History of East Africa

The history of East Africa has been divided into its prehistory, the major polities flourishing, the colonial period, and the post-colonial period, in which the current nations were formed.

Geography

The area located at the south of the desert is a

In 15,000 BP, the

In 78,300 BP, amid the Middle Stone Age, a two and half to three year old human child was buried at Panga ya Saidi, in Kenya.^[2]

In 13,000 BP,

Amid the Holocene, around 7100 BP, six individuals were buried.^[5]

In the uplands of

There is also evidence that carbon steel was made in Western Tanzania by the ancestors of the Haya people as early as 2,300 to 2,000 years ago (about 300 BC or soon after) by a complex process of "pre-heating" allowing temperatures inside a furnace to reach 1300 to 1400 °C.^{[12][13][14][15][16][17]}

Dates are approximate, consult particular article for details

  Iron Age

Ancient history

From

The Kerma culture was based in the southern part of Nubia, or "Upper Nubia" (in parts of present-day northern and central Sudan), and later extended its reach northward into Lower Nubia and the border of Egypt.^[20] The city-state of Kerma emerged as the dominant political force, controlling the Nile Valley between the first and fourth cataracts, an area as large as Egypt. The Egyptians were the first to identify Kerma as "Kush" and over the next several centuries the two civilizations engaged in intermittent warfare, trade, and cultural exchange.^[21] It emerged as the earliest kingdom in Sub-Saharan Africa, and persisted from 2500 BCE to 1500 BCE.^[22]

Kingdom of Punt

The earliest recorded ancient Egyptian expedition to Punt was organized by Pharaoh Sahure of the Fifth Dynasty (25th century BCE), returning with cargoes of antyue and Puntites. However, gold from Punt is recorded as having been in Egypt as early as the time of Pharaoh Khufu of the Fourth Dynasty.^[23]

Subsequently, there were more expeditions to Punt in the Sixth, Eleventh, Twelfth and Eighteenth dynasties of Egypt. In the Twelfth Dynasty, trade with Punt was celebrated in popular literature in the Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor.

In the reign of

Given the presence of a large temple complex, the capital of Dʿmt may have been present day Yeha, in Tigray Region, Ethiopia.^[28] At Yeha, the temple to the god Ilmuqah is still standing.^[29]

Aksumite Empire

Somewhat based on the basis of Carlo Conti Rossini's theories and prolific work on Ethiopian history, Aksum is thought by some to have started out as a Sabaean colony, founded by the semitic Sabaeans, also evidenced by the semitic language domination over the oromo language, part of the Cushitic branch of the Afro-Asiatic language phylum. Others believe that the development of it was mostly independent. Proponents of the latter believe that Sabaean influence was minor, limited to a few localities, and disappearing after a few decades or a century, perhaps representing a trading or military colony in some sort of symbiosis or military alliance with D' mt or some other "proto-Aksumite" state. Evidence suggests that semitic-speaking Aksumites semiticized the Agaw people, who, before that, most likely took influence from foreign Afroasiatic cultures in their development as a people group, suggested by the Cushitic language they speak. They had also already established an agricultural community in the area before any known arrival of the Sabaeans, to which is affiliated with the spread of the Afro-Asiatic language phylum.^[30][a][31]

Swahili Coast

In the pre-Swahili period, the region was occupied by smaller societies whose main socioeconomic activities were pastoralism, fishing, and mixed farming.^[32] Early on, those living on the Swahili coast prospered because of agriculture helped by regular yearly rainfall and animal husbandry.^[33] The shallow coast was important as it provided seafood.^[33] Starting in the early 1st millennium CE, trade was crucial.^[33][34] Submerged river estuaries created natural harbors as well as the yearly monsoon winds helped trade.^[33][34] Later in the 1st millennium CE there was a huge migration of Bantu-speaking peoples.^[33] The communities settling along the coast shared archaeological and linguistic features with those from the interior of the continent. Archeological data has revealed the use of Kwale and Urewe ceramics both along the coast and within the interior parts, showing that the regions had a shared lifeway in the Late Stone and Early Iron Ages.^[32]

Post-classical history

Harla Kingdom

Harla Kingdom

The Kingdom of Bazin was an early medieval

The beginning of a conversion process of the

The Kingdom of Belgin, also known as the Kingdom of Baqulin, was an early medieval

The Kingdom of Jarin was an early medieval

The Kingdom of Qita’a, also known as the Kingdom of Qata, was an early medieval

The Kingdom of Nagash was an early medieval

The Kingdom of Tankish was an early medieval

The Tunni, composed of five sub-clans (Da'farad, Dakhtira, Goygali, Hajuwa, and Waridi), were the latest to drive the Jiddu into the interior, where they established their own Sultanate in Qoryoley. The Tunni made a treaty with the Jiddu so that Tunni settled on the west bank of the Shabelle and the Jiddu settled on the east bank. Both also agreed to resist foreign penetration, to allow only Seddah Saamood (the three foot-prints, which are the Tuni, the Jiddu, and the wild beasts).^[44] However, they did accept the first Muslim migrants, the Hatimi from Yemen and the Amawi from Syria, around the 10th century CE, for both religious and commercial reasons. Barawa founded by a Tunni saint called Aw-Al became the new capital for the Tunni Sultanate. The town prospered and became one of the major Islamic centers in the Horn, the Barawaani Ulama, attracting students from all over the region. Muslim scholars of that time, such as Ibn Sa'id, wrote about Barawa as "an Islamic island on the Somali coast." Al-Idrisi also described the construction of the coral houses and noted that Barawa was full of both domestic and foreign commodities.^[45]

Eventually, the Tunni people abandoned the pastoral lifestyle and established themselves largely as farmers on the rich arable land where they grew a variety of fruits and vegetables but they still continued to practice livestock grazing. They established a number of concentrated settlements on the interior such as Buulo, Golweyn, and Xaramka, Jilib, Jamaame, and their center

According to

The story of Kilwa begins around 960 CE – 1000 CE.^[55]

Ethiopian Empire

The Ethiopian Empire would emerge following the establishment of the Solomonic dynasty by Yekuno Amlak in approximately 1270.^[56]

Sultanate of Ifat

Ifat first emerged when Umar ibn Dunya-huz, later to be known as Sultan

For many years Mogadishu functioned as the pre-eminent city in the Bilad al Barbar, or "Land of the

In the early 13th century CE, Mogadishu along with other coastal and interior Somali cities in southern Somalia and eastern Abyissina came under the Ajuran Sultanate control and experienced another Golden Age.^[70]

Kingdom of Buganda

Originally a vassal state of Bunyoro, Buganda grew rapidly in power in the 18th century CE and the 19th century CE becoming the dominant kingdom in the region. Buganda started to expand in the 1840s CE, and used fleets of war canoes to establish "a kind of imperial supremacy" over Lake Victoria and the surrounding regions. Subjugating weaker peoples for cheap labor, Buganda grew into a powerful "embryonic empire".^[71] The first direct contact with Europeans was established in 1862 CE, when British explorers John Hanning Speke and Captain Sir Richard Francis Burton entered Buganda and according to their reports, the kingdom was highly organized.^[72]

Ajuran Sultanate

The Ajuran Empire, also spelled Ajuuraan Empire,

The Kingdom of Kaffa was founded, c. 1390 CE, by Minjo, who according to oral tradition ousted the Mato dynasty of 32 kings. However, his informants told Amnon Orent, "no one remembers the name of a single one."^[79]

Kingdom of Rwanda

Before the 19th century CE, it was believed that the Tutsis held military leadership power while the Hutus possessed healing power and agricultural skills. In this capacity, the Mwami's council of advisors (abiiru) was exclusively Hutu and held significant sway. By the mid-18th century CE, however, the abiiru had become increasingly marginalized.^[80]

As the kings centralized their power and authority, they distributed land among individuals rather than allowing it to be passed down through lineage groups, of which many hereditary chiefs had been Hutu. Most of the chiefs appointed by the Mwamis were Tutsi.^[81] The redistribution of land, enacted between 1860 CE and 1895 CE by Kigeli IV Rwabugiri, resulted in an imposed patronage system, under which appointed Tutsi chiefs demanded manual labor in return for the right of Hutus to occupy their land. This system left Hutus in a serf-like status with Tutsi chiefs as their feudal masters.^[82][83]

Adal Sultanate

According to Shilluk legends, the kingdom was founded in 1490 CE. Its legendary first ruler ("Reth") was the hero known as Nyikang who claimed to be half-crocodile and possessed power over the rain.^[90] Nyikang was the son of a king, Okwa, who ruled a country located "far south near a large lake". This may be Lake Albert, where the Acholi live. After Okwa's death, Nyikang went to war with his brother Duwadh, the legitimate successor to the throne. Facing defeat, Nyikang left his homeland with his retinue and migrated northeast to Wau (near the Bahr el Ghazal, "river of gazelles" in Arabic). Here (known by the Shilluk as the Pothe Thuro) Nyikang married the daughter of Dimo, the local magician. After a conflict with Dimo Nyikang migrated north (crossing the Bahr el Ghazal) to Acietagwok (a Shilluk village about 30 kilometres (19 mi) west of the village of Tonga) around 1550 CE. Nyikang then traveled to Nyilual, an uninhabited region west of the present town of Malakal.^[91] In the end, legends claim that Nyikang vanished in a whirlwind in the middle of a battle.^[90]

Ankole Kingdom

Banyankore trace their ancestors back to the Bairu and the Bahima subgroup.

The date of the foundation of the Kingdom of Burundi is unknown but probably dates back to the 17th century CE when the

The Kooki Kingdom was established at some point in time between 1696 CE and 1740 CE by the Mubito prince of Bwohe. Bwohe was a part of the Bunyoro-Kitara dynasty who with his followers broke away from the larger Bunyoro-Kitara Kingdom and created his own. Bwohe died in either 1740 CE or 1750 CE.^[101][102]

Sultanate of the Geledi

At the end of the 17th century CE, the Ajuran Sultanate was on its decline and various vassals were breaking free or being absorbed by new Somali powers. One of these powers was the Silcis Sultanate, which began consolidating its rule over the Afgooye region. Ibrahim Adeer led the revolt against the Silcis ruler Umar Abrone and his oppressive daughter, Princess Fay.^[103] After his victory over the Silcis, Ibrahim then proclaimed himself Sultan and subsequently founded the Gobroon Dynasty.

The Geledi Sultanate was a

Sultanate of Aussa

In 1734 CE, the

The Majeerteen Sultanate was established, possibly around 1600s CE, by

The modern Guleed dynasty of the Isaaq Sultanate was established in the middle of the 18th century CE by Sultan Guled of the

The Habr Yunis Sultanate was a

Mohammed Hassen explains the tradition around Nur Husain as reflecting the fact that "Gomma was the first state in the Gibe region where Islam became the religion of the whole people."^[117] Trimingham states that Gomma was the first of the Gibe kingdoms to convert to Islam, quoting Major G.W. Harris as writing that by 1841 CE "in Goma the Moslem faith is universal."^[118]

Tooro Kingdom

The Tooro Kingdom evolved out of a breakaway segment of Bunyoro some period before the 19th century CE.^[119] It was founded in 1830 CE when Omukama Kaboyo Olimi I, the eldest son of Omukama of Bunyoro Nyamutukura Kyebambe III of Bunyoro, seceded and established his own independent kingdom.^[120][121]

Mbokane Kingdom

The Mbokane Kingdom or Chieftaincy dates back to the founding of the Swati nation. The Mbokane clan was one of the 17 founding clans of the Kingdom of Swaziland, now Eswatini. At least two of the olden days, King of Swaziland’s senior advisers were from the Mbokane clan. The first known senior Chief of the Mbokane clan was Chief Gadlela Mbokane. He was the senior Chief and adviser to iNgwenyama King Dlamini III. Dlamini III was a king or iNgwenyama of the Swazi people and he led them approximately between 1720 until 1744. King Dlamini III was the father to Ngwane III the first King of modern Swaziland. Chief Manzini Mbokane was one of the senior adviser to King Mbandzeni. Mbandzeni (also known as Dlamini IV, Umbandine,[2] Umbandeen[3]) (1855–1889) was the King of Swaziland from 1872 until 1889. Chief Manzini Mbokane’s granddaughter was also married to Prince Mbilini waMswati. Prince Mbilini waMswati was a Swazi prince and son of Mswati II.

Kingdom of Jimma

The origins of Jimma are obscure, although prior to the

The latest kings of Gumma traced their origin to a man called Adam. Around 1770 CE, he came to live in the area, and is said to have then helped in the deposition of the last king of the previous dynasty, Sarborada. The historian Mohammed Hassen, in discussing this tradition, suggests this tradition about Adam "was invented so as to Islamize the original founder of the dynasty."^[124]

King

Initially,

In late 1888 CE, Sultan Kenadid entered into a treaty with the

The Karagwe kingdom was part of the many Great Lakes Kingdoms in East Africa. The kingdom reached its apex during the 19th century CE. The growth occurred during the early part of the 1800s CE with King Ndagara who came to power around 1820 CE and ruled until 1853 CE at which time he was replaced by King Rumanika.^[129]

Kingdom of Unyanyembe

Unyanyembe had a large population of the Tutsi in the 19th century CE. Although they came primarily as herdsmen, many were recruited into the army for the war against Urambo.^[130]

Kingdom of Urambo

Much of Mirambo's success came from his associations with the Watuta. This was a sub-group of Ngoni people, who were connected with Zwagendaba. With the wars in southern Africa as Shaka had expanded Zulu power, this group had been driven north, this particular sub-group settling near Bukune. Mirambo was closely associated with the Watuta's leader Mpangalala. It seems that it was from Mpangalala Mirambo learned about the age-grade military systems of southern Africa, and this led to Mirambo implementing it in his own similar system called the rugaruga. By the early 1880s CE, this military organization had about 10,000 members.^[131]

Slave trade

Portuguese and Arab periods

Post-colonial period

History of Eastern African Architecture

Further information in the sections of Architecture of Africa:

• Ancient Eastern African Architecture
• Medieval Eastern African Architecture

Political history of East Africa

History of science and technology in East Africa

Further information in the sections of History of science and technology in Africa:

Military history of East Africa

Genetic history of Eastern Africa

From the region of

While

At Kilifi, Mtwapa, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1250 CE and 1650 CE, carried haplogroup L0a1b2a.^[143]

At

At Kilifi, Mtwapa, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1250 CE and 1650 CE, carried haplogroups J1a2a1a2d2b~ and L0a2a1a2.^[143]

At

At Kilifi, Mtwapa, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1250 CE and 1650 CE, carried haplogroup L0a2.^[143]

At

At Kilifi, Mtwapa, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1250 CE and 1650 CE, carried haplogroup L0a2a2a1.^[143]

At

At Kilifi, Mtwapa, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1200 CE and 1450 CE, carried haplogroups E1b1b and L0a2a2a.^[143]

At Kilifi, Mtwapa, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1200 CE and 1450 CE, carried haplogroups E1b1b1b2a1a1a1a1f~ and L0a2a2a.^[143]

At Kilifi, Mtwapa, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1200 CE and 1450 CE, carried haplogroups J1a2a1a2d2b~ and L0a2a2a.^[143]

At Kilifi, Mtwapa, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1200 CE and 1450 CE, carried haplogroup M30d1.^[143]

At Kilifi, Mtwapa, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1200 CE and 1450 CE, carried haplogroup L0a2a2a.^[143]

At Kilifi, Mtwapa, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1200 CE and 1450 CE, carried haplogroup L0a1b1a.^[143]

At Kilifi, Mtwapa, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1226 cal CE and 1297 cal CE, carried haplogroups J1a2a1a2d2b~ and M30d1.^[143]

At Kilifi, Mtwapa, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1323 cal CE and 1423 cal CE, carried haplogroups E1b1b and L0d3.^[143]

At

At Kilifi, Mtwapa, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1408 cal CE and 1442 cal CE, carried haplogroup L0a2a1a2.^[143]

At

At Kilifi, Mtwapa, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1435 cal CE and 1479 cal CE, carried haplogroups J1a2a1a2d2b~ and L0a2a2a.^[143]

At Kilifi, Mtwapa, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1442 cal CE and 1612 cal CE, carried haplogroups J1 and L0a1b1a.^[143]

At

At Kilifi, Mtwapa, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1450 CE and 1700 CE, carried haplogroups J2a1a1a2a2b and L0a2a1a2.^[143]

At

At Kisima Farm/Porcupine Cave, in Laikipia County, Kenya, there were two pastoralists of the Pastoral Neolithic; one carried haplogroups E1b1b1b2b2a1/E-M293 and M1a1, and another carried haplogroup M1a1f.^[138][139]

At Kisima Farm/C4, in

At Laikipia District Burial, in Laikipia County, Kenya, a pastoralist of the Pastoral Iron Age carried haplogroup L0a1c1.^[138][139]

Lamu

At

At Lamu, Manda, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1456 cal CE and 1621 cal CE, carried haplogroup J2.^[143]

At

At Taita Taveta, Makwasinyi, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1650 CE and 1950 CE, carried haplogroup L0f2a.^[143]

At

At Taita Taveta, Makwasinyi, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1650 CE and 1950 CE, carried haplogroup L0d3.^[143]

At

At Taita Taveta, Makwasinyi, in Kenya, an individual, dated between 1698 cal CE and 1950 cal CE, carried haplogroup L0a1a+200.^[143]

At

At Mlambalasi rockshelter, in Tanzania, an individual, dated between 20,345 BP and 17,025 BP, carried undetermined haplogroups.^[144]

At Kisese II rockshelter, in

At Lindi, in Tanzania, an individual, dated between 1511 cal CE and 1664 cal CE, carried haplogroups E1b1a1a1a2a1a3a1d~ and L0a1a2.^[143]

Pemba Island

At Makangale Cave, on Pemba Island, Tanzania, an individual, estimated to date between 1421 BP and 1307 BP, carried haplogroup L0a.^[142]

At Makangale Cave, on

As of 19,000 years ago, Africans, bearing haplogroup E1b1a-V38, likely traversed across the Sahara, from east to west.^[145]

Before the

• Middle Awash (5,700,000 BP)^[150]
• Aramis, Ethiopia (4,400,000 BP)^[151]
• Laetoli (3,460,000 BP)^[152]
• Hadar, Ethiopia (3,450,000 BP – 2, 900,000 BP)^[153]
• Dikika (3,400,000 BP)^[154]
• Lomekwi (3,300,000 BP)^[155]
• Ledi-Geraru (2,840,000 BP – 2,580,000 BP)^[156]
• Gawis cranium (2,600,000 BP)^[157]
• Lake Turkana (2,330,000 BP)^[158]
• Melka Kunture (2,000,000 BP – 1,600,000 BP)^[159]
• Olduvai Gorge (1,700,000 BP)^[160]

• Olduvai Gorge Museum

• Enkorika (Oldowan)^[161]
• Kariandusi prehistoric site (1,000,000 BP)^[162]
• Olorgesailie (740,000 BP – 600,000 BP)^[163]
• Kalambo Falls (500,000 BP – 490 BP)^[164]
• Kapthurin (285,000 BP)^[165]
• Omo Kibish Formation (196,000 BP)^[166]

• Omo remains
• Omo River

• Gademotta (183,000 BP)^[159]
• Bouri Formation (160,000 BP)^[165]
• Mousteroid (80,000 BP – 50,000 BP)^[167][168]
• Mumba Cave (49,000 BP)^[169]
• Kondoa Irangi Rock Paintings (47,000 BP – 4000 BP)^[170]
• Enkapune Ya Muto (40,000 BP)^[171]
• Kuumbi Cave, Zanzibar (25,000 BP)^[172]
• Nataruk (10,500 BP – 9500 BP)^[173]
• Koobi Fora (10,000 BP – 6000 BP)^[174]
• Laas Geel (10th millennia BP – 9th millennia BP)^[175]
• Chabbé (9500 BP – 8500 BP)^[176]
• Lake Turkana (7960 BP)^[177]
• Wilton culture (7630 BP – 5970 BP)^[178]
• Caves in Somaliland (4th/3rd millennium BCE)^[179]
• Gogo Falls (5800 BP – 2000 BP)^[180]
• Turkana Basin (5000 BP – 4000 BP)^[181]
• Dhambalin (5000 BP – 3000 BP)^[182]
• Savanna Pastoral Neolithic (5000 BP – 1200 BP)^[183]
• Hyrax Hill (5000 BP – 1200 BP)^[138]
• Hyrax Hill Prehistoric Site and Museum
• Ileret (4000 BP)^[184]
• Handoga (4th millennium BP)^[185]
• Asa Koma (3900 BP – 3630 BP)^[186]
• Nakfa, Eritrea (2nd millennium BCE)^[6][7]
• Adulis (2nd/1st millennium BCE)^[187]
• Engaruka (1930/1690 BCE)^[188]
• Kalokol Pillar Site (3800 BP)^[189]
• Elmenteitan (3000 BP – 1200 BP)^[138]
• Luxmanda (3000/2845 BP)^[190]
• Njoro River Cave (3165 BP)^[191]
• Keskese (1st millennium BCE)^[192]
• Matara, Eritrea (1st millennium BCE)^[192]
• KM2 and KM3 sites (830 BCE; 400 BCE)^[193]
• Sembel (400 BCE)^[187]
• Ngenyn (2080 BP)^[194]
• Ngamuriak (2000 BP)^[195]
• Toniki (1st century CE)^[196]
• Heis (town) (1st century CE)^[197]
• Macajilayn (1st century CE – 4th century CE)^[198]
• Kiongwe (117/350 CE)^[199]
• Black Assarca shipwreck (3rd/4th century CE)^[200]
• Dungur (550 CE – 650/700 CE)^[187]
• Mifsas Bahri (550 CE – 700 CE)^[201]
• Berenice Epideires (7th century CE)^[202]
• Kilwa Kisiwani (7th century CE)^[203]
• Kaole (7th century CE/8th century CE)^[203]
• Sirikwa culture (1200 BP – 300 BP)^[204]
• Lamu (8th century CE)^[205]
• Pate Island (8th century CE – 15th century CE)^[206]
• Jumba la Mtwana (8th century CE – 17th century CE)^[207]
• Shanga, Pate Island (8th/9th century CE)^[208]
• Munsa (900 CE – 1200 CE)^[209]
• Ras Mkumbuu Ruins (10th century CE – 14th century CE)^[210]
• Tiya (archaeological site) (10th century CE – 15th century CE)^[211]
• Ntusi (11th century CE)^[212]
• Qohaito (1st millennium CE)^[192]
• Ivuna (13th century CE)^[213]
• Ruins of Gedi (1300 CE)^[214]
• Songo Mnara (15th century CE)^[215]
• Maduna (15th century CE – 16th century CE)^[216]
• Mambrui (15th century CE – 16th century CE)^[217]
• Manda Island (16th century CE – 17th century CE)^[218]
• Bigo (15th century CE – 16th century CE)^[219]
• Amud (16th century CE)^[220]
• Takwa (16th/17th century CE)^[221]
• Bulhar (16th century CE – 19th century CE)^[220]
• Loikop people (19th century CE)^[222]
• Gaanlibah (100 BP)^[223]

Undated

• Kal-Sheikh (Undated)^[224]
• Salweyn

List of archaeological cultures and sites

• Abasa, Awdal
• Ambohimanga
• Antongona
• Armale
• Aw Garweyne
• Booco
• Boon, Awdal
• Botiala
• Damala Hagare
• Damo, Somalia
• El Ayo
• El Buh
• El Dahir
• Fiqi Aadan
• Galgala
• Goan Bogame
• Golharfo
• Gondal, Somalia
• Gondershe
• Gubyaley
• Hannassa
• Haylan
• Hingalol
• Karinhegane
• Laako
• Las Khorey
• Magosian
• Majiyohan
• Miandi
• Mudun
• Nimmo, Somalia
• Port Dunford
• Qa’ableh
• Qombo'ul
• Quljeed
• Ras Bar Balla
• Rasini
• Wargaade Wall
• Yubbe

See also

• List of kingdoms in Africa throughout history#East Africa

Notes

References