History of Burundi
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Burundi originated in the 16th century as a small kingdom in the African Great Lakes region. After European contact, it was united with the Kingdom of Rwanda, becoming the colony of Ruanda-Urundi - first colonised by Germany and then by Belgium. The colony gained independence in 1962, and split once again into Rwanda and Burundi. It is one of the few countries in Africa (along with Rwanda, Botswana, Lesotho, and Eswatini) to be a direct territorial continuation of a pre-colonial era African state.
Kingdom of Burundi (1680–1966)
The origins of Burundi are known from a mix of
The first evidence of the Burundian state is from 16th century where it emerged on the eastern foothills. Over the following centuries it expanded, annexing smaller neighbours and competing with Rwanda. Its greatest growth occurred under
The Kingdom of Burundi was characterized by a hierarchical political authority and tributary economic exchange.
European contact (1856)
European explorers and missionaries made brief visits to the area as early as 1856,
German East Africa (1899–1916)
The Germans used armed force and succeeded in doing great damage, but did not destroy the king's power. Eventually they backed one of the king's sons-in-law Maconco in a revolt against Gisabo. Gisabo was eventually forced to concede and agreed to German suzerainty. The Germans then helped him suppress Maconco's revolt. The smaller kingdoms along the western shore of Lake Victoria were also attached to Burundi.
Even after this the foreign presence was minimal and the kings continued to rule much as before. The Europeans did, however, bring devastating diseases affecting both people and animals. Affecting the entire region, Burundi was especially hard hit. A great famine hit in 1905, with others striking the entire
Belgian and United Nations governance (1916–1962)
In 1916
Following the
On 20 January 1959, Burundi's ruler
Burundi's first
Ethnic group | 1929 | 1933 | 1937 | 1945 | 1967 | 1987 | 1993 | 1997 | 2000a | 2000b | End-2001 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Tutsi | 22 | 15 | 18 | 28 | 71 | 72% | 32% | 38% | 89% | 100% | 47% |
Hutu | 20 | 6 | 2 | 0 | 18 | 28% | 68% | 62% | 11% | 0% | 53% |
Independence (1962)
Full independence was achieved on July 1, 1962.
These were in part in reaction to Rwanda's "Social Revolution" of 1959–1961, where Rwandan Tutsi were subject to mass murder by the new government of Hutu Grégoire Kayibanda. In Burundi the Tutsi became committed to ensuring they would not meet the same fate and much of the country's military and police forces became controlled by Tutsis. Unlike Rwanda, which allied itself with the United States in the Cold War, Burundi after independence became affiliated with China.[citation needed]
The monarchy refused to recognize gains by Hutu candidates in the first legislative elections held by Burundi as an independent country on 10 May 1965. In response, a group of Hutu carried out a
In June 1971, a group of Banyaruguru, the socially "higher up" subgroup of Tutsi located in the north of the country, were accused of conspiracy by the ruling Hima clique. On 14 January 1972, a military tribunal sentenced four Banyaruguru officers and five civilians to death, and seven to life imprisonment. To the Hima concerns about a Hutu uprising or Banyaruguru-led coup was added the return of Ntare V from exile, a potential rallying point for the Hutu majority.[13]
1972 genocide
On April 29, there was an outbreak of violence in the south of the country, also the base of the Hima, where bands of roving Hutu committed atrocities against Tutsi civilians. All civilian and military authorities in the city of
A week after the insurgent proclamation of a republic, government troops moved in. Meanwhile, President Micombero declared martial law on May 30 and asked Zairean President Mobutu Sese Seko for assistance. Congolese paratroopers were deployed to secure the airport while the Burundi army moved into the countryside. Africanist René Lemarchand notes, "What followed was not so much a repression as a hideous slaughter of Hutu civilians. The carnage went on unabated through the month of August. By then virtually every educated Hutu element, down to secondary school students, was either dead or in flight."[14]
Because the perpetrators, composed of government troops and the Jeunesses Révolutionnaires Rwagasore (JRR), the youth wing of the Union for National Progress ruling party, targeted primarily civil servants, educated males and university students, solely because of their "Hutuness" and irrespective of whether they posed a threat, Lemarchand terms the eradication a "partial genocide."[16] One of the first to be killed was deposed monarch Ntare V, in Gitega.[17]
As president, Micombero became an advocate of
From late April to September 1972, an estimated 200,000 to 300,000 Hutu were killed.
Post-1972 genocide developments
In 1976, Colonel Jean-Baptiste Bagaza took power in a bloodless coup.[3] Although Bagaza led a Tutsi-dominated military regime, he encouraged land reform, electoral reform, and national reconciliation. In 1981, a new constitution was promulgated.[3] In 1984, Bagaza was elected head of state, as the sole candidate.[3] After his election, Bagaza's human rights record deteriorated as he suppressed religious activities and detained political opposition members.[3]
In 1987, Major Pierre Buyoya overthrew Col. Bagaza in a military coup d'état.[3] He dissolved opposition parties, suspended the 1981 constitution, and instituted his ruling Military Committee for National Salvation (CSMN).[3] During 1988, increasing tensions between the ruling Tutsis and the majority Hutus resulted in violent confrontations between the army, the Hutu opposition, and Tutsi hardliners.[3] During this period, an estimated 150,000 people were killed, with tens of thousands of refugees fleeing to neighboring countries.[3][23] Buyoya formed a commission to investigate the causes of the 1988 unrest and to develop a charter for democratic reform.[3]
In 1991, Buyoya approved a constitution that provided for a president, non-ethnic government, and a parliament.
1993 genocide and civil war (1993–2005)
Ndadaye was assassinated three months later, in October 1993, by Tutsi army extremists. The country's situation rapidly declined as Hutu peasants began to rise up and massacre Tutsi. In acts of brutal retribution, the Tutsi army proceeded to round up thousands of Hutu and kill them. The
A decade of civil war followed, as the Hutu formed militias in the refugee camps of northern Tanzania. An estimated 300,000 people were killed in clashes and reprisals against the local population, with 550,000 citizens (nine percent of the population) being displaced.[24] After the assassination of Ntaryamira, the Hutu presidency and Tutsi military operated under a power-sharing political system until July 1996, when Tutsi Pierre Buyoya seized power in a military coup. Under international pressure, the warring factions negotiated a peace agreement in Arusha in 2000, which called for ethnically balanced military and government and democratic elections.
The country has been hit hard by HIV/AIDS during this period. Sample testing by SOS Children had shown that those who were HIV positive were 20 percent of the urban population and 6% of the rural population.[25] The death toll due to the syndrome has been devastating: the UN estimated 12,000 deaths in 2001[26] and Oxfam estimated 40,000 deaths in 2001.[27]
Two powerful Hutu rebel groups (the CNDD-FDD and the FNL) refused to sign the peace agreement and fighting continued in the countryside. Finally, the CNDD-FDD agreed to sign a peace deal in November 2003 and joined the transitional government. The last remaining rebel group, the FNL, continued to reject the peace process and committed sporadic acts of violence in 2003 and 2004, finally signing a cease fire agreement in 2006.
Post-war (2005–present)
Post-war elections
In 2005, Burundi began the transition towards peace with its
Nkurunziza era (2005–2020)
Peacetime ushered in an era in which the ruling CNDD-FDD party dominated the political space in Burundi. President Pierre Nkurunziza, and a small clique of military generals from the party, tightly controlled the country.[31]
In 2005, Pierre Nkurunziza, became the first post-transitional president. He was elected by the National Assembly and Senate through the means of indirect presidential elections.
Former President Domitien Ndayizeye and his political supporters were arrested in 2006 and accused of plotting a coup, but later he was acquitted by the Supreme Court. International human rights groups claimed that the current government was framing Domitien Ndayizeye by torturing him into false confessions of a coup plot.[32] In December 2006 the International Crisis Group labeled Burundi's human rights status as "deteriorating". The organization reported that the government had arrested critics, muzzled the press, committed human rights abuses, and tightened its control over the economy, and that "unless it [reversed] this authoritarian course, it risk[ed] triggering violent unrest and losing the gains of peace process."[33]
In February 2007, the United Nations officially shut down its peacekeeping operations in Burundi and turned its attention to rebuilding the nation's economy, which relies heavily on tea and coffee, but which had suffered severely during 12 years of civil war. The UN had deployed 5,600 peacekeepers since 2004, and several hundred troops remained to work with the African Union in monitoring the ceasefire.[34] The UN Post Conflict Fund (PBF) pledged $35 million to Burundi to work on infrastructure, to promote democratic practices, to rebuild the military, and to defend human rights.[35]
2010 elections
Nkurunziza was
2015 unrest
In April 2015, Nkurunziza announced that he would seek a third term in office. The opposition said that Nkurunziza's bid to extend his term was in defiance of the constitution, as it bars the president from running for a third term. However, Nkurunziza's allies said his first term did not count as he was appointed by parliament and not directly by the people. On April 26
On May 13, 2015,
Opposition groups announced on 26 June that they would boycott the election.[41][42]
Speaking to a Kenyan television station on 6 July, one of the coup leaders, General Leonard Ngendakumana, called for armed rebellion against Nkurunziza. He said that his group was responsible for the grenade attacks and said that "our intent is to intensify".[43] Fighting was reported in northern Burundi on 10–11 July.[44] The military said on 13 July that 31 rebels had been killed and 170 had been captured in those battles; it said that six of its own soldiers had also been wounded. The Burundian government stated that the rebels had crossed into northern Burundi through the Nyungwe Forest from Rwanda but the Rwandan government denied this.[45] Ngendakumana said that the rebels were from his group.[44]
Shortly after
The presidential election results were announced on 24 July 2015. Nkurunziza won the election with 69.41% of the vote. Agathon Rwasa was placed second and credited with 18.99% despite calling for a boycott.[47] This change of power led to an opening of social science research in the country, and later a reconsideration of the value and purpose of that research within the context of the larger political and societal violence.[48]
On 30 September 2016, the
Post-2015
In a constitutional referendum in May 2018, Burundians voted by 79.08% to approve an amended constitution that ensured that Nkurunziza could remain in power until 2034.[51][52] However, much to the surprise of most observers, Nkurunziza later announced that he did not intend to serve another term, paving the way for a new president to be elected in the 2020 General Election.[53]
On 24 December 2018, the government moved Burundi's political capital from Bujumbura back to Gitega, where it had been until 1966.
The threat of the COVID-19 pandemic was played down officially by the regime. The Presidency issued a statement which warned its population against "hasty, extreme, unilateral measures" against the virus.[54] Human Rights Watch reported that some nurses had been told "not to talk about suspected cases, symptom patterns, or insufficient resources".[55]
Post-Nkurunziza (2020–present)
On 20 May 2020, Évariste Ndayishimiye, a candidate who was hand-picked as Nkurunziza's successor by the CNDD-FDD, won the election with 71.45% of the vote.[56] Shortly after, on 9 June 2020, Nkurunziza died of a cardiac arrest, at the age of 55.[53] There was some speculation that his death was COVID-19 related, though this is unconfirmed.[57] As per the constitution, Pascal Nyabenda, the president of the national assembly, led the government until Ndayishimiye's inauguration on 18 June 2020.[53][56]
Initially, Ndayishimiye adopted a stronger response to the COVID-19 pandemic than his predecessor - calling the virus the nation's "worst enemy" shortly after taking office.[58] In January 2021, he closed national borders, having previously issued a statement which said that anyone bringing Covid into Burundi would be treated as "people bringing weapons to kill Burundians".[58] In February 2021, however, Burundi joined Tanzania in being the only African nations to reject vaccines from the COVAX scheme: the health minister Thaddee Ndikumana stated that “since more than 95% of patients are recovering, we estimate that the vaccines are not yet necessary.” [59] As of June 2021, Burundi has still not made any effort to procure vaccines - one of three countries to fail to take this step.[60]
See also
- Burundi Civil War
- Colonial Heads of Burundi
- Heads of government of Burundi
- List of kings of Burundi
- List of presidents of Burundi
- Livingstone-Stanley Monument, Burundi
- Politics of Burundi
- Bujumbura history and timeline
General:
References
- Jean-Pierre Chrétien. The Great Lakes of Africa: Two Thousand Years of History trans Scott Straus
- ISBN 978-0-8122-4120-4.
- Ngaruko, Floribert; Nkurunziza, Janvier D. (2005). "Civil War and Its Duration in Burundi". In ISBN 978-0-8213-6047-7.
- Pierre Englebert. State Legitimacy and Development in Africa
Footnotes
- OCLC 1091235649.
- ^ "Burundi - Ethnic Conflict, Hutu-Tutsi, Colonization | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2023-10-17.
- ^ U.S. State Department. August 2000. Archived from the original on June 6, 2002..
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link) This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain - ^ "Tanganyika | historical state, Tanzania | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2023-01-24.
- ^ ISBN 0-915984-20-2.
- ^ "Burundi - History | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2023-01-24.
- ^ afrika focus — Volume 28, Nr. 2, 2015 — pp. 156 -164, The murder of Burundi’s prime minister, Louis Rwagasore, Guy Poppe, http://www.afrikafocus.eu/file/96
- ^ "Ethnicity and Burundi’s Refugees" Archived 2009-01-05 at the Wayback Machine, African Studies Quarterly: The online journal for African Studies. Retrieved 12 July 2008.
- ^ "East Africa Living Encyclopedia".
- ^ a b afrika focus — Volume 28, Nr. 2, 2015 — pp. 156 -164, The murder of Burundi’s prime minister, Louis Rwagasore, Guy Poppe, http://www.afrikafocus.eu/file/96
- ^ Numbers from 1929-1967 are actual number of leadership positions held; subsequent numbers are percentages of the total. Ngaruko & Nkurunziza, 41
- ^ a b Lemarchand, 134
- ^ a b Lemarchand, 137
- ^ a b Lemarchand, 136
- ^ Lemarchand, (2008). Section "B – Decision-Makers, Organizers and Actors" cites (Chrétien Jean-Pierre and Dupaquier, Jean-Francois, 2007, Burundi 1972: Au bord des génocides, Paris: L'Harmattan. p. 106)
- ^ Lemarchand, 132 & 134
- ^ Lemarchand, 137-138
- ^ Lemarchand, 129
- ^ "Refugees and Internally Displaced in Burundi: The Urgent Need for a Consensus on Their Repatriation and Reintegration" (PDF) (in French). International Crisis Group. 2 December 2003. p. 2. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 17, 2009. Retrieved 2009-06-30.
La première s'est produite en 1972 suite au génocide perpétré par l'armée contre l'élite hutu, entraînant la fuite de quelque 300 000 personnes, réfugiées principalement en Tanzanie.
- OCLC 1138680744.
- ^ Lemarchand, 138
- ^ See also René Lemarchand (2008-07-27). "Case Study: The Burundi Killings of 1972". Online Encyclopedia of Mass Violence. Retrieved 2009-06-30.
- ^ Minorities at Risk Project, Chronology for Hutus in Burundi, 2004, available at: https://www.refworld.org/docid/469f38731e.html [accessed 16 June 2021]
- ^ "Burundi Civil War". GlobalSecurity.org. Retrieved 2009-06-30.
- ^ "Burundi; war, poverty and misfortune", SOS Children's Villages
- ^ "Burundi". www.unaids.org. Retrieved 2021-08-11.
- ^ "A Situation Analysis On The Hiv/Aids Epidemic In Burundi and Oxfam International's Potential Role In The National Response To The Epidemic" (PDF). Oxfam International. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09.
- ^ "Indirect Legislative Elections in Sub-Saharan Africa". africanelections.tripod.com. Retrieved 2021-01-18.
- ^ "Burundi's born-again ex-rebel leader". 2005-08-26. Retrieved 2021-01-18.
- ^ "Recent Elections Archive: 2005". africanelections.tripod.com. Retrieved 2021-01-18.
- ^ "Burundi | Crisis24". crisis24.garda.com. Retrieved 2021-01-18.
- ^ "Former president's arrest seen as part of pattern of abuse". The New Humanitarian. 2006-08-25. Retrieved 2021-01-22.
- ^ "Burundi: Democracy and Peace at Risk". International Crisis Group. 2006-11-30. Archived from the original on April 18, 2009. Retrieved 2009-06-29.
- ^ "United Nations Security Council Resolution 1719 (2006)". www.un.org. Retrieved 2021-01-22.
- ^ "INDEPENDENT EXTERNAL EVALUATION PEACEBUILDING FUND PROJECTS IN BURUNDI - Burundi". ReliefWeb. 31 March 2010. Retrieved 2021-01-22.
- ^ "AFP: Burundi's president Pierre Nkurunziza re-elected". Agence France-Presse. 1 July 2010. Retrieved 4 July 2010.
- ^ "Re-elected Burundian president takes oath as African leaders present", Xinhua, 26 August 2010.
- ^ What explains Burundi’s protests?
- ^ Burundi anti-President Nkurunziza protests in Bujumbura
- ^ Melvin, Don (May 13, 2015). "Amid fears of ethnic violence, coup attempt reported in Burundi". CNN. Retrieved 13 May 2015.
- ^ Manirabarusha, Clement (26 June 2015). "Burundi crisis escalates as opposition boycotts elections". Reuters.
- ^ "Burundi Crisis Escalates as Opposition Boycotts Elections". NDTV.com. 26 June 2015.
- ^ Fumbuka Ng'wanakilala, "Burundi coup general says force only way to oust president", Reuters, 6 July 2015.
- ^ a b Clement Manirabarusha, "Gunmen captured, killed by Burundi army in clashes in north: governor", Reuters, 12 July 2015.
- ^ Gerard Nzohabona, "Burundi military: 31 suspected rebels killed in fighting", Associated Press, 13 July 2015.
- ^ Clement Manirabarusha and Edmund Blair, "Burundi opposition leader calls for unity government to avert conflict", Reuters, 22 July 2015.
- ^ "Nkurunziza wins third term as Burundi president: electoral commission", Reuters, 24 July 2015.
- JSTOR 45217069.
- ^ "OHCHR - Commission of Inquiry on Human Rights in Burundi". www.ohchr.org. Archived from the original on 11 October 2017. Retrieved 10 October 2017.
- ^ a b "OHCHR - Commission calls on Burundian government to put an end to serious human rights violations". www.ohchr.org. Archived from the original on 11 October 2017. Retrieved 10 October 2017.
- ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2021-01-08.
- ^ "Amendments to constitution of Burundi approved: electoral commission - Xinhua | English.news.cn". www.xinhuanet.com. Archived from the original on May 22, 2018. Retrieved 2021-01-08.
- ^ ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2021-01-08.
- ^ Burundi, Republique de la (25 February 2020). "COMMUNIQUE DU GOUVERNEMENT DE LA REPUBLIQUE DU BURUNDI DANS LE CADRE DE LA LUTTE CONTRE LE CORONA VIRUS" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09. Retrieved 8 March 2021.
- ^ "Health Workers: Heroes, Yes, But They Need Our Support". Human Rights Watch. 2021-03-04. Retrieved 2021-03-08.
- ^ a b "Who is Burundi's new president, Evariste Ndayishimiye?". www.aljazeera.com. Retrieved 2021-01-08.
- ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2021-03-08.
- ^ a b "Burundi closes borders again as COVID-19 cases on the rise". ABC News. Retrieved 2021-03-08.
- ^ "Tanzania, Burundi not to get COVID-19 vaccine doses". www.aa.com.tr. Retrieved 2021-03-08.
- ^ "Three Vaccine Holdouts Imperil the World". www.bloomberg.com. Retrieved 2021-06-14.