History of Christian theology
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The doctrine of the
Nontrinitarianism is any of several Christian beliefs that reject the Trinitarian doctrine that God is three distinct persons in one being. Modern nontrinitarian groups views differ widely on the nature of God, Jesus, and the Holy Spirit.
Historical theology is the academic study of the development of Christian theology.
Background
Jewish origins
Christianity originated as a sect within
God promised
The temple was destroyed during the
After the return from exile, the Second Temple became the center of Jewish national and religious life.[14] But the Torah continued to serve as "a portable Land, a movable Temple".[15] The Jewish priesthood numbered around 20,000, according to the 1st-century historian Josephus. Groups of priests took turns serving in the Temple, but most of their time was spent outside of Jerusalem. Having studied the Torah, the priests were the primary teachers of the law. They also acted as judges or arbitrators in legal disputes.[16] A large body of case law developed as the requirements of the Torah were debated and applied to daily life. Prior to the 2nd century, these legal interpretations were transmitted orally from a teacher to his students, giving rise to an oral Torah.[17]
Hellenism and Judaism
The conquests of
The Greek-speaking
After Alexander's death,
Opposition to these anti-Jewish policies sparked the
Judea's independence ended in 63 BC when it was conquered by the Roman Empire.[24] With Roman backing, Herod the Great (r. 37 – 4 BC) became king. Traditionally, high priests had served for life, but Herod chose men "beholden to him to fill the position temporarily".[25] After Herod's death, Rome continued the policy of temporary appointments. "The highest office in Judaism became increasingly the plaything for political and financial interests."[26]
Messianism
Most Jews believed that God would free the nation of Israel from its oppressors.
A major theme in
In the Second Temple period, there was no consensus on who the messiah would be or what he would do.
Some believed in a priestly messiah.
Sects
Palestinian Judaism was divided into competing sects with different theological and political goals.[26] Josephus described the four sects of Judaism as the Pharisees, Sadducees, and Essenes.[35]
The Pharisees were drawn from the middle-class,
The rivals of the Pharisees were the Sadducees. They were drawn from the families of the chief priests and secular aristocrats. Sadducees tended to have a positive view toward Hellenism and cooperated with the Romans.[36] The Sadducees were religiously conservative. They emphasized Temple rituals, believed in free will, and rejected the oral Torah. They also rejected the doctrine of the resurrection. Biblical scholar N. T. Wright notes that belief in a resurrection "functioned for a long time as a symbol and metaphor for the total reconstitution of Israel, the return from Babylon, and the final redemption". Belief in a resurrection, therefore, implied the end of Sadducee power.[43]
The Essenes believed it was necessary to separate from all things foreign.
Most Jews in Palestine, however, were not members of any sect. They were among the am ha'aretz ("people of the land"), but there is little information about how these people practiced Judaism.[36] N. T. Wright suggests that "[t]hey prayed, they fasted, they went to synagogue, they travelled to Jerusalem for the regular feasts. They did not eat pork, they kept the sabbath, they circumcised their male children. Equally, they paid sufficient attention to the Pharisees as respected, though unofficial, teachers to ensure that some of these basic duties were carried out in a more or less Pharisaic fashion."[47]
Greek philosophy
Church historian Diarmaid MacCulloch has observed that "Christianity in its first five centuries was in many respects a dialogue between Judaism and Graeco-Roman philosophy".[48] The most important philosophical influence was Platonism:
- According to the theory of forms, there are two worlds, the world of ideas and the physical world of perception. The latter experiences change, illusion, and decay. God belongs the world of ideas, which is intelligible and transcendent.[49] This influenced Christian ideas of the "world" and also heaven and earth.[50]
- Plato's Idea of the Good had a significant influence on Christian conceptions of God. In Platonic thought, the supreme deity was perfect and unchangeable. But this supreme god lacked "compassion for human tragedy, because compassion is a passion or emotion" which involves changes in mood. This was a very different deity from the biblical God. While the God of the Bible was transcendent, he was also passionate and compassionate towards humans. Indeed, the biblical God was constantly intervening in the affairs of Israel.[51] Despite these differences, "there arose the custom, deeply entrenched in some theological circles, of speaking of God in the same terms Plato used to refer to the Idea of the Good: God is impassive, infinite, incomprehensible, indescribable, and so on."[52]
- Plato's theory of the soul was used by Christians to defend their own beliefs about immortality and life after death.[53]
- Under the influence of Platonic epistemology (theory of knowledge), Christians adopted a distrust of sensory perception as a means of attaining knowledge. Nevertheless, Christians rejected the Platonic idea that learning is actually "recall" or "reminiscence" as this required belief in the pre-existence of souls, which Christians rejected.[54]
Another important influence was Stoicism, which made two important contributions to early Christian thought:[55]
- The Stoics taught there was a universal reason or logos through which all people are able to know and understand.
- The Stoics also taught the existence of a natural law, which was knowable to all people. Christians adopted the concept of natural law as the foundation of Christian ethics.
Early Church (c. 30–500)
First century
Jesus
Christianity centers on the
The four
The
- What Jesus taught, particularly the parables of Jesus.
- What Jesus did, particularly the miracles of Jesus.
- What witnesses said about Jesus.
As the Christ or "Anointed One" (Greek: Christos), Jesus is identified as the fulfillment of messianic prophecies in the Old Testament. Through the accounts of his miraculous virgin birth, the gospels present Jesus as the Son of God. Throughout the New Testament, Jesus is called kyrios ("lord" in Greek), a word used in the Septuagint translation of the Hebrew Bible for the name of God.[63]
While the
Jesus' message centered on the coming of the Kingdom of God (in Jewish eschatology a future when God actively rules over the world in justice, mercy, and peace).[66] Jesus urged his followers to repent in preparation for the kingdom's coming. In Mark 1:15, Jesus proclaims, "The time is fulfilled, and the kingdom of God is at hand; repent and believe in the gospel." His ethical teachings included loving one's enemies, not serving both God and Mammon, and not judging others. These ethical teachings are encapsulated in the Sermon on the Mount and the Lord's Prayer.[67] The gospel accounts conclude with a description of the crucifixion and resurrection of Jesus, ultimately leading to his Ascension.[68]
The death and resurrection of Jesus became the central message of Christianity. Paul writes in
To Jewish audiences, early preaching focused on Jesus as the fulfillment of Israel's messianic hopes (see for example the
Holy Spirit
References to the
Paul wrote that the Spirit empowers the church with various gifts or
Gentile Christians and Jewish law
The issue remained alive for many years after the Jerusalem council. New Testament sources suggest that
The Epistle of James, which is probably pseudonymous, stresses the importance of the Torah as "the perfect law of liberty" and "the implanted word that is able to save your souls".[76] Marcus comments that in the epistle "little room is left for the saving function of Jesus, who is mentioned only twice, and in an incidental way (1.1, 2:1)."[77]
The influence of the Jerusalem church and its form of Jewish Christianity declined after the
Second century
Apostolic Fathers
In the late first and early second century, the first Church Fathers appear. The earliest collection of Patristic writings is known as the Apostolic Fathers because it was traditionally believed that the authors had known the Apostles.[note 2] There is some chronological overlap between the latest writings of the New Testament and the earliest of the Apostolic Fathers. For example, the New Testament's Second Epistle of Peter was probably written later than many of the Apostolic Fathers, while the Didache was probably written well within the New Testament period. While the New Testament canon was not defined during this period, "the Gospels and the Pauline Epistles are regarded as authorities".[79] The Apostolic Fathers are:
- Clement of Rome
- The Didache
- Ignatius of Antioch
- Polycarp of Smyrna
- Papias of Hierapolis
- Epistle of Barnabas
- The Shepherd of Hermas
- Epistle to Diognetus
The writings of the Apostolic Fathers reveal the development of distinct theological schools or orientations: Asia Minor and Syria, Rome, and Alexandria. The school of Asia Minor (represented by the
Roman Christianity (represented by Clement and Hermas) was influenced by Stoicism and stressed ethics and morality.
The Alexandrian school (represented by the Epistle of Barnabas) was influenced by Middle Platonism and Neoplatonism. It combined a focus on ethics with an allegorical interpretation of the Old Testament in the tradition of Philo.[86] The author of the Epistle of Barnabas used an allegorical interpretation of the Old Testament to harmonize it with Christian teachings. The stories of the Old Testament were understood to be types that point to the saving work of Jesus.[87]
The Apostolic Fathers, all of whom were Gentiles, struggled with the authority of the
The
The Apostolic Fathers do not seem to share a single concept of
The Apostolic Fathers placed great importance on baptism. According to theologian Geoffrey Hugo Lampe, the Fathers considered baptism to be "the seal with which believers are marked out as God's people, the way of death to sin and demons and of rebirth to resurrection-life, the new white robe which must be preserved undefiled, the shield of Christ's soldier, the sacrament of the reception of the Holy Spirit."[98] The Apostolic Fathers also clearly considered the eucharist to be the center of Christian worship.[90] Ignatius identified the eucharist closely with the death and resurrection of Christ—"it is the flesh of our Saviour Jesus Christ, which flesh suffered for our sins and which the Father raised up".[99]
Apocryphal literature
During the same time period as the Apostolic Fathers, Christians were also producing works claiming to be ancient Jewish texts. These are considered
- Ascension of Isaiah
- Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs
- Second Book of Enoch
The early 2nd century also saw the production of works claiming apostolic origin and are now categorized as New Testament apocryphal literature:[100]
- Gospel of Peter
- Revelation of Peter
- Gospel of the Hebrews
- Epistle of the Apostles
Greek apologists
In the middle of the 2nd century,
- Aristides of Athens
- Justin Martyr
- Tatian
- Athenagoras of Athens
- Theophilus of Antioch
- Hermias
- Epistle to Diognetus
- Melito of Sardis
Justin Martyr is the most important of the 2nd-century apologists.[102] Justin's explanation of Christian beliefs was influenced by Middle Platonism. For him, God the Father was transcendent, and he begot the logos (Word) who reveals the Father to creation. Christ is the logos and source of all truth. The Greek philosophers of the past only knew the Word partially. But the full truth was revealed to Christians in the person of Jesus Christ.[103] In Justin's Dialogue with Trypho, the Jewish Trypho accused Christians of holding the Mosaic covenant in "rash contempt". Justin distinguishes between different parts of the Old Covenant, saying that Christians kept what was "naturally good, pious, and righteous".[104] Justin also uses typological interpretation to connect events in the Old Testament to Christ. For example, the Passover sacrifice was a type of Christ whose blood saves those who believe in him.[105]
Biblical canon
The Biblical canon is the set of books Christians regard as divinely inspired and thus constituting the Christian Bible. Though the
The writings attributed to the apostles circulated amongst the earliest Christian communities. The Pauline epistles were circulating in collected form by the end of the 1st century AD. Justin Martyr, in the early 2nd century, mentions the "memoirs of the apostles", but his references are not detailed. Around 160 Irenaeus of Lyons argued for only four Gospels (the Tetramorph), and argued that it would be illogical to reject Acts of the Apostles but accept the Gospel of Luke, as both were from the same author.[106] By the early 200's, Origen may have been using the same 27 books as in the modern New Testament, though there were still disputes over the canonicity of Hebrews, James, II Peter, II and III John, and Revelation,[107] see Antilegomena. Likewise by 200 the Muratorian fragment shows that there existed a set of Christian writings somewhat similar to what is now the 27 book New Testament.
In his Easter letter of 367,
Patristic theology
As Christianity spread, it acquired certain members from well-educated circles of the Hellenistic world; they sometimes became bishops but not always. They produced two sorts of works: theological and "apologetic", the latter being works aimed at defending the faith by using reason to refute arguments against the veracity of Christianity. These authors are known as the church fathers, and study of them is called Patristics. Notable early Fathers include Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, Tertullian, Clement of Alexandria, Origen, etc.
A large quantity of theological reflection emerged in the early centuries of the Christian church—in a wide variety of genres, in a variety of contexts, and in several languages—much of it the product of attempts to discuss how Christian faith should be lived in cultures very different from the one in which it was born. For instance, a good deal of
Ante-Nicene Fathers
Influential texts and writers in the 2nd century include:
- The collection known as the Apostolic Fathers (mostly 2nd century)
- Justin Martyr (c. 100/114 – c. 162/168)
- Clement of Alexandria (died c. 215)
- Irenaeus of Lyons (c. 130–202)
- Various 'Gnostic' authors, such as Valentinius (c. 100 – c. 153) and Basilides(c. 117–138)
- Some of the texts commonly referred to as the New Testament apocrypha.
Influential texts and writers between c. 200 and 325 (the First Council of Nicaea) include:
- Tertullian (c. 155–230)
- Hippolytus(died 235)
- Origen (c. 182 – c. 251)
- Cyprian (died c. 258)
- Arius (256–336)
- Other Gnostic texts and texts from the New Testament apocrypha.
Nicene Creed
Each phrase in the Nicene Creed, which was hammered out at the Council of Nicaea, addresses some aspect that had been under passionate discussion and closes the books on the argument, with the weight of the agreement of the over 300 bishops in attendance. Constantine had invited all 1800 bishops of the Christian church (about 1000 in the east and 800 in the west). The number of participating bishops cannot be accurately stated; Socrates Scholasticus and Epiphanius of Salamis counted 318; Eusebius of Caesarea, only 250. In spite of the agreement reached at the council of 325, the Arians who had been defeated dominated most of the church for the greater part of the 4th century, often with the aid of Roman emperors who favored them.
Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers
Late antiquity Christianity produced many
Influential texts and writers between AD 325 and c. 500 include:
- Athanasius (298–373)
- The Cappadocian Fathers (late 4th century)
- Ambrose (c. 340–397)
- Jerome (c. 347–420)
- Chrysostom(347–407)
- Augustine of Hippo (354–430)
- Cyril of Alexandria (376–444)
Texts from patristic authors after AD 325 are collected in the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers. Important theological debates also surrounded the various
Papacy and primacy
The theology of the
Early heresies
Urgent concerns with the uniformity of belief and practice have characterized Christianity from the outset. The
The process of establishing orthodox Christianity was set in motion by a succession of different interpretations of the teachings of Christ being taught after the crucifixion. Though Christ himself is noted to have spoken out against false prophets and false christs within the gospels themselves Mark 13:22 (some will arise and distort the truth in order to draw away disciples), Matthew 7:5–20, Matthew 24:4, Matthew 24:11, Matthew 24:24 (For false christs and false prophets will arise). On many occasions in Paul's epistles, he defends his own apostleship, and urges Christians in various places to beware of false teachers, or of anything contrary to what was handed to them by him. The epistles of John and Jude also warn of false teachers and prophets, as does the writer of the Book of Revelation and 1 Jn. 4:1, as did the Apostle Peter warn in 2 Pt. 2:1–3.
One of the roles of bishops, and the purpose of many Christian writings, was to refute
In the middle of the 2nd century, three groups of Christians adhered to a range of doctrines that divided the Christian communities of Rome: the teacher
During those first three centuries, Christianity was effectively outlawed by requirements to venerate the Roman emperor and Roman gods. Consequently, when the Church labelled its enemies as heretics and cast them out of its congregations or severed ties with dissident churches, it remained without the power to persecute them. However, those called "heretics" were also called a number of other things (e.g. "fools", "wild dogs", "servants of Satan"), so the word "heretic" had negative associations from the beginning, and intentionally so.
Before 325 AD, the "heretical" nature of some beliefs was a matter of much debate within the churches. After 325 AD, some opinion was formulated as dogma through the canons promulgated by the councils.
Medieval theology
Byzantine theology
While the Western Roman Empire declined and fell, the Eastern Roman Empire, centred on Constantinople, remained standing until 1453, and was the home of a wide range of theological activity that was seen as standing in strong continuity with the theology of the Patristic period; indeed the division between Patristic and Byzantine theology would not be recognised by many Orthodox theologians and historians.
Mystical theology
- Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite (working c. 500)
- Symeon the New Theologian (949–1022)
- Gregory Palamas (1296–1359)
Christological controversy after Chalcedon
- Severus of Antioch (c. 465–518)
- Leontius of Jerusalem (working 538–544)
- Maximus the Confessor (c. 580–682)
Iconoclasts and iconophiles
- Patriarch Germanus I of Constantinople(patriarch 715–730)
- John of Damascus (676–749)
- Theodore the Studite (c. 758 – c. 826)
Heresies
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Western theology
Before the Carolingian Empire
When the
Important writers include:
- Caesarius of Arles (c. 468–542)
- Boethius (480–524)
- Cassiodorus (c. 480 – c. 585)
- Pope Gregory I (c. 540–604)
- Isidore of Seville (c. 560–636)
- Bede (672–736)
Theology in the time of Charlemagne
Both because it made communication between different Christian centres easier, and because there was a concerted effort by its rulers to encourage educational and religious reforms and to develop greater uniformity in Christian thought and practice across their territories, the establishment of the
Important writers include:
- Alcuin (c. 735–804)
- The Spanish (late 8th century)
- Rabanus Maurus (c. 780–856)
- Radbertus(c. 790–865)
- Ratramnus (died c. 868)
- Hincmar (806–882)
- Gottschalk (c. 808 – c. 867)
- Johannes Scotus Eriugena(c. 815–877)
Before Scholasticism
With the division and decline of the Carolingian Empire, notable theological activity was preserved in some of the cathedral schools that had begun to rise to prominence under it—for instance at
Notable authors include:
- Heiric of Auxerre (c. 835–887)
- Remigius of Auxerre (c. 841–908)
- Gerbert of Aurillac (c. 950–1003)
- Fulbert of Chartres (died 1028)
- Berengar of Tours (c. 999–1088)
- Lanfranc (died 1089)
Scholasticism
Early scholasticism and its contemporaries
Notable authors include:
- Anselm of Canterbury (1033/1034–1109)
- Anselm of Laon (died 1117)
- Hugh of St Victor(1078–1151)
- Peter Abelard (1079–1142)
- Bernard of Clairvaux (1090–1153)
- Hildegard of Bingen (1098–1179)
- Peter Lombard (c. 1100–1160)
- Joachim of Fiore (c. 1135–1202)
High Scholasticism and its contemporaries
The 13th century saw the attempted suppression of various groups perceived as heterodox, such as the
Notable authors include:
- Saint Dominic (1170–1221)
- Robert Grosseteste (c. 1175–1253)
- Francis of Assisi (1182–1226)
- Alexander of Hales (died 1245)
- Mechthild of Magdeburg (1210–1285)
- Roger Bacon (1214–1294)
- Bonaventure (1221–1274)
- Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274)
- Angela of Foligno (1248–1309)
Late Scholasticism and its contemporaries
Scholastic theology continued to develop as the 13th century gave way to the fourteenth, becoming ever more complex and subtle in its distinctions and arguments. The 14th century saw in particular the rise to dominance of the
Notable authors include:
- Meister Eckhart (1260–1328)
- Duns Scotus (1266–1308)
- Marsilius of Padua (1270–1342)
- William of Ockham (c. 1285–1349)
- John Wycliffe (c. 1320–1384)
- Julian of Norwich (1342–1413)
- Geert Groote (1340–1384)
- Catherine of Siena (1347–1380)
- Jean Gerson (1363–1429)
- Jan Hus (c. 1369–1415)
- Thomas à Kempis (1380–1471)
Renaissance and Reformation
The
Lutheranism
The start of the Reformation
In 1516–1517,
On 31 October 1517, Luther wrote to
Luther objected to a saying attributed to Johann Tetzel that "As soon as the coin in the coffer rings, the soul from purgatory springs",[126] insisting that, since forgiveness was God's alone to grant, those who claimed that indulgences absolved buyers from all punishments and granted them salvation were in error. Christians, he said, must not slacken in following Christ on account of such false assurances.
According to
The
Justification by faith
From 1510 to 1520, Luther lectured on the Psalms, the books of Hebrews, Romans, and Galatians. As he studied these portions of the Bible, he came to view the use of terms such as penance and righteousness by the Roman Catholic Church in new ways. He became convinced that the church was corrupt in its ways and had lost sight of what he saw as several of the central truths of Christianity, the most important of which, for Luther, was the doctrine of justification—God's act of declaring a sinner righteous—by faith alone through God's grace. He began to teach that salvation or redemption is a gift of God's grace, attainable only through faith in Jesus as the messiah.[118]
This one and firm rock, which we call the doctrine of justification", he wrote, "is the chief article of the whole Christian doctrine, which comprehends the understanding of all godliness.[131]
— Herbert J. A. Bouman, Concordia Theological Monthly "The Doctrine of Justification in the Lutheran Confessions (Nov. 26, 1955), No. 11:801
Luther came to understand justification as entirely the work of God. Against the teaching of his day that the righteous acts of believers are performed in cooperation with God, Luther wrote that Christians receive such righteousness entirely from outside themselves; that righteousness not only comes from Christ but actually is the righteousness of Christ, imputed to Christians (rather than infused into them) through faith.[132] "That is why faith alone makes someone just and fulfills the law", he wrote. "Faith is that which brings the Holy Spirit through the merits of Christ."[133] Faith, for Luther, was a gift from God. He explained his concept of "justification" in the Smalcald Articles:
The first and chief article is this: Jesus Christ, our God and Lord, died for our sins and was raised again for our justification (Romans 3:24-25). He alone is the Lamb of God who takes away the sins of the world (John 1:29), and God has laid on Him the iniquity of us all (Isaiah 53:6). All have sinned and are justified freely, without their own works and merits, by His grace, through the redemption that is in Christ Jesus, in His blood (Romans 3:23-25). This is necessary to believe. This cannot be otherwise acquired or grasped by any work, law or merit. Therefore, it is clear and certain that this faith alone justifies us ... Nothing of this article can be yielded or surrendered, even though heaven and earth and everything else falls (Mark 13:31).[134]
— Martin Luther, Concordia: The Lutheran Confessions "The Smalcald Articles", Part two, Article 1
Response of the papacy
In contrast to the speed with which the theses were distributed, the response of the papacy was slow.
Leo responded over the next three years, "with great care as is proper",[137] by deploying a series of papal theologians and envoys against Luther. He may have hoped the matter would die down of its own accord, because in 1518 he dismissed Luther as "a drunken German" who "when sober will change his mind".[138]
Widening breach
Luther's writings circulated widely, reaching France, England, and Italy as early as 1519, and students thronged to Wittenberg to hear him speak. He published a short commentary on
This early portion of Luther's career was one of his most creative and productive.[140] Three of his best known works were published in 1520: To the Christian Nobility of the German Nation, On the Babylonian Captivity of the Church, and On the Freedom of a Christian.
On 30 May 1519, when the Pope demanded an explanation, Luther wrote a summary and explanation of his theses to the Pope. While the Pope may have conceded some of the points, he did not like the challenge to his authority so he summoned Luther to Rome to answer these. At that point
An arrangement was effected, however, whereby that summons was cancelled, and Luther went to Augsburg in October 1518 to meet the papal legate, Cardinal Thomas Cajetan. The argument was long but nothing was resolved.
Excommunication
On 15 June 1520, the Pope warned Luther with the
That autumn, Johann Eck proclaimed the bull in Meissen and other towns. Karl von Miltitz, a papal nuncio, attempted to broker a solution, but Luther, who had sent the Pope a copy of On the Freedom of a Christian in October, publicly set fire to the bull and decretals at Wittenberg on 10 December 1520,[141] an act he defended in Why the Pope and his Recent Book are Burned and Assertions Concerning All Articles.
As a consequence, Luther was excommunicated by Leo X on 3 January 1521, in the bull Decet Romanum Pontificem.
Political maneuvering
What had started as a strictly theological and academic debate had now turned into something of a social and political conflict as well, pitting Luther, his German allies and Northern European supporters against Charles V, France, the Italian Pope, their territories and other allies. The conflict would erupt into a religious war after Luther's death, fueled by the political climate of the Holy Roman Empire and strong personalities on both sides.
In 1526, at the
Lutheranism would become known as a separate movement after the 1530
After the conclusion of the Schmalkald War, Charles V attempted to impose Catholic religious doctrine on the territories that he had defeated. However, the Lutheran movement was far from defeated. In 1577, the next generation of Lutheran theologians gathered the work of the previous generation to define the doctrine of the persisting Lutheran church. This document is known as the
Results of the Lutheran reformation
Luther's followers and the Roman Catholic Church broke fellowship during the Protestant Reformation. In the years and decades following Luther's posting of the 95 theses on the door of the Wittenberg church, large numbers of Europeans abandoned observance of papal authority, including the majority of German speakers. Following the Counter-Reformation, Catholic Austria and Bavaria, together with the electoral archbishops of Mainz, Cologne, and Trier consolidated the Catholic position on the German-speaking section of the European continent. Because Luther sparked this mass movement, he is known as the father of the Protestant Reformation, and the father of Protestantism in general.
Calvinism
Arminianism
- Humans are naturally unable to make any effort towards salvation
- Salvation is possible by grace alone
- Works of human effort cannot cause or contribute to salvation
- God's election is conditional on faith in Jesus
- Jesus' atonement was potentially for all people
- God allows his grace to be resisted by those unwilling to believe
- Salvation can be lost, as continued salvation is conditional upon continued faith
Orthodox Reformation
The fall of
Counter-Reformation
The Roman Catholic
The Council of Trent
Revivalism (1720–1906)
First Great Awakening
Second Great Awakening
Third Great Awakening
Restoration Movement
The Restoration Movement (also known as the "Stone-Campbell Movement") generally refers to the "American Restoration Movement", which began on the American frontier during the
The Restoration Movement began as two separate threads, each of which initially developed without the knowledge of the other, during the Second Great Awakening in the early 19th century. The first, led by
The Restoration Movement has seen several divisions, resulting in multiple separate groups. Three modern groups claim the Stone Campbell movement as their roots: Churches of Christ, Christian churches and churches of Christ, and the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ). Some see divisions in the movement as the result of the tension between the goals of restoration and ecumenism, with the Churches of Christ and Christian churches and churches of Christ resolving the tension by stressing restoration while the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) resolved the tension by stressing ecumenism.[143]: 383
Restorationism
Modern theology
After the Reformation
The 19th century saw the rise of
Modern Catholic response to Protestantism
Well into the 20th century, Catholics—even if no longer resorting to persecution—still defined Protestants as heretics. Thus, Hilaire Belloc – in his time one of the most conspicuous speakers for Catholicism in Britain – was outspoken about the "Protestant Heresy". He even defined Islam as being "A Christian heresy", on the grounds that Muslims accept many of the tenets of Christianity but deny the godhood of Jesus (see Hilaire Belloc#On Islam).
However, in the second half of the century – and especially in the wake of
Some of the doctrines of Protestantism that the Catholic Church considers heretical are the belief that the Bible is the only source and rule of faith ("sola scriptura"), that faith alone can lead to salvation ("sola fide") and that there is no sacramental, ministerial priesthood attained by ordination, but only a universal priesthood of all believers.
Postmodern Christianity
The predominance of Classic Liberalism resulted in many
From the late 19th century to the early 20th century, groups established themselves that derived many of their beliefs from Protestant evangelical groups but significantly differed in doctrine. These include the
Liberation theology
Radical orthodoxy
An ecumenical movement begun by
Weak theology
Weak theology is a branch of postmodern Christianity that has been influenced by the deconstructive thought of Jacques Derrida,[144] including Derrida's description of a moral experience he calls "the weak force."[145] Weak theology rejects the idea that God is an overwhelming physical or metaphysical force. Instead, God is an unconditional claim without any force whatsoever. As a claim without force, the God of weak theology does not intervene in nature. As a result, weak theology emphasizes the responsibility of humans to act in this world here and now.[146]
See also
Notes
- First Thessalonians and Philemon. The authenticity of the remaining epistles are doubted: Ephesians, Colossians, Second Thessalonians, First Timothy, Second Timothy, Titus and Hebrews.
- ^ González (1987, p. 61): "They have been given this title because at the time it was thought that they had known the apostles. In some cases this seems quite possible, but in others it was a mere product of imagination."
Citations
- ^ a b Oxford Dictionary of the Bible, Trinity Article
- ^ Hurtado, Larry. Lord Jesus Christ: Devotion to Jesus in Earliest Christianity. Eerdmans, 2003, 366–367
- ^ McGrath 2013, p. 14.
- ^ Schnelle 2020, p. 58.
- ^ Johnson 2010, pp. 39–40.
- ^ a b Johnson 2010, p. 40.
- ^ Schnelle 2020, p. 50.
- ^ a b Schnelle 2020, p. 60.
- ^ Johnson 2010, p. 41.
- ^ Wright 1992, p. 216.
- ^ Wright 1992, p. 224–225.
- ^ Schnelle 2020, pp. 50–51.
- ^ Wright 1992, pp. 228–229.
- ^ Dunn 2003, p. 287.
- ^ Wright 1992, p. 228.
- ^ a b Wright 1992, p. 209.
- ^ Wright 1992, pp. 229–230.
- ^ Schnelle 2020, pp. 13 & 16.
- ^ González 1987, pp. 43–44.
- ^ MacCulloch 2010, p. 66–69.
- ^ Schnelle 2020, p. 16.
- ^ Schnelle 2020, p. 47.
- ^ a b Johnson 2010, p. 44.
- ^ a b Bond 2012, pp. 58–59.
- ^ a b Fredriksen 1999, p. 122.
- ^ a b c Schnelle 2020, p. 51.
- ^ Schnelle 2020, pp. 49 & 51–52.
- ^ Fredriksen 1999, pp. 119–121.
- ^ Schnelle 2020, pp. 61–62.
- ^ Bond 2012, pp. 62–64.
- ^ Fredriksen 1999, p. 124.
- ^ a b Bond 2012, pp. 63–64.
- ^ Placher & Nelson 2013, p. 17.
- ^ González 1987, p. 35.
- ^ Dunn 2003, p. 265.
- ^ a b c d Johnson 2010, p. 43.
- ^ Wright 1992, p. 185.
- ^ Dunn 2003, pp. 269–270.
- ^ Wright 1992, pp. 188–189.
- ^ Wright 1992, pp. 200–201.
- ^ González 1987, pp. 33–34.
- ^ Wright 1992, p. 190.
- ^ Wright 1992, pp. 210–211.
- ^ Wright 1992, p. 206.
- ^ González 1987, pp. 35–36.
- ^ Wright 1992, pp. 206–208.
- ^ Wright 1992, p. 214.
- ^ MacCulloch 2010, p. 8.
- ^ Schnelle 2020, pp. 40–41.
- ^ González 1987, p. 50.
- ^ MacCulloch 2010, p. 32.
- ^ González 1987, p. 52.
- ^ González 1987, pp. 50–51.
- ^ González 1987, p. 51.
- ^ González 1987, p. 52–53.
- ^ MacCulloch 2010, p. 120.
- ^ Bond 2012, p. 48.
- ^ Dunn 2003, p. 146.
- ^ Dunn 2003, p. 159.
- ^ Dunn 2003, p. 167 (note 137).
- ^ a b c Bond 2012, p. 50.
- ^ McGrath 2013, p. 6.
- ^ MacCulloch 2010, pp. 80–81 & 96.
- ^ Bond 2012, p. 49.
- ^ a b McGrath 2013, pp. 4–5.
- ^ Bond 2012, p. 89.
- ^ Bond 2012, p. 95.
- ^ MacCulloch 2010, p. 91.
- ^ Schnelle 2020, p. 82–84.
- ^ McGrath 2013, p. 7.
- ^ Quoted in MacCulloch (2010, pp. 101 & 103)
- ^ MacCulloch 2010, pp. 101–102.
- ^ McGrath 2013, p. 15.
- ^ MacCulloch 2010, p. 100.
- ^ Marcus 2006, pp. 91–92.
- ^ James 1:21, 25 quoted in Marcus (2006, p. 91)
- ^ Marcus 2006, p. 91.
- ^ MacCulloch 2010, p. 106.
- ^ Lampe 1978, p. 23.
- ^ González 1987, pp. 92–93.
- ^ Ign. Eph. chapter 20 quoted in González (1987, p. 78).
- ^ González 1987, p. 82.
- ^ González 1987, pp. 93–94.
- ^ González 1987, p. 88.
- ^ González 1987, pp. 88–89.
- ^ González 1987, pp. 94–95.
- ^ González 1987, p. 85.
- ^ Pelikan 1971, p. 14.
- ^ 1 Clement 46 quoted in Lampe (1978, p. 25).
- ^ a b c González 1987, p. 95.
- ^ Ign. Eph. preface and Ign. Mag. chapter 8 quoted in Lampe (1978, p. 26).
- ^ Ign. Eph. chapter 7 quoted in González (1987, p. 75).
- ^ The Shepherd sim. 5.6 quoted in Lampe (1978, p. 27).
- ^ González 1987, p. 71.
- ^ González 1987, p. 65.
- ^ González 1987, p. 77.
- ^ Trallians 3 quoted in González (1987, p. 77).
- ^ Lampe 1978, p. 27.
- ^ Smyrnaeans 6 quoted in Lampe (1978, p. 27).
- ^ a b González 1987, p. 90.
- ^ González 1987, pp. 97–99.
- ^ González 1987, p. 101.
- ^ González 1987, pp. 103–105.
- ^ Dialogue with Trypho 10.4 and 45.3 quoted in Pelikan (1971, p. 16).
- ^ González 1987, p. 106.
- Adversus Haereses3.11.8
- ^ Both points taken from Mark A. Noll's Turning Points, (Baker Academic, 1997), pp. 36–37
- ^ ISBN 1-4051-1078-3.
- Tridentine Council.
- ^ cf. Richards, Jeffrey. The Popes and the Papacy in the Early Middle Ages 476-752 (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1979) p. 9
- ^ Richards, Jeffrey. The Popes and the Papacy in the Early Middle Ages 476-752 (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1979) pp. 10 and 12
- ^ see J. D. Mansi, Sacrorum Conciliorum Nova et Amplissima Collectio 3, p. 559
- ^ e.g. 11:13–15; 2:1–17; 7–11; 4–13, and the Epistle of James in general.
- ISBN 9780825439315. Retrieved 5 May 2011.
- ISBN 9781591280439. Retrieved 5 May 2011.
- ^ R. Gerberding and J. H. Moran Cruz, Medieval Worlds (New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004) p. 58
- ^ Brecht, Martin. Martin Luther. tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–1993, 1:12–27.
- ^ a b Wriedt, Markus. "Luther's Theology", in The Cambridge Companion to Luther. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003, pp. 88–94.
- ^ Selected passages from Martin Luther, "Commentary on Galatians (1538)" as translated in Herbert J. A. Bouman, "The Doctrine of Justification in the Lutheran Confessions", Concordia Theological Monthly 26 (November 1955) No. 11:801.[1] Archived May 12, 2008, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Martin Luther, Smalcald Articles II, 15.
- ^ MSN Encarta, s.v. "Lutheranism Archived 2009-01-31 at the Wayback Machine" by George Wolfgang Forell; Christian Cyclopedia, s.v. "Reformation, Lutheran" by Theore Hoyer. Archived 2009-10-31.
- ^ "Johann Tetzel", Encyclopædia Britannica, 2007: "Tetzel's experiences as a preacher of indulgences, especially between 1503 and 1510, led to his appointment as general commissioner by Albrecht, archbishop of Mainz, who, deeply in debt to pay for a large accumulation of benefices, had to contribute a considerable sum toward the rebuilding of St. Peter's Basilica in Rome. Albrecht obtained permission from Pope Leo X to conduct the sale of a special plenary indulgence (i.e., remission of the temporal punishment of sin), half of the proceeds of which Albrecht was to claim to pay the fees of his benefices. In effect, Tetzel became a salesman whose product was to cause a scandal in Germany that evolved into the greatest crisis (the Reformation) in the history of the Western church."
- ^ (Trent, l. c., can. xii: "Si quis dixerit, fidem justificantem nihil aliud esse quam fiduciam divinae misericordiae, peccata remittentis propter Christum, vel eam fiduciam solam esse, qua justificamur, a.s.")
- ^ (cf. Trent, Sess. VI, cap. iv, xiv)
- ^ a b Hillerbrand, Hans J. "Martin Luther: Indulgences and salvation", Encyclopædia Britannica, 2007.
- ^ Bainton, Roland. Here I Stand: a Life of Martin Luther. New York: Penguin, 1995, 60; Brecht, Martin. Martin Luther. tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–1993, 1:182; Kittelson, James. Luther The Reformer. Minneapolis, Minnesota: Augsburg Fortress Publishing House, 1986), p. 104.
- ^ "Luther's lavatory thrills experts". 2004-10-22. Retrieved 2023-05-12.
- ^ Iserloh, Erwin. The Theses Were Not Posted. Toronto: Saunders of Toronto, Ltd., 1966.
- ^ Junghans, Helmer. "Luther's Wittenberg", in McKim, Donald K. (ed.) The Cambridge Companion to Martin Luther. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003, p. 26.
- ^ Brecht, Martin. Martin Luther. tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–1993, 1:204–205.
- ^ Bouman, Herbert J. A. "The Doctrine of Justification in the Lutheran Confessions", Concordia Theological Monthly, November 26, 1955, No. 11:801. Archived May 12, 2008, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Dorman, Ted M., "Justification as Healing: The Little-Known Luther Archived 2017-07-17 at the Wayback Machine", Quodlibet Journal: Volume 2 Number 3, Summer 2000. Retrieved 13 July 2007.
- ^ "Luther's Definition of Faith".
- ^ Luther, Martin. "The Smalcald Articles", in Concordia: The Lutheran Confessions. (Saint Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 2005, 289, Part two, Article 1.
- ^ Rupp, Ernst Gordon. "Martin Luther", Encyclopædia Britannica, accessed 2006.
- ^ Treu, Martin. Martin Luther in Wittenberg: A Biographical Tour. Wittenberg: Saxon-Anhalt Luther Memorial Foundation, 2003, p. 31.
- ^ Papal Bull Exsurge Domine.
- ^ Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1910, 7:99; Polack, W. G. The Story of Luther. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1931, p. 45.
- ^ "Philip Schaff: Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia Vol. : 0089=71 - Christian Classics Ethereal Library". www.ccel.org. p. 71. Retrieved 2023-05-12.
- ^ Spitz, Lewis W. The Renaissance and Reformation Movements, St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1987, p. 338.
- ^ Brecht, Martin. (tr. Wolfgang Katenz) "Luther, Martin", in Hillerbrand, Hans J. (ed.) Oxford Encyclopedia of the Reformation. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996, 2:463.
- ISBN 978-0-8272-1703-4
- ^ ISBN 978-0-89900-909-4
- ^ Caputo, John D. (2006). The Weakness of God. Indiana University Press.
- ^ Caputo, John D. (2006). The Weakness of God. Indiana University Press. 7.; Derrida, Jacques (2005). Rogues. Stanford University Press.
- ^ Caputo, John D.; Vattimo, Gianni (2007). After the Death of God. Columbia University Press. pp. 64–65.
Sources
General
- ISBN 978-1-101-18999-3.
- ISBN 9781118337806.
- ISBN 978-0-664-23935-0.
Early Christianity
- ISBN 9780567125101.
- ISBN 978-0-8028-7799-4.
- ISBN 0-679-76746-0.
- ISBN 0-687-17182-2.
- ISBN 978-0-8006-6361-2.
- ISBN 0567043932.
- Marcus, Joel (2006). "Jewish Christianity". In ISBN 9781139054836.
- ISBN 9780226028163.
- ISBN 978-1-4934-2242-5.
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Further reading
- Hägglund, Bengt (2007) [1968]. Teologins Historia [History of Theology] (in German). Translated by Lund, Gene L. (4th rev. ed.). St. Louis, Missouri: Concordia Publishing House. ISBN 978-0758613486.