History of Djibouti
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Djibouti is a country in the Horn of Africa bordered by Somaliland to the east, Eritrea to west and the Red Sea to the north, Ethiopia to the west and south, and the Gulf of Aden to the east.
In antiquity, the territory was part of the
Prehistory
The Bab-el-Mandeb region has often been considered a primary crossing point for early hominins following a southern coastal route from East Africa to South Arabia and Southeast Asia.
Djibouti area has been inhabited since the
The cut stones 3 million years old, collected in the area of
Pottery predating the mid-2nd millennium has been found at
The site of Wakrita is a small Neolithic establishment located on a wadi in the tectonic depression of Gobaad in Djibouti in the Horn of Africa. The 2005 excavations yielded abundant ceramics that enabled us to define one Neolithic cultural facies of this region, which was also identified at the nearby site of Asa Koma. The faunal remains confirm the importance of fishing in Neolithic settlements close to Lake Abbé, but also the importance of bovine husbandry and, for the first time in this area, evidence for caprine herding practices. Radiocarbon dating places this occupation at the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC, similar in range to Asa Koma. These two sites represent the oldest evidence of herding in the region, and they provide a better understanding of the development of Neolithic societies in this region.
Up to 4000 years BC. AD, the region benefited from a
Antiquity
Together with Somaliland, Eritrea and the Red Sea coast of Sudan, Djibouti is considered the most likely location of the land known to the ancient Egyptians as Punt (or "Ta Netjeru", meaning "God's Land"). The old territory's first mention dates to the 25th century BC.[8] The Puntites were a nation of people that had close relations with Ancient Egypt during the times of Pharaoh Sahure of the fifth dynasty and Queen Hatshepsut of the eighteenth dynasty. They "traded not only in their own produce of incense, ebony and short-horned cattle, but also in goods from other neighbouring regions, including gold, ivory and animal skins."[9] According to the temple reliefs at Deir el-Bahari, the Land of Punt at the time of Hatshepsut was ruled by King Parahu and Queen Ati.[10]
Macrobians
The
Their name is due to their legendary longevity; an average person supposedly living to the age of 120.[11] They were said to be the "tallest and handsomest of all men".[12]
According to Herodotus' account, the
Kingdom of Aksum
The rule of the Aksumite Kingdom may have at times extended to areas that are now within Djibouti, though the nature and extent of its control are not clear.[14]
Ifat Sultanate
The
Adal Sultanate
Egypt Eyalet
Governor Abou Baker ordered the Egyptian garrison at Sagallo to retire to Zeila. The cruiser Seignelay reached Sagallo shortly after the Egyptians had departed. French troops occupied the fort despite protests from the British Agent in Aden, Major Frederick Mercer Hunter, who dispatched troops to safeguard British and Egyptian interests in Zeila and prevent further extension of French influence in that direction.[22] On 14 April 1884 the Commander of the patrol sloop L’Inferent reported on the Egyptian occupation in the Gulf of Tadjoura. The Commander of the patrol sloop Le Vaudreuil reported that the Egyptians were occupying the interior between Obock and Tadjoura. Emperor Johannes IV of Ethiopia signed an accord with the United Kingdom to cease fighting the Egyptians and to allow the evacuation of Egyptian forces from Ethiopia and the Somali Coast ports. The Egyptian garrison was withdrawn from Tadjoura. Léonce Lagarde deployed a patrol sloop to Tadjoura the following night.
French Somaliland
The boundaries of the present-day Djibouti nation state were established during the
Growing French interest in the area took place against a backdrop of British activity in Egypt and the opening of the
In 1889, a Russian by the name of
The administrative capital was moved from Obock in 1896. The city of
World War II
After the Italian
Indeed the Italians did undertake some offensive actions beginning on 18 June 1940, occupying nearly one third of French Somaliland in a few days.[27]
From
By the end of June the Italians had also occupied the border fortifications of Magdoul, Daimoli, Balambolta, Birt Eyla, Asmailo, Tewo, Abba,
Later, British and Commonwealth forces fought the neighboring Italians during the
Referendums
In 1958, on the eve of neighboring Somalia's independence in 1960, a
In 1960, with the fall of the ruling Dini administration, Ali Aref Bourhan, a Harbist politician, assumed the seat of Vice President of the Government Council of French Somaliland, representing the UNI party.[35] He would hold that position until 1966.
That same year, France rejected the United Nations' recommendation that it should grant French Somaliland independence. In August, an official visit to the territory by then French President, General Charles de Gaulle, was also met with demonstrations and rioting.[36][37] In response to the protests, de Gaulle ordered another referendum.[37]
On 19 March 1967, a
French Territory of the Afars and Issas
In 1967, shortly after the second referendum was held, the former Côte française des Somalis (French Somaliland) was renamed to Territoire français des Afars et des Issas. This was both in acknowledgement of the large Afar constituency and to downplay the significance of the Somali composition (the Issa being a Somali sub-clan).[41]
The French Territory of Afars and Issas also differed from French Somaliland in terms of government structure, as the position of governor changed to that of high commissioner. A nine-member council of government was also implemented. During the 1960s, the struggle for independence was led by the
In 1976, the French garrison, centered on the
The FLCS was recognized as a national liberation movement by the
A
After independence the new government signed an agreement calling for a strong French garrison, though the 13 DBLE was envisaged to be withdrawn.[43] While the unit was reduced in size, a full withdrawal never actually took place.
Djibouti Republic
In 1981, Aptidon turned the country into a one party state by declaring that his party, the Rassemblement Populaire pour le Progrès (RPP) (People's Rally for Progress), was the sole legal one. Clayton writes that the French garrison played the major role in suppressing further minor unrest about this time, during which Djibouti became a one-party state on a much broader ethnic and political basis.[43]
A civil war broke out in 1991, between the government and a predominantly Afar rebel group, the Front for the Restoration of Unity and Democracy (FRUD). The FRUD signed a peace accord with the government in December 1994, ending the conflict. Two FRUD members were made cabinet members, and in the presidential elections of 1999 the FRUD campaigned in support of the RPP.
Aptidon resigned as president 1999, at the age of 83, after being elected to a fifth term in 1997. His successor was his nephew,
On 12 May 2001, President Ismail Omar Guelleh presided over the signing of what is termed the final peace accord officially ending the decade-long civil war between the government and the armed faction of the FRUD, led by Ahmed Dini Ahmed, an Afar nationalist and former Gouled political ally. The peace accord successfully completed the peace process begun on 7 February 2000 in Paris. Ahmed Dini Ahmed represented the FRUD.[47]
In the presidential election held 8 April 2005, Ismail Omar Guelleh was re-elected to a second 6-year term at the head of a multi-party coalition that included the FRUD and other major parties. A loose coalition of opposition parties again boycotted the election. Currently, political power is shared by a Somali president and an Afar prime minister, with an Afar career diplomat as Foreign Minister and other cabinet posts roughly divided. However, Issas are predominate in the government, civil service, and the ruling party. That, together with a shortage of non-government employment, has bred resentment and continued political competition between the Issa Somalis and the Afars. In March 2006, Djibouti held its first regional elections and began implementing a decentralization plan. The broad pro-government coalition, including FRUD candidates, again ran unopposed when the government refused to meet opposition preconditions for participation. In the 2008 elections, the opposition Union for a Presidential Majority (UMP) party boycotted the election, leaving all 65 seats to the ruling RPP. Voter turnout figures were disputed. Guelleh was re-elected in the 2011 presidential election.[48]
Due to its strategic location at the mouth of the
In April 2021,
See also
- Colonial heads of Djibouti (French Somaliland)
- French Territory of the Afars and the Issas (FTAI)
- French Somaliland
- Heads of government of Djibouti
- History of Africa
- List of presidents of Djibouti
- Politics of Djibouti
- Djibouti City history and timeline
Footnotes
- ^ For further information, see Red Sea Flotilla.
References
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- ISBN 978-0759104662. Archivedfrom the original on 14 September 2014. Retrieved 8 September 2014.
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- ISBN 9783937248004. Archivedfrom the original on 14 September 2014. Retrieved 7 September 2014.
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- ^ Simson Najovits, Egypt, trunk of the tree, Volume 2, (Algora Publishing: 2004), p.258.
- ^ Tyldesley, Hatchepsut, p.147
- ^ Breasted 1906–07, pp. 246–295, vol. 1.
- ^ The Geography of Herodotus: Illustrated from Modern Researches and Discoveries by James Talboys Wheeler pg 528. The British Critic, Quarterly Theological Review, And Ecclesiastical Record Volume 11 pg 434
- ^ a b Wheeler pg 526
- ^ John Kitto, James Taylor, The popular cyclopædia of Biblical literature: condensed from the larger work, (Gould and Lincoln: 1856), p.302.
- ISSN 1572-9842.
- ^ J. Gordon Melton and Martin Baumann, Religions of the World, Second Edition: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of Beliefs and Practices, page 2663
- ^ Asafa Jalata, State Crises, Globalisation, And National Movements In North-east Africa page 3-4
- ISBN 978-1841623719.
- ^ a b Encyclopedia Americana, Volume 25. Americana Corporation. 1965. p. 255.
- ^ a b Lewis, I.M. (1955). Peoples of the Horn of Africa: Somali, Afar and Saho. International African Institute. p. 140.
- doi:10.3406/ethio.1987.931. Archived from the original(PDF) on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 7 September 2014.
- ^ "Tiya – Prehistoric site". UNESCO. Retrieved 24 December 2014.
- ^ "FRENCH SOMALI COAST 1708 – 1946 FRENCH SOMALI COAST | Awdalpress.com". Archived from the original on 9 June 2013. Retrieved 19 April 2013. FRENCH SOMALI COAST Timeline
- ^ Raph Uwechue, Africa year book and who's who, (Africa Journal Ltd.: 1977), p. 209.
- ^ Ashinov, Achinov, Atchinoff or Atchimoff
- ^ (in French) Le cosaque Achinoff in Le Progrès Illustré (French daily newspaper), 1 March 1891
- ^ Ernest A. Wallis Budge, A history of Ethiopia, Nubia and Abyssinia, Taylor & Francis, 1928.
- ^ further detailed info at simple:Italian invasion of French Somaliland
- ^ Rovighi 1995, p. 107.
- ^ Thompson & Adloff 1968, p. 16.
- ^ Rovighi 1995, p. 105.
- ^ Rovighi 1995, p. 109.
- ^ ISBN 0472068989
- ISBN 1579582451.
- ^ United States Joint Publications Research Service, Translations on Sub-Saharan Africa, Issues 464–492, (1966), p.24.
- doi:10.4000/ccrh.472.
- ^ a b A Political Chronology of Africa, (Taylor & Francis), p.132.
- ^ a b Newsweek, Volume 81, (Newsweek: 1973), p.254.
- ^ a b American Universities Field Staff, Northeast Africa series, Volume 15, Issue 1, (American Universities Field Staff.: 1968), p.3.
- ^ a b c Jean Strouse, Newsweek, Volume 69, Issues 10–17, (Newsweek: 1967), p.48.
- ^ Africa Research, Ltd, Africa contemporary record: annual survey and documents, Volume 1, (Africana Pub. Co.: 1969), p.264.
- ^ a b Alvin J. Cottrell, Robert Michael Burrell, Georgetown University. Center for Strategic and International Studies, The Indian Ocean: its political, economic, and military importance, (Praeger: 1972), p.166.
- ^ "French Envoy in Somalia Held by Anti-Paris Group". The New York Times. 25 March 1975.
- ^ a b c Clayton 1988, 236.
- ^ Gonidec, Pierre François. African Politics. The Hague: Matinus Nijhoff, 1981. p. 272
- ^ Kevin Shillington, Encyclopedia of African history, (CRC Press: 2005), p.360.
- ISBN 0-19-829645-2
- ^ "Djibouti (09/06)". U.S. Department of State. Retrieved 9 June 2017.
- ^ "Djibouti: President Ismael Omar Guelleh wins third term". BBC News. 9 April 2011.
- ^ "Introduction to MARCENT". United States Marine Corps. May 2006. Archived from the original (PPT) on 25 October 2007. Retrieved 9 February 2007.
- ^ "Africans Fear Hidden U.S. Agenda in New Approach to Africom". Associated Press. 30 September 2008. Archived from the original on 2 April 2013. Retrieved 30 September 2008.
- ^ "Japan Opens Military Base in Djibouti to Help Combat Piracy". Bloomberg. 8 July 2011.
- ^ "Djibouti President Guelleh wins election with 98%, provisional results". Africanews.
- Bibliography
- Clayton, Anthony (1988). France, Soldiers, and Africa. Brassey's Defence Publishers.
- Rovighi (1995). Le operazioni in Africa orientale (giugno 1940 – novembre 1941). Volume II: Documenti. Rome: Stato Maggiore dell'Esercito.
- Thompson, Virginia McLean; Adloff, Richard (1968). Djibouti and the Horn of Africa. Stanford University Press.