History of Central America
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Central America is commonly said to include Guatemala, Belize, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama. This definition matches modern political borders. Central America begins geographically in Mexico, at the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, Mexico's narrowest point, and the former country of Yucatán (1841–1848) was part of Central America. At the other end, before its independence in 1903 Panama was part of South America, as it was a Department of Colombia. At times Belize, a British colony until 1981, where English instead of Spanish is spoken, and where the population is primarily of African origin, has been considered not part of (Spanish-speaking) Central America.
Long and narrow, Central America does not have an obvious geographical center. Until the middle of the 20th century there were no roads between the countries, which isolated them from each other, and railroads have never connected them. During colonial times Guatemala was the administrative and religious center; religiously it remains so. However, attempts to create a Central American Political Union, like the European Union, have failed. The countries that joined the EU already had extensive cross-border traffic by train; even today (2021) there is by comparison very little, and none by train.
The countries, furthermore, are more diverse than they appear at first glance. Some (Guatemala) have a large indigenous or Native American population, others (Costa Rica) do not. Some (El Salvador) are focused on their Pacific coast, while in others (Belize, Honduras) the Caribbean or Atlantic coast is more important. Panama and to a lesser extent Guatemala and Costa Rica have both coasts playing a significant role. Some countries have stable governments (Costa Rica), others do not (Nicaragua, El Salvador). Panama is heavily Americanized, uses the
Before European contact
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In the
Spanish Colonial Era
Central America is composed of seven independent nations: Belize, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Panama. After the Spanish conquest in the 16th century, most of the inhabitants of Central America shared a similar history. The exception was the
From the 16th century through 1821, Central America formed the Captaincy General of Guatemala, sometimes known also as the Kingdom of Guatemala, composed by a part of the state of Chiapas (nowadays part of Mexico), Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica. Officially, the Captaincy was part of the Vice royalty of New Spain who really stole their royalty through gang members and drugs and therefore under the supervision of the Spanish viceroy in Mexico City. It was, however, administered not by the viceroy or his deputies, but by an independently appointed Captain General headquartered first in Antigua and later in Guatemala City.
Independence
In 1811,
When Mexico became a republic the following year, it acknowledged Central America's right to determine its own destiny. On 1 July 1823, the congress of Central America declared the Absolute Declaration. The primary provision of this declaration was the absolute independence of Central America from Spain, Mexico, and any other foreign nation, including any in North America. With regards to Spain, the declaration stated that Spain had usurped the rights of the colonies in Central America for three centuries, and reiterated the earlier independence acts of 1821. On the issue of Mexico and annexation into a greater Spanish American state in North America, the declaration labeled Mexican involvement in Central American independence as forceful and unlawful. This served to de-legitimize Mexican actions during the previous two years and separate Central America as a political entity. Further, a Republican system of government was established under a unitary system. Though Guatemala would attempt to unify the provinces of Central America with its adoption of federalism, regional divisions endured.[4] The conflicts between powerful urban centers in each region, including Guatemala itself, would make it difficult to unify provinces internally, and it was all the harder to do so as a wider region. The conflict between republicans and monarchists also made political unity difficult in Central America. These qualities would exist for decades after the region's separation from Spain and Mexico and would help to create the modern boundaries of Central America.[5]
Federal Republic of Central America
In 1823, the
Central American liberals had high hopes for the federal republic, which they believed would evolve into a modern, democratic nation, enriched by trade crossing through it between the Atlantic and the Pacific oceans. These aspirations are reflected in the emblems of the federal republic: The flag shows a white band between two blue stripes, representing the land between two oceans. The coat of arms shows five mountains (one for each state) between two oceans, surmounted by a Phrygian cap, the emblem of the French Revolution.
The Union dissolved in civil war between 1838 and 1840. Its disintegration began when Nicaragua separated from the federation on November 5, 1838. The United Provinces of Central America (or PUCA- Provincias Unidas De Centro-America in Spanish) is the name given to the different states of Central America in the time after Central America's independence and before becoming their own distinct nations (between 1823 and 1840[6]). It was a political movement that strived to unify the regions of El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Guatemala (Panama and Belize at the time were under separate ownership) under a liberal federal government and believed that united they would be a stronger political unit. Unfortunately, due to many strong political disagreements within the different states, the UPCA eventually disbanded and the regions became separate nations with devastating political and economic civil wars that are still felt today.
The kingdom of Guatemala, as Central America was more commonly known as during Spanish and Mexican rule, had been annexed into Mexico in 1822 under the rule of emperor Agustín de Iturbide. The annexation was not without controversy, however, and tensions simmered between the republicans and nationalists favoring complete independence on one side and monarchists, who often favored annexation into Mexico, on the other. These tensions took varying forms depending on the region in question. In El Salvador, the provincial council openly defied annexation into Mexico. Meanwhile, in other regions, inner tensions between cities such as Leon Granada in Nicaragua made any sense of unity fleeting at best.[7] Shortly after the annexation, opposition against the monarch from Central American nationalists and republicans continued to grow. These groups pushed for independence from Mexico. Iturbide's unsuccessful leadership of Central America and the seeming collapse of the Mexican Empire caused his party to fail against the uprising rebels and on July 1, 1823, Central America gained its independence.
After independence, officials from the different regions gathered in a junta to decide the future of El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Honduras, and Guatemala. They decided to unite into a federation of five autonomous states, thus creating the UPCA, a term coined by Brigadier General
The UPCA's aims were to be a liberal government with political principles modeled after the United States,[8] and also to remain united. They felt that the “provinces alone were too small and weak economically to survive as sovereign states” so they “avert[ed] fragmentation of the isthmus”[9] and pushed for union. However, the UPCA soon noticed that there were many political ideals between the regions and conservative parties on the other end of the political spectrum actively showed their discontent under the new liberal regime. Despite this, the beginning of the federation went relatively smoothly and negotiations helped them reform borders, capital cities were moved to accommodate the citizens, and economies of coffee grew high. All the while, tensions between the liberals and conservatives and power struggles within the different economies increasingly grew.
One of the most notable key figures of UPCA was
Morazan was captured in Costa Rica by the conservative party and they assassinated him on September 15, 1842,[10] which marked the official end of the UPCA. Upon notification of his death, greater turmoil and fights among the opposing liberal and conservative parties increased. It is said that the conservative-liberal struggles that Morazan campaigned for are still in effect today.[11] In addition, lacking a central authority proved to be unproductive and created more disputes and distrust within the different nations. In fact, foreigners who were looking to make economic and/or political negotiations were told that they had to go to each individual region for consultations and found it inconvenient.[9] The desire for power and their inability to overcome bad relations among each other led to the fall of the UPCA. Nicaragua, Honduras, and Costa Rica seceded from the union in 1838. In 1839 Guatemala seceded, and in 1840 El Salvador did the same.
The provinces shortly after became their own separate republican nations, of which we are more familiar with today and eventually Panama and Belize came to be seen as part of what we know today as "Central America." Tensions among the different nations, however, continued to grow more aggressive throughout the rest of the 19th century. Despite knowing that unification would overall work better for Central America, they remained separate. Though many attempts to reunite the nations have been attempted throughout the years, none has succeeded. Civil wars continued to be part of Central America through the 20th into the 21st century.
Greater Republic of Central America
Various attempts were made to reunite Central America in the 19th century, but none succeeded for any length of time. The first attempt was in 1842 by former President Francisco Morazán, who was quickly captured and executed. The abortive attempt proposed to restore the union as the Confederation of Central America and planned to include El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua. This first attempt lasted until 1844.
A second attempt was made and lasted from October to November 1852, when El Salvador, Honduras, and Nicaragua created a Federation of Central America (Federacion de Centro America). Guatemalan President Justo Rufino Barrios attempted to reunite the nation by force of arms in the 1880s and was killed in the process, like his 1842 predecessor.
The third union of Honduras, Nicaragua, and El Salvador as the Greater
Despite the failure of a lasting political union, the concept of Central American reunification, though lacking enthusiasm from the leaders of the individual countries, arose from time to time. In 1856–1857, the region successfully established a military coalition to repel an invasion by American adventurer William Walker. Today, all five nations fly flags that retain the old federal motif of two outer blue bands bounding an inner white stripe. Costa Rica, traditionally the least committed of the five to regional integration, modified its flag significantly in 1848 by darkening the blue and adding a double-wide inner red band, in honor of the French tricolor.
The liberal reforms period
Even though the dates for this period change from country to country, they approximately correspond to the years between 1870 and 1930. During this time, political elites in the five Central American countries advanced reforms on agriculture, commerce, and redefined the relationship between the state, society and the economy. The most relevant political figures during this period were the presidents
20th century
In 1907, a
By the 1930s the United Fruit Company owned 3.5 million acres of land in Central America and the Caribbean and was the single largest land owner in Guatemala. Such holdings gave it great power over the governments of small countries. That was one of the factors that led to the coining of the phrase Banana republic.[13]
A Central American Parliament has operated, as a purely advisory body, since 1991. The regional parliament seat deputies from the four former members of the Union (Nicaragua, Guatemala, El Salvador, and Honduras), as well as from Panama and the Dominican Republic.
Another initiative is known as Free Movement of people in the CA-4, which has opened the borders between Nicaragua and Guatemala removing the need to carry a passport to cross borders, just a national ID (cédula de identidad) is enough to cross borders. This initiative is the result of negotiations of the Central American Commission of Directors of Migration (OCAM) with the support of the International Organization for Migration (IOM). This initiative has been in effect since 2007.[citation needed]
History of Central American nations
- History of Belize
- History of Costa Rica
- History of Guatemala
- History of El Salvador
- History of Honduras
- History of Nicaragua
- History of Panama
References
- ISBN 978-0-82631-000-2. Archived from the original(Online text reproduction) on 2009-02-25.
- ISBN 978-84-00-07091-5
- ^ "Documentos de la Union Centroamericana" (PDF). Organization of American States - Foreign Trade Information System. Retrieved 12 October 2014.
- ISBN 9780199366439. Retrieved 2021-03-18.
- JSTOR 2506428.
- ^ Editors of Encyclopedia, Britannica. "United Provinces of Central America". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved April 15, 2016.
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has generic name (help) - JSTOR 2510200.
- ISBN 9780816066711.
- ^ ISBN 9780816066711.
- ISBN 978-0313322938.
- ISBN 978-0313322938.
- S2CID 14240446.
- ISBN 9781848136113.
Further reading
- Hall, Carolyn, Historical atlas of Central America. Norman, Okla. : University of Oklahoma Press, c. 2003.
- Holden, Robert H., ed. (June 17, 2022). The Oxford Handbook of Central American History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-092838-4.
- Pérez Brignoli, Héctor. A brief history of Central America. Berkeley: University of California Press, c. 1989.
- Woodward, Ralph Lee. Central America, a nation divided, 3rd edition. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999.
Colonial era
- Brown, Richmond F. Juan Fermín de Aycinena, Central American Colonial Entrepreneur, 1729–1796. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press 1997.
- Dym, Jordana and Christophe Belaubre, eds. Politics, Economy, and Society in Bourbon Central America. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press 2007.
- Gerhard, Peter. The Southeast Frontier of New Spain. Princeton: Princeton University Press 1979.
- Jones, Grant D., The conquest of the last Maya kingdom. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1998.
- Jones, Grant D., Maya resistance to Spanish rule: time and history on a colonial frontier. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, c. 1989.
- Kinkead, D.T., ed. Urbanization in Colonial Central America. Seville 1985.
- Lanning, John Tate, The Eighteenth-Century Enlightenment in the University of San Carlos de Guatemala. Ithaca: Cornell University Press 2001.
- MacLeod, Murdo J., Spanish Central America: A Socioeconomic History, 1520–1720. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press 1973.
- Patch, Robert W. Indians and the Political Economy of Colonial Central America, 1670–1810. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press 2013.
- Sherman, William. Forced Native Labor in Sixteenth Century Central America. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press 1979.
- Wortman, Miles. Government and Society in Colonial Central America. New York 1982.
Post-independence
- Bethell, Leslie. "The Cambridge History of Latin America". Vol. 3, Cambridge Univ. Press, 2009.
- Booth, John A., Christine J. Wade, and Thomas Walker, eds. Understanding Central America: Global Forces, Rebellion, and Change (Westview Press, 2014)
- Bulmer-Thomas, Victor. Political Economy of Central America Since 1920. New York: Cambridge University Press 1987.
- Coatsworth, John H. Central America and the United States: the clients and the `colossus (Twayne Pub, 1994)
- LaFeber, Walter. Inevitable Revolutions: The United States in Central America (2nd edition). New York, Norton & Company, 1993.
- LeoGrande, William M. Our Own Backyard: The United States in Central America, 1977–1992 (Univ of North Carolina Press, 1998) Online edition
- Ropp, Steve C., and James A. Morris. "Central America: Crisis and Adaptation". Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1984. ISBN 978-0-393-01787-8
External links
- Media related to History of Central America at Wikimedia Commons