History of Reformed Christianity

Reformed Christianity originated with the Reformation in Switzerland when Huldrych Zwingli began preaching what would become the first form of the Reformed doctrine in Zürich in 1519.

Zwingli and

Reformed faith spread throughout Europe in the 16th century, with different character in different places. Calvinism was the dominant form of Protestantism in France. After a period of struggle, Calvinists were officially tolerated there. Under the leadership of John Knox, the Church of Scotland, which is Reformed, became the established church in Scotland. In the Netherlands, Calvinism also became the official established religion following a period of persecution. During the Reformation, Calvinism was the primary Protestant faith in Belgium but was eradicated in favor of the Counter-Reformation. Germany remained predominantly Lutheran during the 16th century, but Reformed worship was promoted intermittently by rulers in Electoral Palatinate, Margraviate of Brandenburg, and other German states. Reformed ideas also influenced Protestants in Eastern Europe, especially Hungary and Romania. The reform of the Church of England was also influenced by Reformed theologians, and remained so throughout the 16th century.

Origins (1519–1531)

Throughout the 1520s, Zwingli's influence grew in Switzerland,[8] though many Swiss, especially in rural and forest areas, remained loyal to the Catholic church and opposed Zwingli's reforms.^[9] Before 1530, some southern German cities supported Zwingli, and some German Lutheran theologians in other areas of Germany developed sacramentarian views independently of Zwingli, but they were quickly silenced by Lutheran theologians in Wittenberg.^[10] In early 1531, Phillip of Hesse formed the Schmalkaldic League, solidifying the Lutherans' hold on Germany to the exclusion of Zwinglianism.^[11] Meanwhile, Zwingli began to use force aggressively to solidify Protestant gains in Switzerland. Following success against Catholics in the First War of Kappel of 1529, Zurich enforced a harsh blockade on Catholic cantons, leading to the Second War of Kappel in 1531. The Zurichers were defeated, and Zwingli was killed in the battle. Catholics continued to hold power in a majority of Swiss cantons, though three-fifths of the population was Protestant.^[12]

Second generation (1531–1555)

While Reformed ideas and churches found ever-widening distribution during this period, reaching as far as England and Poland, Lutheranism also increased its dominance in the Holy Roman Empire.^[19] The Augsburg Interim of 1548, a settlement between Holy Roman emperor Charles V and Protestants resulting from the Schmalkaldic War, made some concessions to Protestants but forced those who wished to practice their religion legally to adopt practices which the Reformed found repugnant.^[20] Some isolated Reformed churches were able to hold on in Germany including a church in Emden led by Polish reformer Jan Łaski which became an important center for Protestant refugees from the Low Countries. ^[21] London and a few other cities in England; Wesel, Aachen, and Frankfurt, Germany; and Geneva, Switzerland were also important cities for Reformed refugees from the Low Countries, northern France, and other areas of the Holy Roman Empire where they were not tolerated. "Stranger churches" were established in these cities for refugee Protestants.^[22]

The Reformed movement was complex and variegated during this period, but the French reformer of Geneva John Calvin was arguably the most influential Reformed theologian of his time and his impact was long-lasting. His

Spread (1555–1600)

Tate Museum

, London

The Reformed faith took different shapes in different parts of Europe. In France, groups of Christians influenced by Protestant writers (who became known as

Reformed Church in France remained relatively independent of the state.^[29]

bishops were retained within a presbyterial system.^[32] Despite the success of the Reformed in Scotland many people retained Catholic practices such as holy days and pilgrimages and the majority of parishes did not have qualified Reformed ministers by the end of the century.^[33]

Rijksmuseum Amsterdam

The Netherlands was affected by Reformation ideas early on due to linguistic and commercial ties with Germany.

Sea Beggars because they were dissatisfied with the overbearing rule of the Spanish "iron duke" of Alva, and Reformed worship was reinstated either immediately or gradually.^[38] The Dutch Reformed Church became the legally privileged religion in most of the region, though Catholicism and other Protestant sects were tolerated and a minority of the population became full members of the Reformed church.^[39]

There was frequent interchange between Swiss and German Protestants early in the Reformation, and Bucer's Strasbourg had some Reformed characteristics, but Germany remained firmly Lutheran and anti-Calvinist through 1560.[40]

Following the death of Lutheran Wittenberg reformer

Treaty of Augsburg. His testimony was so impressive that no action was taken against him, leaving the Palatinate free to continue in a Reformed direction.^[42] Frederick died in 1576 and was succeeded by his son Louis VI, who was not friendly to the Reformed faith. 600 Reformed professors and ministers were expelled.^[43] These refugees scattered to various cities. In 1583, John Casimir restored the Reformed faith in the Palatinate, and this policy was continued by his successor Frederick IV. Some other German states and cities also adopted the Heidelberg Catechism and the Reformed faith.^[44]

Puritanism

.

Polish priests began instituting reforms influenced by Calvin starting in the 1550s. In 1556 a diet at

Reformed Church of Hungary in 1576.^[47]

Reformed ideas influenced the

Elizabeth I in 1558, many of these exiles returned and Reformed ideas continued to influence the direction of the Reformation. While doctrinally the Church of England during this time was generally Reformed in character, it retained an episcopal polity. Criticism of episcopacy took a number of forms, with some Reformed writers being more tolerant of it than others.^[50] An attempt to move the church towards presbyterian polity was put down around 1588.^[51]

Seventeenth century

The Netherlands

In 1603, the controversial

University of Leiden. The move served to exacerbate tensions within the Reformed Church, including a heated period of debate between Arminius and fellow Leiden faculty member Franciscus Gomarus beginning 1604. Following the death of Arminius in 1609, a group of followers of Arminius, known as Remonstrants, published the Five Articles of Remonstrance. In 1618, the teachings came under scrutiny at the Synod of Dort. The resulting judgments, the Canons of Dort, issued in 1619, condemned the teachings. The Canons would also join the Belgic Confession and the Heidelberg Catechism as the third confessional standard of the Dutch Reformed Church. Between the beginning of the 17th century until 1750, the Dutch Reformed Church also went through the Nadere Reformatie, or "Further Reformation." This movement had been influenced in part by English Puritanism, and had Wilhelmus à Brakel and Gisbertus Voetius

as prominent leaders.

South Africa

In 1652, the

Nederduitse Gereformeerde Kerk

was under the control of the Dutch Reformed Church in Amsterdam.

Germany

Further information: Protestantism in Germany

Calvinism gained support in Germany in 1604 when

Electors of Brandenburg

often advocated for their persecuted Calvinist brethren.

In 1618, the

Treaty of Ryswick

put an end to violent persecution, yet, subsequent leaders put further pressure on the German Reformed.

Scandinavia

The Scandinavian countries of Denmark, Sweden and Norway had adopted Lutheranism early on, making it the official religion of their states. In 1667 however, the future King Christian V of Denmark married the staunchly Reformed Charlotte Amalie of Hesse-Kassel. As part of the marriage agreement, a Reformed minister was allowed to reside in Copenhagen as Charlotte's chaplain, but her Reformed faith prevented her from being crowned after becoming queen in 1670. In 1684, Christian V allowed for freedom of worship to non-Lutherans, and four years later, in 1688, the queen herself laid the cornerstone for the first Reformed church building. French Huguenots established the first and only Reformed body in Sweden in the late 18th century.

British Isles

In the British Isles, there were three established churches, the

Scottish Presbyterians led to the establishment of the Presbyterian Church in Ireland

.

The Westminster Assembly

In 1642, the

Directory for the Public Worship of God and The Form of Presbyterian Church Government

.

While they were intended to be binding on the entire nation, following the restoration of the monarchy in 1660, King

Act of Toleration, in the wake of the Glorious Revolution

, that freedom of worship was established in England for non-Anglican Protestants. Nevertheless, the Westminster Confession & Catechisms replaced the Scots Confession as the subordinate standards for the Church of Scotland and are the confessional standards of most Presbyterians worldwide.

Independents and Baptists

In the second half of the 1630s,

Second London Baptist Confession of Faith

.

The second Reformation (1621–1650)

The second Reformation was given different names even in different parts of the English-speaking world. These include:

• Switzerland: The Reformation in Switzerland is often considered to have lasted through this time
• Scotland: Second Scottish Reformation (see also:
  Covenanters
  )
• England:
  • Puritans
  • Pilgrims
• Netherlands: Nadere Reformatie ("Further Reformation")

Some of the articles on the first Reformation also cover the second.

Calvinism in the New World

In 1620, the

Roger Williams established a Baptist church in Providence, Rhode Island, which had been organized along Calvinist lines.^[53] In the 18th century, Calvinistic Baptists would found the Philadelphia Association, eventually adopting a modified version of the 1689 London Baptist Confession in 1742, renaming it the Philadelphia Confession

.

Presbyterianism would be established in the colonies in 1703, with the establishment of the Presbytery of Philadelphia. In time, two other presbyteries would be formed, constituting a Synod in 1717. In 1729, the Presbyterians would formally adopt the Westminster Confession and Catechisms as their confessional standards. Scottish Churches under the auspices of their churches in the old country would also establish churches in the 18th century, with the Associate Presbytery being established by the

Presbyterian Church in the U.S.A.

The First Great Awakening (1730s and 1740s)

• UK and USA: Just as with the Protestant Reformation, so also the
  Awakening Generation
  .
• Netherlands: Nadere Reformatie is also considered to have continued until this time

Neo-Calvinism

Around 1886

Main article: Neo-Calvinism

A version of Calvinism that has been adopted by both theological conservatives and liberals gained influence in the

Dutch Reformed churches, late in the 19th century, dubbed "neo-Calvinism", which developed along lines of the theories of Dutch theologian, statesman and journalist, Abraham Kuyper

.

New Calvinism

Around the beginning of the 21st century, "

Al Mohler and Matt Chandler

.

See also

• Calvinism
• Presbyterianism

Notes

1. ^ Stephens 2004, p. 99.
2. ^ McNeill 1967, p. 29.
3. ^ Benedict 2002, pp. 22-23; McNeill 1967, pp. 23–24.
4. ^ Benedict 2002, pp. 24-25; McNeill 1967, p. 45.
5. ^ Muller 2004, pp. 131–132.
6. ^ Benedict 2002; McNeill 1967, pp. 45–47.
7. ^ Benedict 2002, p. 35; McNeill 1967, pp. 50–51.
8. ^ Benedict 2002, p. 36.
9. ^ Benedict 2002, pp. 40-42.
10. ^ Benedict 2002, p. 42-43.
11. ^ Benedict 2002, p. 46.
12. ^ Benedict 2002, pp. 47-48.
13. ^ Benedict 2002, pp. 50–51; Muller 2004, p. 132.
14. ^ Benedict 2002, pp. 58–59.
15. ^ Benedict 2002, pp. 56–57.
16. ^ Muller 2004, p. 134.
17. ^ Benedict 2002, p. 61.
18. ^ Benedict 2002, p. 63.
19. ^ Benedict 2002, p. 65.
20. ^ Benedict 2002, p. 65-67.
21. ^ Benedict 2002, p. 68-73.
22. ^ Benedict 2002, pp. 64–72.
23. ^ Muller 2004, p. 132.
24. ^ Benedict 2002, pp. 77–114.
25. ^ Benedict 2002, pp. 132–133.
26. ^ Benedict 2002, pp. 134–135.
27. ^ Benedict 2002, p. 143.
28. ^ Benedict 2002, pp. 146–147.
29. ^ Benedict 2002, p. 148.
30. ^ Benedict 2002, p. 157.
31. ^ Benedict 2002, p. 156.
32. ^ Benedict 2002, pp. 161–162.
33. ^ Benedict 2002, pp. 163–164.
34. ^ Benedict 2002, p. 174.
35. ^ Benedict 2002, p. 185.
36. ^ Benedict 2002, p. 182.
37. ^ Benedict 2002, p. 188.
38. ^ Benedict 2002, pp. 189–190.
39. ^ Benedict 2002, pp. 200–201.
40. ^ McNeill 1967, p. 268.
41. ^ McNeill 1967, pp. 269–270.
42. ^ McNeill 1967, p. 273.
43. ^ McNeill 1967, p. 274.
44. ^ McNeill 1967, pp. 275–276.
45. ^ McNeill 1967, pp. 280–283.
46. ^ McNeill 1967, pp. 283–285.
47. ^ McNeill 1967, pp. 286–287.
48. ^ McNeill 1967, pp. 309–310.
49. ^ McNeill 1967, p. 311.
50. ^ McNeill 1967, pp. 314–316.
51. ^ McNeill 1967, pp. 320.
52. ^ "The Reformed Church in Germany," retrieved 28 August 2013 http://www.rcus.org/index.php/history/243-reformed-germany Archived 28 August 2013 at the Wayback Machine
53. ^ ^{a b} "A Primer on Baptist History: The True Baptist Trail" retrieved 31 August 2013 http://www.reformedreader.org/history/pbh.htm

References

• ISBN 978-0300105070
  .
• ISBN 978-0521776622
  .
• Stephens, W. Peter (2004). "The theology of Zwingli". In Bagchi, David V. N.;
  ISBN 0-521-77662-7
  .
• McNeill, John T. (1967). The History and Character of Calvinism. Oxford:
  ISBN 978-0195007435
  . Retrieved 25 January 2013.

Further reading

• Ballor, Jordan; Littlejohn, W. Bradford (2013). "European Calvinism: Church Discipline". European History Online. Leibniz Institute of European History (IEG). Archived from the original on 29 August 2013. Retrieved 29 August 2013.
• Hart, D. G. (2013). Calvinism: A History. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
• ISBN 978-0198753711
  .