History of Cleveland

The written history of Cleveland began with the city's founding by General Moses Cleaveland of the Connecticut Land Company on July 22, 1796. Its central location on the southern shore of Lake Erie and the mouth of the Cuyahoga River allowed it to become a major center for Great Lakes trade in northern Ohio in the early 19th century. An important Northern city during the American Civil War, Cleveland grew into a major industrial metropolis and a gateway for European and Middle Eastern immigrants, as well as African American migrants, seeking jobs and opportunity.

For most of the 20th century, Cleveland was one of America's largest cities, but after World War II, it suffered from post-war deindustrialization and suburbanization. The city has pursued a gradual recovery since the 1980s, becoming a major national center for healthcare and the arts by the early 21st century.

Prehistory

At the end of the

The oldest human, paleo-Indian traces reach back as far as 10500 BC. There was an early settlement in Medina County, dated between 9200 and 8850 BC. Some tools consisted of flint from Indiana.

Rising temperatures at about 7500 BC led to a stable phase between 7000 and 4500 BC which had similar characteristics to today's climate. Population grew, and these members of the so-called

Population density further increased during the Middle Archaic period (4500-2000 BC). Ground and polished stone tools and ornaments, and a variety of specialized chipped-stone notched points and knives, scrapers and drills were found on sites at Cuyahoga, Rocky River, Chippewa Creek, Tinker's, and Griswold Creek.

The Late Archaic period (2000 to 500 BC) coincided with a much warmer climate than today. For the first time evidence for regionally specific territories occurs, as well as limited gardening of squash, which later became very important. A long-distance trade of raw materials and finished artifacts with coastal areas, objects which were used in ceremonies and burials. The largest graveyard known is at the junction of the East and West branches of the Rocky River. Differences in status are revealed by the objects which accompanied the dead, like zoo- and anthropomorphic objects or

The following Early

After AD 400 maize dominated. Mounds were built no more, but the number of different groups increased, with winter villages at the Cuyahoga, Rocky and Lower Chagrin Rivers. Small, circular houses contained one or two fire hearths and storage pits. Tools and ornaments made of antler and bone were found. During the spring, people lived camps along the lakeshore ridges, along ponds and bogs, or headwaters of creeks, where they collected plants and fished.

Between AD 1000 and 1200 oval houses with single-post constructions dominated the summer villages, the emphasis on burial ceremony declined, but became more personal and consisted of ornaments, or personal tools.

From 1200 to 1600 Meso-American influence mediated by the

The final Whittlesey Tradition, beginning at about 1500, shows long-houses, fortified villages, and sweat lodges can be traced. But the villages in and around Cleveland reported by Charles Whittlesey, are gone. It was likely a warlike time, as the villages were even more strongly fortified than before. Cases of traumatic injury, nutritional deficiency, and disease were also found. It is obvious that the population declined until about 1640. One reason is probably the little ice-age beginning at about 1500. The other reason is probably permanent warfare. It seems that the region of Cleveland was uninhabited between 1640 and 1740.^[1]

18th and 19th centuries

Survey and establishment, 1796–1820

As one of thirty-six founders of the Connecticut Land Company, General Moses Cleaveland was selected as one of its seven directors and was subsequently sent out as the company's agent to map and survey the company's holdings. On July 22, 1796, Cleaveland and his surveyors arrived at the mouth of the Cuyahoga River. Cleaveland quickly saw the land, which had previously belonged to Native Americans, as an ideal location for the "capital city" of the Connecticut Western Reserve. Cleaveland and his surveyors quickly began making plans for the new city. He paced out a nine-and-a-half-acre Public Square, similar to those in New England. His surveyors decided upon the name, Cleaveland, after their leader. In October, Cleaveland returned to Connecticut where he pursued his ambition in political, military, and law affairs, never once returning to Ohio.^[2] The town's name was often shortened to "Cleveland," even by Cleaveland's original surveyors. A common myth emerged that the spelling was altered by The Cleveland Advertiser in order to fit the name on the newspaper's masthead.^[3][4]

Schoolteachers Job Phelps Stiles (born c. 1769 in

Though not initially apparent — the settlement was adjacent to swampy lowlands and the harsh winters did not encourage settlement — Cleaveland's location ultimately proved providential. It was for that reason that Cleaveland was selected as the seat of Cuyahoga County in 1809, despite protests from nearby rival Newburgh.^[10] Cleaveland's location also made it an important supply post for the U.S. during the Battle of Lake Erie in the War of 1812.^[11] Locals adopted Commodore Oliver Hazard Perry as a civic hero and erected a monument in his honor decades later.^[12] Largely through the efforts of the settlement's first lawyer Alfred Kelley,^[13] the village of Cleaveland was incorporated on December 23, 1814.^[14] In the municipal first elections on June 5, 1815, Kelley was unanimously elected the first president of the village.^[15] He held that position for only a few months, resigning on March 19, 1816.^[16]

Village to city, 1820–1860

Map of the Connecticut Western Reserve in 1826

The earliest known photograph of Cleveland's Public Square, 1857

Cleveland began to grow rapidly after the completion of the

These actions aggravated citizens of Ohio City, and brought to the surface a fierce rivalry between the small town and Cleveland.[18] Ohio City citizens rallied for "Two Bridges or None!".^[19] In October 1836, they violently sought to stop the use of Cleveland's new bridge by bombing the western end of it. However, the explosion caused little damage. A group of 1,000 Ohio City volunteers began digging deep ditches at both ends of the bridge, making it impossible for horses and wagons to reach the structure. Some citizens were still unsatisfied with this and took to using guns, crowbars, axes, and other weapons to finish off the bridge. They were then met by Willey and a group of armed Cleveland militiamen. A battle ensued on the bridge, with two men seriously wounded before the county sheriff arrived to stop the conflict and make arrests. The confrontation could have escalated into all out war between Cleveland and Ohio City, but was avoided by a court injunction.^[19] The two cities eventually made amends, and Ohio City was annexed by Cleveland in 1854.^[19]

The Columbus bridge became an important asset for Cleveland, permitting produce to enter the city from the surrounding hinterlands and allowing it to build its mercantile base. This was greatly increased with the coming of the Ohio and Erie Canal which realized the city's potential as a major Great Lakes port. Later, the growing town flourished as a halfway point for iron ore coming from Minnesota across the Great Lakes and for coal and other raw materials coming by rail from the south. It was in this period that Cleveland saw its first significant influx of immigrants, particularly from Ireland and the German states.^[20]

Civil War, 1861–1865

Strongly influenced by its New England roots, Cleveland was home to a vocal group of abolitionists who viewed slavery as a moral evil.^[21][22] Code-named "Station Hope", the city was a major stop on the Underground Railroad for escaped African American slaves en route to Canada.^[23] However, not all Clevelanders opposed slavery outright and views on the slaveholding South varied based on political affiliation.^[24] Nevertheless, as Bertram Wyatt-Brown noted, the city's "record of sympathy and help for the black man's plight in America matched, if not exceeded, that of any other metropolitan center in North America, with the exception, perhaps, of Boston and Toronto."^[21]

In the 1860 presidential election, Abraham Lincoln won 58% of the vote in 9 of Cleveland's 11 wards.^[24] In February 1861, the president-elect visited Cleveland on his way from Illinois to his inauguration in Washington and was greeted by a massive reception.^[25] However, as the war loomed closer, the partisan rhetoric of Cleveland newspapers became more and more heated. The pro-Republican Cleveland Herald and Gazette celebrated Lincoln's victory "as one of right over wrong, of Unionists over secession-minded southern Democrats," while another Republican paper, The Cleveland Leader dismissed threats of Southern secession. By contrast, the pro-Democratic Plain Dealer argued that Lincoln's election would mean the imminent secession of the South. When the American Civil War finally erupted in April 1861, Cleveland Republicans and War Democrats decided to temporarily put aside their differences and unite as the Union party in support of the war effort against the Confederacy. However, this uneasy coalition in support of the Union did not go untested.^[24]

The Civil War years brought an economic boom to Cleveland. The city was making the transition from a small town into an industrial giant. Local industries manufactured railroad iron, gun carriages, gun carriage axles, and gun powder. In 1863, "22% of all ships built for use on the Great Lakes were built in Cleveland," a figure that jumped to 44% by 1865.^[24] By 1865, Cleveland's banks "held $2.25 million in capital and $3.7 million in deposits."^[24] When the war ended, the city welcomed home its returning troops by treating them to a meal and welcoming ceremony at Public Square.^[24] Decades later, in July 1894, those Clevelanders serving the Union Army would be honored with the opening of the Soldiers' and Sailors' Monument.^[26] After Lincoln's assassination in 1865, his casket passed through Cleveland as thousands of onlookers observed the procession.^[25]

Industrial growth, 1865–1899

The Civil War vaulted Cleveland into the first rank of American

Along with the economic boom, Cleveland's immigrant population continued to grow. By 1870, the city's population had shot up to 92,829, more than doubling its 1860 population of 43,417, with a foreign-born population of 42%.^[32] In addition to the Irish and the Germans, mass numbers of new immigrants, particularly from Southern and Eastern Europe, came to the city, attracted by the prospect of jobs and the promise of a better future in America.^[20] By 1890, the year when the Cleveland Arcade was opened to the public, Cleveland had become the nation's 10th largest city, with a population of 261,353.^[33]

Gilded Age urban growth fostered the need for efficient police and fire protection, decent housing, public education, sanitation and health services, transportation, and better roads and streets. Industrial growth was also accompanied by significant strikes and labor unrest, as workers demanded better working conditions. In 1881–86, 70-80% of strikes were successful in improving labor conditions in Cleveland.^[34] The Cleveland Streetcar Strike of 1899 was one of the more violent instances of labor unrest in the city during this period.^[35]

Politically, the Republicans became the dominant political party in postbellum Cleveland. The main architect of this development was industrialist Mark Hanna, who entered politics when he was elected to the Cleveland Board of Education around 1869 and became a political boss.^[36] Hanna was eventually challenged by Republican Robert E. McKisson, who became mayor in 1895 and launched the construction of a new city water and sewer system. Vehemently anti-Hanna, McKisson created a powerful political machine to vie for control of the local Republican party.^[37] He padded the payroll with his political cronies, expanded the activities of government, and called for city ownership of all utilities. After serving two terms, he was soundly defeated by an alliance of Democrats and Hanna Republicans.^[38]

20th century

The Progressive Era, 1900–1919

Florence E. Allen at Woman suffrage headquarters, Upper Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, 1912

Map of Territorial Changes to the City of Cleveland

Early in the 20th century, Cleveland was a city on the rise and was known as the "Sixth City" due to its position as the sixth largest U.S. city at the time.[39] Its businesses included automotive companies such as Peerless, People's, Jordan, Chandler, and Winton, maker of the first car driven across the U.S. Other manufacturers in Cleveland produced steam-powered cars, which included those by White and Gaeth, and electric cars produced by Baker.^[40] The city's population also continued to grow. Alongside new immigrants, African American migrants from the rural South arrived in Cleveland (among other Northeastern and Midwestern cities) as part of the Great Migration for jobs, constitutional rights, and relief from racial discrimination.^[41]

However, it was clear that the city's government needed major reform. After a succession of Hanna Republicans and McKisson's corrupt political machine, Cleveland voted for change, putting progressive Democrat

Johnson's progressive associate Newton Baker was elected mayor in 1911. An advocate of municipal home rule, Baker helped write the Ohio constitutional amendment of 1912 granting municipalities the right of self-governance.[45] He played a prominent role in Cleveland's first home rule charter, which passed in 1913. In 1913 he went to Washington as Woodrow Wilson's Secretary of War. He subsequently returned to practicing law in Cleveland and became the founder of the law firm Baker, Hostetler & Sidlo (today BakerHostetler).^[45]

The spirit of the

Euclid Avenue in 1920

Aerial footage of Cleveland in 1924

The

The decade also saw the establishment of Cleveland's Playhouse Square and the rise of the risqué Short Vincent entertainment district.^[52][53][54] The Bal-Masque balls of the avant-garde Kokoon Arts Club scandalized the city.^[55][56] The northward migration of musicians from New Orleans brought jazz to Cleveland; new jazz talent also rose from Cleveland Central High School.^[57][58][59] The era of the flapper marked the beginning of the golden age in Downtown Cleveland retail, centered on major department stores Higbee's, Bailey's, the May Company, Taylor's, Halle's, and Sterling Lindner Davis, which collectively represented one of the largest and most fashionable shopping districts in the country, often compared to New York's Fifth Avenue.^[60] In 1929, the city hosted the first of many National Air Races, and Amelia Earhart flew to the city from Santa Monica, California in the Women's Air Derby (nicknamed the "Powder Puff Derby" by Will Rogers).^[61]

In politics, the city began a brief experiment with a

Unemployed Clevelanders served fresh rolls and coffee by Mrs. Albert Schmidt (right), 1930

Unemployed Clevelanders seeking jobs at Cleveland City Hall, 1930

On October 24, 1929, the stock market crashed, plunging the entire nation into the Great Depression. The crash hit Cleveland hard, with industrialist Cyrus Eaton once stating that the city was "hurt more by the Depression than any other city in the United States."^[73] By 1933, approximately fifty percent of Cleveland's industrial workers were left unemployed by the Depression.^[74]

Anti-Prohibition sentiment continued to grow. Tired of

A center of union activity, the city saw significant labor struggles in this period, including strikes by workers against Fisher Body in 1936 and against Republic Steel in 1937.^[34] The city was also aided by major federal works projects sponsored by President Roosevelt's New Deal.^[79] In commemoration of the centennial of Cleveland's incorporation as a city, the Great Lakes Exposition debuted in June 1936 at the city's North Coast Harbor, along the Lake Erie shore north of downtown.^[80] Conceived by Cleveland's business leaders as a way to revitalize the city during the Depression, it drew four million visitors in its first season, and seven million by the end of its second and final season in September 1937.^[81]

World War II and postwar, 1940–1962

On December 7, 1941,

Stokes was succeeded by

Ralph J. Perk, an ethnic Czech American and the first Republican to serve as mayor of Cleveland since the 1940s.^[102] Perk benefited from good connections with President Richard Nixon, allowing Cleveland to obtain federal funds to aid neighborhoods and to help crack down on city crime in the era of Irish American mobster Danny Greene.^[102][103] It was Perk who proposed merging Cleveland's public transit system with those of neighboring suburbs, thus forming the Greater Cleveland Regional Transit Authority.^[104] He also greatly expanded Cleveland's international ties by initiating several sister city partnerships.^[105] However, Perk was also known for his political gaffes, such as an incident in which his hair caught on fire, and another when his wife, Lucille, famously refused a dinner invitation from Pat Nixon for her "bowling night."^[104] Additionally, the city continued to experience population loss from deindustrialization and forced-busing of Cleveland Public Schools ordered by United States District Judge Frank J. Battisti.^[106] Between 1970 and 1973, the city lost 9.6 percent of its population, and by 1980 it had lost its position as one of the top 10 largest cities in the U.S.^[107]

In 1977, Perk lost the nonpartisan mayoral primary.

recall election in the city's history. Kucinich was nearly ousted from his position, but narrowly won with 236 votes.^[110]

Part of Kucinich's promise to voters was to cancel the sale of the publicly owned electric company, Cleveland Municipal Light (Muny Light), to the Cleveland Electric Illuminating Company (CEI), a private electric company. The sale was initiated by Perk, but Kucinich cancelled it when he entered office. In response, CEI went to a U.S. federal court to demand $14 million in damages from Muny for purchasing electricity and to secure an order to attach city equipment. Kucinich attempted to pay the bill by cutting city spending. However, the Cleveland Trust Company and five other Cleveland banks told the mayor that they would agree to renew the city's credit on $14 million of loans taken out by the prior administration only if he would sell Muny.^[111] As it happened, Kucinich did not sell and at midnight on December 15, 1978, Cleveland became the first major American city since the Great Depression to default on its financial obligations. By this time, voters had grown tired of the turbulent Kucinich years.^[112] In Cleveland's 1979 mayoral election, the mayor was defeated by Republican George V. Voinovich.^[113]

Late 20th and early 21st centuries

Comeback and stagnation, 1980–2005

By the beginning of the 1980s, several factors, including changes in international

FirstEnergy Stadium, and the Great Lakes Science Center.^[113] By 1987, Cleveland was not only out of default but was named an All-America City for a second, third, and fourth time.^[14] After his mayoralty, Voinovich then made a successful run for the governorship of Ohio.^[113]

Voinovich's successor was Democrat

Cleveland Browns Stadium.^[118] After serving three times, he declined from running for a fourth term in 2001 and retired to an alpaca farm near Newcomerstown, Ohio. Four years later, a federal investigation revealed that, despite the strides that White made in office, he may have accepted bribes from one of his associates, Nate Gray, in exchange for construction and parking contracts. However, no charges were made against the former mayor.^[119]

In 2002, White was succeeded by

Detroit-Shoreway, and parts of Hough. In the 2005 mayoral election, Campbell lost to City Council president, Frank G. Jackson. Jackson received 55% of the vote while Campbell secured 45% and assumed office as the city's 57th mayor on January 1, 2006.^[121]

Continued evolution, 2006–Present

At the beginning of Jackson's mayoralty, the city faced continued challenges, including efforts to retain the city's residency laws, the impact of the Great Recession on city neighborhoods, and a federal corruption investigation into Cuyahoga County officials.^[121][122] However, by the turn of the 21st century, Cleveland succeeded in developing a more diversified economy and gained a national reputation as a center for healthcare and the arts. Additionally, it has become a national leader in environmental protection, with its successful cleanup of the Cuyahoga River.^[123] The city's downtown and several neighborhoods have experienced significant population growth since 2010.^[124] In 2018, the population of Cleveland began to flatten after decades of decline.^[125] This trend has been accompanied by major victories in sports, most prominently the victory of the Cleveland Cavaliers in the 2016 NBA Finals, the first major professional sports championship won by a Cleveland team since 1964.^[126]

Nevertheless, challenges still remain for the city, with economic development of neighborhoods, improvement of city schools, and continued efforts to tackle poverty and urban blight being top municipal priorities.^[127] In June 2020, Cleveland City Council became the second local government in the US to issue a declaration stating that racism constitutes a public health emergency.^[128][129] A new mayor, Justin Bibb, was elected in 2021.^[130]

Chronology of Cleveland inventions and firsts

• 1863 – Free home delivery of mail - Joseph W. Briggs
• 1879 –
  Electric lighting of public streets - Charles F. Brush
• 1880 – Standardized formula paints -
  Sherwin-Williams Co.
• 1890 –
  Indoor shopping center
  (The Arcade)
• 1896 –
  Dayton C. Miller
  (Case School of Applied Science); X-Ray photograph in the U.S. - Dudley Wick (his hand)
• 1898 – Automobile sale in the U.S. - Alexander Winton
• 1899 – Wound-rubber core golf ball - Haskell Coburn
• 1900 – Automobile club
• 1901 – Automobile steering wheel - Alexander Winton
• 1905 – Blood transfusion - Dr. George W. Crile, Sr.
• 1910 – Automobile shock absorbers - C. H. Foster
• 1914 – Electric traffic signal - Euclid Ave. & East 105th St.
• 1915 – Submachine gun
• 1916 –
  Garrett A. Morgan
• 1920 – Unassisted triple play in a World Series Baseball Game
• 1921 – Automobile windshield wiper - Frederick G. and William M. Folberth
• 1927 – Municipal airport (Cleveland Hopkins International) and air traffic control tower
• 1928 – Frosted light bulbs - Marvin Pipkin
• 1929 – Airplane automatic pilot (tested)
• 1936 – Health museum
• 1951 – Rock and Roll Music (public recognition and coinage of the term) - Alan Freed
• 1952 – Successful Siamese twin separation
• 1967 – Elected the first African American mayor of a major U.S. city - Carl B. Stokes; Coronary artery bypass - Dr. René Favaloro - Cleveland Clinic
• 1968 – Rapid transit rail service from airport to downtown

See also

• American urban history
• Timeline of Cleveland
• History of Cleveland Clinic
• History of the Cleveland Browns
• History of the Cleveland Cavaliers
• History of the Cleveland Guardians
• History of Ohio

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83. ^ "Greater Cleveland Regional Transit Authority". The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History. Case Western Reserve University. May 11, 2018. Retrieved July 22, 2019.
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86. ^ "AAC Winners by State and City". National Civic League. Retrieved December 11, 2010.
87. ^ Schneider, Russell (November 3, 1991). "Those Championship Seasons: Cleveland's Rich Sports History". The Plain Dealer. p. 206. Once upon a time, Cleveland was known as the 'City of Champions.'
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Further reading

Main article: Bibliography of Cleveland

• * Van Tassel, David, and John Grabowski, eds. Encyclopedia of Cleveland History (1996), Massive with comprehensive coverage of all topics. online copy of hardcover
  • online copy of its text
• Albrecht, Brian; Banks, James (2015). Cleveland in World War II. Charleston: The History Press.
  ISBN 978-1-62619-882-1
  .
• Barton, Josef J. Peasants and Strangers: Italians, Rumanians, and Slovaks in an American City, 1890-1950 (1975). about Cleveland. online
• Bender, Kim K. "Cleveland, a leader among cities: The municipal home rule movement of the Progressive Era, 1900-1915" (PhD dissertation, University of Oklahoma; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 1996. 9623672).
• Bionaz, Robert Emery. "Streetcar city: Popular politics and the shaping of urban progressivism in Cleveland, 1880–1910" (PhD dissertation, University of Iowa; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 2002. 3050774).
• Borchert, James, and Susan Borchert. "Downtown, Uptown, Out of Town: Diverging Patterns of Upper-Class Residential Landscapes in Buffalo, Pittsburgh, and Cleveland, 1885-1935." Social Science History 26#2 (2002): 311–346.
• Briggs, Robert L. "The Progressive Era In Cleveland, Ohio: Tom L. Johnson's Administration, 1901-1909" (PhD dissertation, University of Chicago; Proquest Dissertations Publishing, 1962. T-09573).

• Campbell, Thomas F.; Miggins, Edward M. (1988). The Birth of Modern Cleveland, 1865-1930. Cleveland: Western Reserve Historical Society.
  ISBN 978-0-911704-36-5
  .
• ISBN 0-912458-73-9
  .
• Condon, George E. (1979). Cleveland: Prodigy of the Western Reserve. Tulsa: Continental Heritage Press.
  ISBN 978-0-932986-06-1
  .
• DeMatteo, Arthur Edward. "Urban reform, politics, and the working class: Detroit, Toledo, and Cleveland, 1890-1922" (PhD dissertation, University of Akron; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 1999. 9940602).

• Grabowski, John J.; Grabowski, Diane Ewart (2000). Cleveland: A History in Motion. Carlsbad, CA: Heritage Media.
  ISBN 1-886483-38-8
  .
• Gregor, Sharon E. (2010). Rockefeller's Cleveland. Charleston: Arcadia Publishing.

• Hoffman, Mark C. "City republic, civil religion, and the single tax: The progressive-era founding of public administration in Cleveland, 1901-1915" (PhD dissertation, Cleveland State University; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 1998. 9928627).
• Hoffman, Naphtali. "The Process of Economic Development in Cleveland, 1825-1920" (PhD dissertation,  Case Western Reserve University; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 1981. 8109590).
• Holli, Melvin G., and Jones, Peter d'A., eds. Biographical Dictionary of American Mayors, 1820-1980 (Greenwood Press, 1981) short scholarly biographies each of the city's mayors 1820 to 1980. online; see index at p. 408 for list.

• Hothem, Seth, et al. "From Flames to Fish: Resurrection of the Cuyahoga." Proceedings of the Water Environment Federation 2009.16 (2009): 1655–1672.
• Jenkins, William D. "Before Downtown Cleveland, Ohio, and Urban Renewal, 1949-1958." Journal of Urban History 27.4 (2001): 471–496.
• Johannesen, Eric (1979). Cleveland Architecture, 1876-1976. Cleveland: Western Reserve Historical.
  ISBN 978-0-911704-21-1
  .
• Keating, W. Dennis; Krumholz, Norman; Perry, David C. (1995). Cleveland: A Metropolitan Reader. Kent, OH: Kent State University Press.
  ISBN 978-0-87338-492-6
  .
• Keating, Dennis, Norman Krumholz, and Ann Marie Wieland. "Cleveland's Lakefront: Its Development and Planning." Journal of Planning History 4#2 (2005): 129–154.
• Kukral, Michael A. "Czech Settlements in 19th Century Cleveland, Ohio." East European Quarterly 38.4 (2004): 473.
• Kusmer, Kenneth L. (1978). A Ghetto Takes Shape: Black Cleveland, 1870-1930. Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press.
  ISBN 978-0-252-00690-6
  .
• Lamoreaux, Naomi R., Margaret Levenstein, and Kenneth L. Sokoloff. "Financing invention during the second industrial revolution: Cleveland, Ohio, 1870-1920." (No. w10923. National Bureau of Economic Research, 2004). online

• Lee, Darry Kyong Ho. "From a puritan city to a cosmopolitan city: Cleveland Protestants in the changing social order, 1898-1940" (PhD dissertation, Case Western Reserve University; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 1994. 9501996).
• Michney, Todd M. (2017). Surrogate Suburbs: Black Upward Mobility and Neighborhood Change in Cleveland, 1900–1980. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
  ISBN 978-1-4696-3194-3
  .
• Miggins, Edward M. " 'No Crystal Stair' The Cleveland Public Schools and the Struggle for Equality, 1900–1930." Journal of Urban History 40.4 (2014): 671-698.
• Miggins, Edward M. "The Search for the One Best System: Cleveland Public Schools And Educational Reform, 1836-1920." in Van Tasse, ed. Cleveland: A tradition of reform (1986): 135-155.

• Miller, Carol Poh; Wheeler, Robert A. (1997). Cleveland: A Concise History, 1796–1996 (2nd ed.). Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
  ISBN 978-0-253-21147-7
  .

• Moore, Leonard Nathaniel. "The limits of black power: Carl B. Stokes and Cleveland's African-American community, 1945-1971" (PhD dissertation, The Ohio State University; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 1998. 9834036).

• Morton, Marian J. (2002). Cleveland Heights: The Making of An Urban Suburb. Charleston: Arcadia Publishing.
  ISBN 0-7385-2384-4
  .
• Phillips, Julieanne Appleson. " 'Unity in diversity'? The Federation of Women's Clubs and the middle class in Cleveland, Ohio, 1902-1962" (PhD dissertation, Case Western Reserve University; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 1996. 9720443).
• Poluse, Martin Frank. "Archbishop Joseph Schrembs and the twentieth century Catholic Church in Cleveland, 1921-1945" (PhD dissertation, Kent State University; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 1991. 92146740.
• Rainey, David M. "A Seemingly Insurmountable Problem: Carl Stokes and the Failure of Cleveland Now!" )PhD disssertation, U of Massachusetts Boston; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 2018. 13419673).
• Rose, William Ganson (1990). Cleveland: The Making of a City (2nd ed.). Kent, OH: Kent State University Press.
  ISBN 978-0-87338-428-5
  .
• Suman, Michael Wesley. "The radical urban politics of the Progressive Era: An analysis of the political transformation in Cleveland, Ohio, 1875-1909" (PhD dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 1992. 9301960).

• Tuennerman-Kaplan, Laura. Helping others, helping ourselves: Power, giving, and community identity in Cleveland, Ohio, 1880-1930 (Kent State University Press, 2001).
• Van Tassel, David, and John Grabowski, eds. Cleveland: A Tradition of Reforms (1986) tten essays by experts
• Veronesi, Gene P. Italian-Americans & Their Communities of Cleveland (1977) Complete text online

Older sources

• Avery, Elroy McKendree (1918). A History of Cleveland and Its Environs: the Heart of New Connecticut. 3 volumes. Chicago, IL: The Lewis Publishing Company. Retrieved 2013-06-09.
• Auburn, William H., and Miriam R. Auburn. 1933. This Cleveland of Ours. Cleveland: S.J. Clarke Publishing Co.
• Cleveland. Vol. 1 (Special limited ed.). Chicago: The Lewis Publishing Company. 1918. Retrieved 2013-06-09.
• Cleveland. Vol. 2 (Special limited ed.). Chicago: The Lewis Publishing Company. 1918. Retrieved 2013-06-09.
• Kennedy, James Harrison (1896). A history of the city of Cleveland : its settlement, rise, and progress, 1796-1896, illustrated with maps, portraits, and views. Cleveland, Ohio: The Imperial Press. Retrieved 2013-06-09.
• Orth, Samuel Peter. A History of Cleveland, Ohio: Biographical. Vol. 2 (SJ Clarke Publishing Company, 1910). online
• Urann, Clara A. (1896). Centennial history of Cleveland. Cleveland, Ohio: Press of J.B. Savage. Retrieved 2013-06-09.
• Wallen, James (1920). Cleveland's golden story, a chronicle of hearts that hoped, minds that planned and hands that toiled, to make a city "great and glorious". William Taylor Son & Co. Retrieved 2013-06-09.
• Whittlesey, Charles (1867). Early History of Cleveland, Ohio: Including Original Papers and Other Matter Relating to the Adjacent Country, with Biographical Notices of the Pioneers and Surveyors. Cleveland, Ohio: Fairbanks, Benedict & Co. Retrieved 2013-06-09.

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to History of Cleveland, Ohio.

• The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History at Case Western Reserve University
• Cleveland Historical at Cleveland State University
• Cleveland Memory Project at Cleveland State University
• Cleveland Public Library Digital Gallery at the Cleveland Public Library
• Western Reserve Historical Society