of O’Neal and the demise of the League, Adams cemented his power, but he used this to advocate for causes that had once been his rivals, including more help for the people especially the poor.

Finally, in 1942, the income qualification was lowered. This was followed by the introduction of universal adult

National Hero
.

From 1958 to 1962, Barbados was one of the ten members of the West Indies Federation, an organisation doomed to failure by a number of factors, including what were often petty nationalistic prejudices and limited legislative power. Indeed, Adams's position as "Prime Minister" was a misnomer, as all of the Federation members were still colonies of Britain. Adams, once a political visionary and now a man whose policies seemed to some blind to the needs of his country, not only held fast to his notion of defending the monarchy but also made additional attempts to form other Federation-like entities after that union's demise. When the Federation was terminated, Barbados reverted to its former status as a self-governing colony, but efforts were made by Adams to form another federation composed of Barbados and the Leeward and Windward Islands.

National Hero for his work in social reformation, including the institution of free education
for all Barbadians. In 1961, Barrow supplanted Adams as Premier as the DLP took control of the government.

Independence

Due to several years of growing autonomy, Barbados, with Barrow at the helm, was able successfully to negotiate its independence at a constitutional conference with the United Kingdom in June 1966. After years of peaceful and democratic progress, Barbados finally became an independent state and formally joined the Commonwealth of Nations on 30 November 1966, Errol Barrow serving as its first prime minister.

The Barrow government sought to diversify the economy away from agriculture, seeking to boost industry and the tourism sector. Barbados was also at the forefront of regional integration efforts, spearheading the creation of

CARICOM.[38] The DLP lost the 1976 Barbadian general election to the BLP under Tom Adams. Adams adopted a more conservative and strongly pro-Western stance, allowing the Americans to use Barbados as the launchpad for their invasion of Grenada in 1983.[39] Adams died in office in 1985 and was replaced by Harold Bernard St. John; however, St. John lost the 1986 Barbadian general election, which saw the return of the DLP under Errol Barrow, who had been highly critical of the US intervention in Grenada. Barrow, too, died in office, and was replaced by Lloyd Erskine Sandiford
, who remained prime minister until 1994.

Owen Arthur of the BLP won the 1994 Barbadian general election, remaining prime minister until 2008.[40] Arthur was a strong advocate of republicanism, though a planned referendum to replace Queen Elizabeth as Head of State in 2008 never took place.[41] The DLP won the 2008 Barbadian general election, but the new Prime Minister David Thompson died in 2010 and was replaced by Freundel Stuart. The BLP returned to power in 2018 under Mia Mottley, who became Barbados's first female prime minister.[42]

Transition to republic

Main article: Republicanism in Barbados

The Government of Barbados announced on 15 September 2020 that it intended to become a republic by 30 November 2021, the 55th anniversary of its independence resulting in the replacement of the hereditary monarch of Barbados with an elected president.[43][44] Barbados would then cease to be a Commonwealth realm, but could maintain membership in the Commonwealth of Nations, like Guyana and Trinidad and Tobago.[45][46][47][48]

On 20 September 2021, just over a full year after the announcement for the transition was made, the Constitution (Amendment) (No. 2) Bill, 2021 was introduced to the Parliament of Barbados. Passed on 6 October, the Bill made amendments to the Constitution of Barbados, introducing the office of the

Prince Charles, who was heir apparent to the Barbadian Crown, attended the swearing-in ceremony in Bridgetown at the invitation of the Government of Barbados.[53]

Queen Elizabeth II sent a message of congratulations to President Mason and the people of Barbados, saying: "As you celebrate this momentous day, I send you and all Barbadians my warmest good wishes for your happiness, peace and prosperity in the future."[54]

A survey was taken between October 23, 2021, and November 10, 2021, by the University of the West Indies that showed 34% of respondents being in favour of transitioning to a republic, while 30% were indifferent. Notably, no overall majority was found in the survey; with 24% not indicating a preference, and the remaining 12% being opposed to the removal of Queen Elizabeth.[55][56]

In January 2022, Barbados Prime Minister Mia Mottley's Labor Party received a landslide victory, winning all 30 legislative seats, in the first general election since Barbados became a republic.[57]

On 20 June 2022, a Constitutional Review Commission was formed and sworn in by Jeffrey Gibson (who, at the time, was serving temporarily as Acting President of Barbados) to review the Constitution of Barbados.[58]

The Commission will have an 18-month timeline to complete its work. They are expected to solicit input from members of the public in Barbados via a series of face-to-face and online events.

Confederations and union proposals

A number of proposals have been mooted in the past to integrate Barbados into neighbouring countries or even the

Sir Lloyd Erskine Sandiford in the Barbadian general elections.[citation needed
]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Estate, real estate and houses on it

References

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  2. ^ Karl Watson, "A brief history of Barbados", Barbados: Just Beyond Your Imagination (Hansib, 1970), Arif Ali (ed.), pp. 30-4.
  3. ^ Karl Watson, "A brief history of Barbados", Barbados (Hansib), Arif Ali (ed.), pp. 30-8.
  4. ^ Retrieved 5 March 2016.
  5. Hilary McD. Beckles
    , A History of Barbados: From Amerindian Settlement to Caribbean Single Market (Cambridge University Press, 2007 edition), pp. 1–6.
  6. ^ Karl Watson, "A brief history of Barbados", Barbados (Hansib), Arif Ali (ed.), p. 42.
  7. ^ William And John, 11 January 201, Shipstamps.co.uk
  8. ^ Beckles, p. 7.
  9. ^ a b c Karl Watson, "A brief history of Barbados", Barbados (Hansib), Arif Ali (ed.), p. 44.
  10. ^ a b c Hilary Beckles, "The 'Hub of Empire': The Caribbean and Britain in the Seventeenth Century", The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume 1 The Origins of Empire, ed. by Nicholas Canny (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), p. 238.
  11. ^ a b c Karl Watson, The Civil War in Barbados, History in-depth, BBC, 5 November 2009.
  12. ^ South Carolina National Heritage Corridor (SCNHC) Archived 7 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine
  13. ^ Ragatz (1931).
  14. ^
    ISBN 1-870518-54-3
    .
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  16. ^ Hilary Beckles, "The 'Hub of Empire': The Caribbean and Britain in the Seventeenth Century", The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume 1 The Origins of Empire, ed. by Nicholas Canny (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), p. 224.
  17. ^ A Relation... in: "Alice Curwen", Autobiographical Writings by Early Quaker Women (Aldershot, England: Ashgate, 2004), ed. David Booy.
  18. ^ Richard B. Sheridan, Sugar and Slavery: An Economic History of the British West Indies, 1623–1775, p. 144.
  19. ^ Alan Taylor, American Colonies: The Settlement of North America, 2001 (Viking Putnam; Penguin, 2002), discusses Barbados in the context of North American settlement.
  20. ^ Justin Roberts, "Agriculture on Two Barbadian Sugar Plantations, 1796–97," William and Mary Quarterly 2006 63(3): 551–586.
  21. ISBN 0-7006-0394-8
    )), p. 85 and see p. 99 (author assoc. prof. sociology, Univ. of Toledo).
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  23. ^ "How did the slave trade end in Britain?". www.rmg.co.uk. Retrieved 11 May 2022.
  24. ^ "Slavery Abolition Act | History & Impact | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 25 June 2023.
  25. ^ Beckles, "The Slave-Drivers' War", Boletín de Estudios Latinoamericanos y del Caribe, 1985, 39:85–109
  26. ^ William Dickson, LL.D., Mitigation of Slavery, In Two Parts. Part I: Letters and Papers of The Late Hon. Joshua Steele, p. 1-7, 132–136, 177–183. Part II: Letters to Thomas Clarkson, Esql M.A., p. 193, 338–353. (London, 1814).
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  28. ^ "The National Archives - Homepage".
  29. ^ Remarks on the Insurrection in Barbados and the Bill for the Registration of Slaves, London, 1816.
  30. ^ Davis, pp. 212–213.
  31. ISBN 978-0-521-67849-0
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  34. ^ "Motion for a select committee", Hansard, HC Deb 30 June 1876 vol 230 cc738-822.
  35. ^ The Parliament of the United Kingdom c/o Hansard system: MOTION FOR A SELECT COMMITTEE.
  36. ^ The Parliament of the United Kingdom c/o Hansard system: TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO BILL.—(No. 195).
  37. ^ The Parliament of the United Kingdom c/o Hansard system:
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  40. ISBN 978-0-19-928357-6
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  44. ^ "Barbados elects first president, replacing UK Queen as head of state". Archived from the original on 26 October 2021. Retrieved 23 October 2021.
  45. ^ Team, Caribbean Lifestyle Editorial (15 September 2020). "Barbados to become an Independent Republic in 2021". Caribbean Culture and Lifestyle. Archived from the original on 23 September 2021. Retrieved 15 September 2020.
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  47. ^ Madden, Marlon, ed. (17 September 2020). "Wickham predicts Barbados' republic model to mirror Trinidad's". Top Featured Article. Barbados Today. Archived from the original on 13 August 2021. Retrieved 4 June 2021. As Barbados prepares to ditch the Queen as its Head of State and become a republic, a prominent political scientist is predicting that Prime Minister Mia Mottley will follow the Trinidad and Tobago model. What's more, Peter Wickham has shot down any idea of the Barbados Labour Party administration holding a referendum on the matter, saying that to do so would be a 'mistake'. 'There is no need to and I don't think it makes a lot of sense. We had a situation where since 1999 this [political party] indicated its desire to go in the direction of a republic. The Opposition has always supported it ... So, I think there is enough cohesion in that regard to go with it,' he said.
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  59. ^ "BARBADOES.—OBSERVATIONS. (Hansard, 1 August 1876)". Parliamentary Debates (Hansard). 1 August 1876.

Additional sources

Further reading

External links

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