History of Belarus
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The lands of Belarus during the Middle Ages became part of Kievan Rus' and were split between different principalities, including Polotsk, Turov, Vitebsk, and others. Following the Mongol invasions of the 13th century, these lands were absorbed by the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, which later was merged into the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in the 16th century.
Following the Partitions of Poland in the 18th century, Belarusian territories became part of the Russian Empire. In the aftermath of the Russian Revolution, different states arose competing for legitimacy amid the Russian Civil War, ultimately ending with the consolidation of the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic, which became a constituent republic of the Soviet Union when it was founded in 1922.
The republic was devastated as a result of the German occupation during World War II, and its territory was expanded after Western Belorussia was ceded by Poland following the war. Belarus became an independent state in 1991 following the dissolution of the Soviet Union.
Prehistoric era
Archaeological discoveries show what is now Belarus had human inhabitants during the Paleolithic and Neolithic ages.[citation needed]
Early history
The history of
.The modern
During the 9th and 10th centuries, the Varangians, who were of Scandinavian origin, established trade posts on the way from Scandinavia to the Byzantine Empire. The network of lakes and rivers crossing the territory of the East Slavs provided a lucrative trade route between the two civilizations. In the course of trade, they gradually took sovereignty over the tribes of East Slavs, at least to the point required by improvements in trade.
The Rus', originally a Varangian tribe who gave their name to the land, invaded the Byzantine Empire on a few occasions, but eventually they allied against the Bulgars. The condition underlying this alliance was to open the country for Christianization and acculturation from the Byzantine Empire.
The common cultural bond of
Kievan Rus'
Between the 9th and 12th centuries, the
The Principality of Polotsk repeatedly asserted its sovereignty in relation to the other centers of Rus', becoming a political capital, the
Grand Duchy of Lithuania
In the 13th century, the fragile unity of Kievan Rus' disintegrated due to nomadic incursions from
The Lithuanians' smaller numbers in this medieval state gave the Ruthenians (later Belarusians and Ukrainians) an important role in the everyday cultural life of the state. Owing to the prevalence of East Slavs and the
The East Slavic variety of the language (rus'ka mova, Old Belarusian or West Russian Chancellery language), gradually influenced by Polish, was the language of administration in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania from at least Vytautas' reign until the late 17th century when it was replaced by Polish.[3]
This period of political breakdown and reorganization also saw the rise of written local vernaculars in place of the literary and liturgical Church Slavonic language, a further stage in the evolving differentiation between the Belarusian, Russian and Ukrainian languages.
Several Lithuanian monarchs — the last being
Construction of Orthodox churches in some parts of present-day Belarus had been initially prohibited, as was the case in
In such circumstances, a vibrant Ruthenian culture flourished, mostly in the major cities of present-day Belarus.[5] Despite the legal usage of the
Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
The
With time, the ethnic pattern did not evolve much. Throughout their existence as a separate culture, Ruthenians formed in most cases the rural population, with power held by the local
Also, with time religious conflicts started to arise. The gentry with time started to adopt
From 1569, the
Despite these conflicts, the literary tradition of Belarus evolved. Until the 17th century, the
However, both economic and cultural growth came to an end in the mid-17th century with a series of violent wars against the
Subsequent wars in the area including the
The last attempt to save the Commonwealth's independence was a Polish–Belarusian–Lithuanian national uprising of 1794 led by Tadeusz Kościuszko, however it was eventually quenched.
Eventually, by 1795, Poland was
Russian Empire
Under Russian administration, the territory of Belarus was divided into the
Although under Nicholas I and Alexander III the national cultures were repressed due to the policies of de-Polonization[12] and Russification,[11] which included the return to Orthodoxy, the 19th century signifies the rise of the modern Belarusian nation and self-confidence. A number of authors started publishing in the Belarusian language, including Jan Czeczot, Władysław Syrokomla and Konstanty Kalinowski. In 1862-1863 Kalinowski published first newspaper in modern Belarusian language, Mużyckaja prauda (Peasants' Truth), in a Latin script.[13]
In a Russification drive in the 1840s, Nicholas I forbade the use of the term Belarusia and renamed the region the "North-Western Territory".[citation needed] He also prohibited the use of Belarusian language in public schools, campaigned against Belarusian publications and tried to pressure those who had converted to Catholicism under the Poles to reconvert to the Orthodox faith. In 1863, economic and cultural pressure exploded into a revolt, led by Kalinowski. After the failed revolt, the Russian government reintroduced the use of Cyrillic to Belarusian in 1864 and banned the use of the Latin alphabet.
In the second half of the 19th century, the
20th century
BNR and LBSSR
On 21 February 1918, Minsk was captured by German troops.
In December 1918, Mitteleuropa was obsolete as the
Republic of Central Lithuania
The
Belarusian Soviet Republic and West Belarus
Some time in 1918 or 1919,
The frontiers between Poland, which had established an independent government after World War I, and the former Russian Empire were not recognized by the
The Polish part of Belarus was subject to
In
Belarus in World War II
When the Soviet Union invaded Poland on September 17, 1939, following the terms of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact's secret protocol, Western Byelorussia, which was part of Poland, is included in the BSSR. Similarly to the times of German occupation during World War I, Belarusian language and Soviet culture enjoyed relative prosperity in this short period. Already in October 1940, over 75% of schools used the Belarusian language, also in the regions where no Belarus people lived, e.g. around Łomża, what was Ruthenization.[21] Western Belarus was sovietised, tens of thousands were imprisoned, deported, murdered. The victims were mostly Polish and Jewish.[22][23]
After twenty months of Soviet rule,
During World War II, the
Since the early days of the occupation, a powerful and increasingly well-coordinated
In total, Belarus lost a quarter of its pre-war population in World War II including practically all its intellectual elite. About 9,200 villages and 1.2 million houses were destroyed. The major towns of
BSSR from 1945 to 1990
After the end of War in 1945, Belarus became one of the founding members of the United Nations Organisation. Joining Belarus was the Soviet Union itself and another republic Ukraine. In exchange for Belarus and Ukraine joining the UN, the United States had the right to seek two more votes, a right that has never been exercised.[27]
More than 200,000 ethnic Poles left or were expelled to Poland in
The Belarusian economy was completely devastated by the events of the war. Most of the industry, including whole production plants were removed either to Russia or Germany. Industrial production of Belarus in 1945 amounted for less than 20% of its pre-war size. Most of the factories evacuated to Russia, with several spectacular exceptions, were not returned to Belarus after 1945. During the immediate postwar period, the Soviet Union first rebuilt and then expanded the BSSR's economy, with control always exerted exclusively from Moscow. During this time, Belarus became a major center of manufacturing in the western region of the USSR. Huge industrial objects like the
On 26 April 1986, the
Republic of Belarus
Independence
On 27 July 1990, Belarus declared its national sovereignty, a key step toward independence from the Soviet Union. Around that time, Stanislav Shushkevich became the chairman of the Supreme Soviet of Belarus, the top leadership position in Belarus.
On 25 August 1991, after the failure of the
Lukashenko era
A new Belarusian constitution enacted in early 1994 paved the way for the first democratic presidential election on 23 June and 10 July. Alexander Lukashenko was elected president of Belarus. Having assumed the rights and responsibilities of the Soviet Union on the territory of Byelarus,[32] in December 1994 Lukashenko signed the Budapest Memorandum along with Russia, the United Kingdom and the United States acting as guarantors and thereby denuclearized the nation.[33][34][35][36]
The 1996 referendum resulted in amendments to the constitution that removed key powers from the parliament.
In 1999 opposition leaders
In 2010, Lukashenko was
Lukashenko's disputed victory in the country's
On 23 May 2021,
Belarus allowed its territory to be used by Putin's army in the
On 25 June 2022 Putin announced that Russia would supply Belarus with nuclear-capable
On 9 July 2022 it was reported that a communiqué had been broadcast by the officers of the fifth brigade of the Special Forces of Belarus. They said they had "observed the most serious infringement of Clause One of the Constitution of Belarus by Russia's highest political leadership. According to this Clause, the Republic of Belarus maintains supremacy and full authority on its own territory. It also enjoys independence over its internal and foreign politics."[44]
See also
- History of the Jews in Belarus
- History of Lithuania
- History of Poland
- History of Russia
- History of Ukraine
- List of people from Belarus
- Polish Autonomous Districts: Dzierzynszczyzna, Marchlewszczyzna
- White Ruthenia
References
- ^ Ioffe & Silitski 2018, p. 137.
- ^ John Channon & Robert Hudson, Penguin Historical Atlas of Russia (Penguin, 1995), p.16.
- ^ Björn Wiemer. "Dialect and language contacts on the territory of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania from the 15th century until 1939". Aspects of Multilingualism in European Language History. Edited by Kurt Braunmüller and Gisell Ferraresi. John Benjamins Publishing. 2003. pp. 110–111.
- ^ (in Russian) Литовско–русское государство (Litovsko–russkoye gosydarstvo) in Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary
- ^ (in Russian) "Братства" (Bratstva) in Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary
- ^ (in Russian) Внутриполитические результаты Люблинской унии (Vnutripolitičeskie rezul'tati Lyublinskoy unii), Belarus.by portal
- ^ (in Russian) Церковная уния 1596 г. (Tserkovnaya uniya 1596 g.) in "belarus.by portal"
- ^ a b (in Polish) Jerzy Czajewski, Zbiegostwo ludności Rosji w granice Rzeczypospolitej (Russian population exodus into the Rzeczpospolita), Promemoria journal, October 2004 nr. (5/15), ISSN 1509-9091, Table of Contents online Archived 12 March 2006 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ (in Russian) Белорусская Советская Социалистическая Республика (Belorusskaya Sovyetskaya Socialističeskaya Respublika), article in "Большая Советская Энциклопедия" (Great Soviet Encyclopedia). Last accessed in December 2005
- ^ S., John. "History of Belarus was formed probably on the basis of the three Slavic tribes". John Learn. Retrieved 8 February 2018.
- ^ a b Żytko, Anatol (1999) Russian policy towards the Belarussian gentry in 1861–1914, Minsk, p. 551.
- ^ (in Russian) Воссоединение униатов и исторические судьбы Белорусского народа (Vossoyedineniye uniatov i istoričeskiye sud'bi Belorusskogo naroda), Pravoslavie portal
- ISSN 0075-4161. Retrieved 1 June 2022.
- ^ (in Russian) История строительства дорог 1850–1900 гг. Archived 4 January 2009 at the Wayback Machine, Byelorussian Railways
- ^ Экономика Белорусии в Эпоху Империализма 1900-1917. Под редакцией Г. Ковалевского и др. Минск 1963, стр.86-88 and 413
- ISBN 0-903983-00-1.
- ^ Żeligowski, Lucjan (1943). Zapomniane prawdy (PDF) (in Polish). F. Mildner & Sons. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.
- ^ a b Janowicz, Sokrat (1999). Forming of the Belarussian nation. RYTM. pp. 247–248.
- ISBN 83-7399-006-2
- ^ (in Polish) Ogonowski, Jerzy (2000) Uprawnienia językowe mniejszości narodowych w Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej 1918–1939 (The Language Rights of National Minorities in the Second Republic of Poland, 1918–1939, Polish with an English summary), Wydawnictwo Sejmowe, Warsaw, pp. 164–165
- ^ Ruchniewicz, Stosunki..., p254
- ^ [1]Jan T. Gross, Revolution from Abroad
- ^ Franziska Exeler, "What Did You Do during the War?" Kritika: Explorations in Russian & Eurasian History (Fall 2016) 17#4 pp 805-835 examines behaviour World War II in Belarus under the Germans, using oral history, letters of complaint, memoirs and secret police and party reports.
- ISBN 83-85660-82-8
- ^ Strużyńska, Anti-Soviet conspiracy..., pp859–860.
- ISBN 0752439383.
- ^ "United Nations". U.S. Department of State. Retrieved 22 September 2014.
Voting procedures and the veto power of permanent members of the Security Council were finalized at the Yalta Conference in 1945 when Roosevelt and Stalin agreed that the veto would not prevent discussions by the Security Council. Roosevelt agreed to General Assembly membership for Ukraine and Byelorussia while reserving the right, which was never exercised, to seek two more votes for the United States.
- ISBN 9789004174481
- ^ Strangers at Home: Memorialisation of the Armia Krajowa in Belarus, Iryna Kashtalian, Imre Kertész Kolleg's Cultures of History Forum
- ^ Последствия аварии на Чернобыльской АЭС. expo2000.bsu.by
- Radio Free Europe, 25 August 2011
- ^ "Protocol To The Treaty Between The United States Of America And The Union Of Soviet Socialist Republics On The Reduction And Limitation Of Strategic Offensive Arms" (PDF). US Department of State. 23 May 1992. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 January 2008.
- ^ "Registration Number - 50069; Title - Memorandum of Security Assurances in connection with Accession of the Republic of Belarus to the Treaty on Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons". treaties.un.org. 3 September 2012.
- ^ "On the Participation of Belarus Delegation in the Session of the Preparatory Committee for the Review Conference within the Treaty on the Non-proliferation of Nuclear Weapons". Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Belarus. 24 April 2013.
In particular, it was pointed out that Belarus considers the NPT as a fundamental legally binding international instrument in the framework of the existing architecture of international security. The Belarusian party is in favor of further strengthening the Treaty and balanced implementation of all its provisions. It was emphasized that the Budapest memorandum of 1994 has a particular importance for our country. This document contains trilateral security assurances provided in connection with the Belarusian accession to the NPT and voluntary refusal of Belarus from the right to possess with nuclear weapons. Budapest Memorandum registered in the UN as an international treaty.
- (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.
- ^ Potter, William C. (April 1995). "The Politics of Nuclear Renunanciation: The Cases of Belarus, Kazakhstan and Ukraine" (PDF). Occasional Papers (22). The Henry L. Stimson Center. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.
- ^ "'Hundreds of protesters arrested' in Belarus". BBC. 20 December 2010.
- ^ "Belarus President Alexander Lukashenko under fire". BBC News. 11 September 2020.
- ^ "UN human rights experts: Belarus must stop torturing protesters and prevent enforced disappearances". Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. 1 September 2020. Retrieved 1 September 2020.
- ^ "El Pais interview with HR/VP Borrell: "Lukashenko is like Maduro. We do not recognize him but we must deal with him"". eeas.europa.eu. 24 August 2020.
- ^ Dave Lawler, U.S. no longer recognizes Lukashenko as legitimate president of Belarus, Axios (24 September 2020).
- ^ "Belarus opposition says government forced Ryanair plane to land to arrest journalist". Deutsche Welle. 23 May 2021. Archived from the original on 23 May 2021. Retrieved 23 May 2021.
- ^ Whitmore, Brian (30 June 2021). "Belarus dictator weaponizes illegal migrants against EU". Atlantic Council. Archived from the original on 5 August 2021. Retrieved 5 August 2021.
- ^ a b "Putin Ally Lukashenko Faces Revolt From Officers Against Ukraine War". Newsweek Digital LLC. 10 July 2022.
- ^ "Belarus to Receive Russian Iskander Hypersonic Ballistic Missile Systems Within Months - Putin". www.militarywatchmagazine.com. 26 June 2022.
- ^ "Putin Says Russia To Supply Belarus With Iskander-M Missile Systems". Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. 25 June 2022.
- ^ a b "Russia promises Belarus Iskander-M nuclear-capable missiles". Deutsche Welle. 25 June 2022.
- ^ "Russia promises Belarus Iskander-M nuclear-capable missiles". BBC. 26 June 2022.
- ^ "Putin promises Belarus nuclear-capable missiles to counter 'aggressive' West". Reuters. 25 June 2022.
Bibliography
- Ioffe, Grigory; Silitski, Vitali (15 August 2018). Historical Dictionary of Belarus. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-1-5381-1706-4.
Further reading
- Baranova, Olga. "Nationalism, anti-Bolshevism or the will to survive? Collaboration in Belarus under the Nazi occupation of 1941–1944." European Review of History—Revue européenne d'histoire 15.2 (2008): 113–128.
- Bekus, Nelly. Struggle over Identity: The Official and the Alternative “Belarussianness” (Budapest: Central European University Press, 2010);
- Bemporad, Elissa. Becoming Soviet Jews: The Bolshevik Experiment in Minsk (Indiana UP, 2013).
- Bennett, Brian M. The last dictatorship in Europe: Belarus under Lukashenko (Columbia University Press, 2011)
- Defense Technical Information Center. Democratization and Instability in Ukraine, Georgia, and Belarus (2014) online
- Defense Technical Information Center. The Role of Small States in the Post-Cold War Era: The Case of Belarus (2012) online
- Fedor, Helen, Belarus and Moldova: country studies (Library of Congress. Federal Research Division, 1995) online, with brief history pp 18–25.
- Epstein, Barbara. The Minsk Ghetto 1941–1943: Jewish Resistance and Soviet Internationalism (U of California Press, 2008).
- Guthier, Steven L. "The Belorussians: National identification and assimilation, 1897–1970: Part 1, 1897–1939." Soviet Studies 29.1 (1977): 37–61.
- Horak, Stephan M. "Belorussia: Modernization, Human Rights, Nationalism." Canadian Slavonic Papers 16.3 (1974): 403–423.
- Korosteleva, Elena; Petrova, Irina; Kudlenko, Anastasiia (2023). Belarus in the Twenty-First Century: Between Dictatorship and Democracy. Routledge. ISBN 9781032318059.
- Korosteleva, Elena; Lawson, Colin; Marsh, Rosalind (2003). Contemporary Belarus Between Democracy and Dictatorship. Routledge. ISBN 9780203220399.
- Loftus, John J., 'The Belarus Secret'(Knopf, 1982)
- Lubachko, Ivan (1972). Belorussia under Soviet Rule, 1917–1957. University Press of Kentucky.
- Marples, David R. "Western Ukraine and Western Belorussia Under Soviet Occupation: The Development of Socialist Farming, 1939–1941." Canadian Slavonic Papers' 27.2 (1985): 158–177. online
- Marples, David. 'Our Glorious Past': Lukashenka's Belarus and the Great Patriotic War (Columbia University Press, 2014)
- Minahan, James (1998). Miniature Empires: A Historical Dictionary of the Newly Independent States. Greenwood. ISBN 0-313-30610-9.
- Olson, James Stuart; Pappas, Lee Brigance; Pappas, Nicholas C. J. (1994). Ethnohistorical Dictionary of the Russian and Soviet Empires. Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-27497-5.
- Plokhy, Serhii (2001). The Cossacks and Religion in Early Modern Ukraine. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-924739-0.
- Rudling, Pers Anders. The Rise and Fall of Belarusian Nationalism, 1906–1931 (University of Pittsburgh Press; 2014) 436 pages
- Ryder, Andrew (1998). Eastern Europe and the Commonwealth of Independent States, Volume 4. Routledge. ISBN 1-85743-058-1.
- Silitski, Vitali and Jan Zaprudnik (2010). The A to Z of Belarus. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 9781461731740.
- Skinner, Barbara. (2012) The Western Front of the Eastern Church: Uniate and Orthodox Conflict in Eighteenth-Century Poland, Ukraine, Belarus, and Russia
- Smilovitsky, Leonid. "Righteous Gentiles, the Partisans, and Jewish Survival in Belorussia, 1941–1944." Holocaust and Genocide Studies 11.3 (1997): 301-329.
- Snyder, Timothy. (2004) The Reconstruction of Nations: Poland, Ukraine, Lithuania, Belarus, 1569–1999 excerpt and text search
- Strategic Studies Institute. Political Trends in the New Eastern Europe – Ukraine and Belarus (2007) online
- Strużyńska, Nina. Anti-Soviet conspiracy and partisan struggle of the Green Oak Party in Belarus, in Non Provincial Europe, London 1999, ISBN 83-86759-92-5
- Szporluk, Roman (2000). Russia, Ukraine, and the Breakup of the Soviet Union. Hoover Institution Press. ISBN 0-8179-9542-0.
- Szporluk, Roman. "West Ukraine and West Belorussia: Historical tradition, social communication, and linguistic assimilation." Soviet Studies 31.1 (1979): 76-98. online
- Szporluk, Roman. "The press in Belorussia, 1955–65." Europe‐Asia Studies 18.4 (1967): 482–493.
- Treadgold, Donald; Ellison, Herbert J. (1999). Twentieth Century Russia. Westview Press. ISBN 0-8133-3672-4.
- Urban, Michael E. An Algebra of Soviet Power: Elite Circulation in the Belorussian Republic 1966–86 (Cambridge UP, 1989).
- Vakar, Nicholas Platonovich. Belorussia: the making of a nation: a case study (Harvard UP, 1956).
- Vakar, Nicholas Platonovich. A bibliographical guide to Belorussia (Harvard UP, 1956).
- Vauchez, André; Dobson, Richard Barrie; Lapidge, Michael (2001). Encyclopedia of the Middle Ages. Routledge. ISBN 1-57958-282-6.
- Wexler, Paul. "Belorussification, Russification and Polonization Trends in the Belorussian Language 1890–1982." in Kreindler, ed., Sociolinguistic Perspectives (1985): 37–56.
- White, Stephen; Korosteleva, Elena; Löwenhardt, John (2005). Post-Communist Belarus. Rowman and Littlefield. ISBN 9780742535558.
- Zaprudnik, Jan. Historical dictionary of Belarus (Scarecrow Pr, 1998)
- Zaprudnik. Jan. Belarus: At A Crossroads In History (Westview Press, 1993) online free to borrow}
In Polish
- (in Polish) ISBN 83-85854-16-9
- (in Polish) ISBN 83-7322-672-9
- (in Polish) ISBN 83-7322-861-6
External links
- Belarus National Republic — the Belarusian Government in exile
- Stary Hetman — forums and library (in Belarusian and Russian) on Belarusian history
- Belarus, by CIA World Factbook, 2000
- Belarus, by United States Department of State
- Belarusian diaspora
- History of Grand Duchy of Lithuania
- Miensk Voivodeship Officials of 16th-18th centuries
- Belarus 1994 Presidential Election
- Belarus history on the Official Website of the Republic of Belarus
- Belarusian Historical Review. Independent Academic Journal dedicated to history of Belarus (Belarusian and English versions)
- History of Belarus in five minutes. YouTube