History of Bolivia to 1809
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Although native resistance continued for some years, Spanish conquerors pushed forward, founding cities of
In the early 18th century, the mining industry entered a prolonged period of decline, as evidenced by the eclipsing of Potosí by La Paz. After 1700, only small amounts of
Conquest and colonial rule, 1532-1809
Conquest and settlement
Francisco Pizarro, Diego de Almagro, and Hernando de Luque led the Spanish discovery and conquest of the Inca Empire. They first sailed south in 1524 along the Pacific coast from Panama to confirm the legendary existence of a land of gold called Biru.[2]
Because the rapidly expanding Inca Empire was internally weak, the conquest was remarkably easy. After the Inca
Despite Pizarro's quick victory, Indian rebellions soon began and continued periodically throughout the colonial period. In 1537
During the first two decades of Spanish rule, the settlement of the Bolivian highlands — now known as
Indian resistance delayed the conquest and settlement of the Bolivian lowlands. The Spanish established
The economy of colonial Upper Peru
Spain immediately recognized the enormous economic potential of Upper Peru. The highlands were rich in minerals, and Potosí had the Western world's largest concentration of silver. The area was heavily populated and could supply workers for the silver mines. In addition, Upper Peru could provide food for the miners on the Altiplano.[3]
Silver mining
Despite these conditions, silver production fluctuated dramatically during the colonial period. After an initial fifteen-year surge in production, output began to fall in 1560 as a result of a severe labor shortage caused by the Indian population's
The second problem, the exhaustion of the high-content surface
The end of the 17th boom was followed by a major decline in the mining industry. The exhaustion of the first rich veins required deeper and more expensive shafts. The rapid decrease of the Indian population as a result of disease and exploitation by the mita also contributed to the reduction in silver output. After 1700 only small amounts of bullion from Upper Peru were shipped to Spain.[3]
Kings from the
Agriculture
Farming at first took place on colonial
In the second half of the sixteenth century, agricultural production shifted from encomiendas to large estates, on which Indians worked in exchange for the use of land.
In addition to mining and agricultural production, Indian tribute (alcabala) became an increasingly important source of income for the crown despite Indian migration to avoid payment. An early effort to collect tribute from Indians by moving them into villages or indigenous communities (comunidades indígenas) was unsuccessful because of resistance from both encomenderos and Indians. But by the late 18th century, an increase in the Indian population, the extension of tribute payments to all Indian males (including those who owned land), and a relative decline in income from the mines combined to make alcabala the second largest source of income in Upper Peru. Tribute payments also increased because Spanish absolutism made no concessions to human misfortune, such as natural disasters. The Indian tribute was increased by 1 million Spanish dollars annually.[3]
Colonial state, church, and society
Administration
The longevity of Spain's empire in South America can be explained partly by the successful administration of the colonies. At first it was primarily interested in controlling the independent-minded conquistadors, but the main goal soon became maintaining the flow of revenue to the crown and collecting the tribute of goods and labor from the Indian population. To this end, Spain soon created an elaborate bureaucracy in the New World in which various institutions served as watchdogs over each other and local officials had considerable autonomy.[4]
Upper Peru, at first a part of the
The wealth of Upper Peru and its remoteness from
Spain exercised its control of smaller administrative units in the colonies through royal officials, such as the corregidor, who represented the king in the municipal governments that were elected by their citizens. By the early 17th century there were four corregidores in Upper Peru.[4]
In the late 18th century Spain undertook an administrative reform to increase revenues of the crown and to eliminate a number of abuses. It created an
The Spanish crown at first controlled the local governments indirectly, but centralized procedures as the time went on. At first, Viceroy Francisco de Toledo confirmed the rights of local nobles and guaranteed them local autonomy. But the crown eventually came to employ Spanish officials, corregidores de indios, to collect tribute and taxes from the Indians. Corregidores de indios also imported goods and forced the Indians to buy them, a widely abused practice that proved to be an enormous source of wealth for these officials but caused much resentment among the Indian population.[4]
Religion
With the first Spanish settlers of Upper Peru came the secular and regular clergy to begin the
Although the official
Situation of the Native peoples
The conquest and colonial rule were traumatic experiences for the Indians. Easily susceptible to European diseases, the native population decreased rapidly. The situation of the Indians worsened in the 18th century, when Spain demanded higher tribute payments and increased mita obligations in an attempt to increase the mining output.[4]
These profound economic and social changes, and the breakup of native culture contributed to the increasing
Indian reaction to colonial rule and conversion to Christianity varied. Many Indians adapted to Spanish ways by breaking with their traditions and actively attempting to enter the market economy. They also used the courts to protect their interests, especially against new tribute assessments. Others clung to their customs as much as possible, and some rebelled against the white rulers.
Native rebellions
Local, mostly uncoordinated, rebellions occurred throughout colonial rule. More than 100 revolts occurred in the 18th century alone in Bolivia and Peru.
Increasing Indian discontent with colonial rule sparked the
Growing Criollo dissent
In the late 18th century, a growing discontent with the Spanish rule developed among the
The Enlightenment, with its emphasis on reason, questioning of authority and tradition, and individualistic tendencies, also contributed to criollo discontent. The Inquisition had not kept the writings of Niccolò Machiavelli, Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Paine, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, John Locke, and others out of Spanish America; their ideas were often discussed by criollos, especially those educated at the university in Chuquisaca. At first the criollos of Upper Peru were influenced by the French Revolution, but they eventually rejected it as too violent. Although Upper Peru was fundamentally loyal to Spain, the ideas of the Enlightenment and independence from Spain continued to be discussed by scattered groups of radicals.[4]
References
Notes
- ^ a b Country Profile: Bolivia (PDF). Library of Congress Federal Research Division (January 2006). This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
- ^ a b c d e Maria Luise Wagner. "Conquest and settlement". In Hudson & Hanratty.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Maria Luise Wagner. "The economy of Upper Peru". In Hudson & Hanratty.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Maria Luise Wagner. "State, church, and society". In Hudson & Hanratty.
Works cited
- Rex A. Hudson and Dennis M. Hanratty. Bolivia: a country study. Library of Congress Federal Research Division (December 1989). This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.