History of Gaza

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This article is about the history of Gaza City. For history of the Gaza Strip, see
History of the Gaza Strip
.

The Old Town of Gaza (1862–1863). Picture by Francis Frith

The known history of Gaza spans 4,000 years.

Hellenistic learning and philosophy, was resettled by nearby Bedouins. The area changed hands regularly between two Greek successor-kingdoms, the Seleucids of Syria and the Ptolemies of Egypt, until it was besieged and taken by the Hasmoneans
in 96 BC.

Gaza was rebuilt by

Amr ibn al-'As in 637 AD and most Gazans adopted Islam during early Muslim rule. Thereafter, the city went through periods of prosperity and decline. The Crusaders wrested control of Gaza from the Fatimids in 1100, but were driven out by Saladin. Gaza was in Mamluk hands by the late 13th century, and became the capital of a province that stretched from the Sinai Peninsula to Caesarea. It witnessed a golden age under the Ottoman-appointed Ridwan dynasty
in the 16th century.

Gaza experienced destructive earthquakes in 1903 and 1914. In 1917, during World War I,

2023 Israel–Hamas war
.

Bronze Age

Tell es-Sakan and Tell el-Ajjul

Settlement in the region of Gaza dates back to 3300–3000 BCE at

Early Bronze Age II.[1]

Gaza enjoyed demographic and economic growth again when the local Canaanite population began to resettle Tell as-Sakan around 2500, but in 2250, the area experienced a total collapse of civilization and all of the cities in the Gaza region were abandoned by the 23rd century BCE. In its place emerged semi-nomadic cultures with pastoral camps made up of rustic family dwellings which continued to exist throughout the

Middle Bronze Age, Tell as-Sakan was the southernmost locality in Canaanite territory, serving as a fort, and by 1650 BCE, while Egypt was occupied by the Canaanite Hyksos, a second city developed on the ruins of the first Tell as-Sakan. This city was destroyed about a century later, when the Hyksos were routed from Egypt. Egypt settled Gaza once again and Tell al-Ajjul rose for the third time in the 15th century BCE. The city finally ceased to exist in the 14th century, at the end of the Bronze Age.[1]

Historical outline

A city which would become present-day Gaza began to develop on the site of Tell al-Ajjul.[

Tuthmosis III, it is mentioned on the Syrian-Egyptian caravan route and in the Amarna letters as "ḫazzatu".[3] Gaza was in Egyptian hands for 350 years.[3]

Iron Age

Philistines

Egyptian direct rule ended in the 12th century BCE, when Gaza was settled by the

Philistines, a seafaring people with cultural links to the Aegean, following their defeat against Ramesses III. It then became a part of the pentapolis, a league of the Philistines' five most important city-states.[3]

In the Hebrew Bible

The

Caphtorites from the island of Caphtor (modern Crete).[4]
Some scholars speculate that the Philistines were descendants of the Caphtorites.

Gaza is also mentioned in the Hebrew Bible as the place where

King David in the early 11th century BCE.[3]

Under Israel/Samaria, Assyria, Egypt, Persia, Babylonia

When the biblically postulated

Cambyses I unsuccessfully attacked Gaza and later, around 520 BCE, the Greeks established a trading post in Gaza. The first coins were minted on the Athens model around 380 BCE.[11]

Hellenistic period

Alexander, Ptolemies and Seleucids

Statue of Zeus unearthed in Gaza

Seleucids.[3]

Nabateans and Hasmoneans

In the 1st century BCE and the first half of that century, it was the

Hasmonean king Alexander Jannaeus besieged the city for a year, which had sided with Ptolemy IX Soter against him.[15] The inhabitants, who had hoped for help from the Nabataean king Aretas II, were killed and their city destroyed by Jannaeus when Aretas did not come to their aid.[3][16]

Roman period

Gaza was rebuilt by consul

Pompey Magnus.[3] Roman rule brought six centuries of relative peace and prosperity to the city—which became a busy port and locus of trade between the Middle East and Africa.[13]

Herod; First Roman-Jewish war

Gaza was granted to

Idumea, was in charge of the city's affairs. On the division of Herod's kingdom, it was placed under the proconsul of Syria.[3] After Herod's death in 4 BCE, Augustus annexed it to the Province of Syria. In 66 CE, Gaza was burned down by Jews during their rebellion against the Romans. However, it remained an important city; even more so after the destruction of Jerusalem by Titus the following year.[17] Titus passed through Gaza on his march toward to Jerusalem, and again in his return.[18]

The establishment of the Roman province of Arabia Petraea in 106 CE restored trade links with Petra and Aila.[18]

In the New Testament: Acts

In the

Christian gospel was explained to an Ethiopian eunuch along this road by Philip the Evangelist, and he was baptised in some nearby water.[19]

Culture and administration

Throughout the Roman period, Gaza was a prosperous city and received grants and attention from several emperors.

Roman colony at some point after the reign of Gordian III, possibly under Valerian or Gallienus.[20]

Christianisation in Late Roman-Byzantine transition; Gaza and Maiuma

The spread of

Maximinus Daia in 310, was arrested along with about 30 other Christians, and condemned to death.[3]

With reorganization of the

Julian reversed the process during his reign in the latter half of the 4th century. Although Maiuma had its own bishop, clergy, and diocesan territory, it shared its magistrates and administration with Gaza.[23] Upon Julian's death, Maiuma's independence was restored and the rivalry between it and Gaza intensified.[22]

Byzantine period

Pagan–Christian tensions

During most of the 4th century, the Christian community was small, poor, and carried no influence in the city. The church was insignificant and its members were not allowed to hold political office.

Marnas in 406.[27] Note that according to MacMullen, it is likely that Porphyrius did not even exist.[28] According to traditional Christian history, persecution against Christians did not cease, but it was less harsh and frequent than previously.[26]

Jewish community

A large

King David was discovered in Gaza. An inscription states that the floor was donated in 508–509 CE by two merchant brothers.[29]

Territory

Gaza is depicted on the 6th-century mosaic map known as the

Bethelea, Asalea, Gerarit and Kissufim were included in Gaza's territories.[31] Its large representation, approximately half of which is preserved, cannot be easily explained, mainly because only small tentative excavations have been made there and because ancient Gaza is covered by the still-inhabited Old City.[30]

Christian golden era

Around 540, Gaza became the starting point for pilgrimages to the

rhetorical school, including 6th-century scholar Procopius of Gaza or the ecclesiastic historian Zacharias Rhetor.[3][32] The celebrated Church of Saint Sergius was built in this century among other building projects such as a bath house, stoas and the city wall, that were undertaken by the bishop Marcianus and the provincal governor Stephanus.[27][33]

At the same time, the region around Gaza became an important monastic center, including figures such as Hilarion of Gaza, Barsanuphius and Dorotheus of Gaza, who greatly influenced Byzantine and Slavic monasticism.[34]

Economy; wine industry

The depiction on the 6th-century Madaba Map supports the notion that Gaza was the most important political and commercial centre on the southern coast of Palestine.[30] One of the goods the city exported between the fourth and seventh century was wine, which was grown around the city, often also cultivated by the various monasteries surrounding the city, exported around all the Mediterranean and mentioned by writers such as Jerome, Sidonius Apollinaris from Gaul and Isidore of Seville.[35]

Early Muslim period

Rashidun period

Arab Muslim conquest

There were already converts to Islam among the city's

Islamic Caliphate. Muhammad visited the city more than once before being a prophet of Islam.[clarification needed][14]

In 634, Gaza was besieged by the

caliph (head of the Caliphate), the Rashidun forces began to make stronger efforts at conquering Byzantine territory.[37] During the three-year siege of Gaza, the city's Jewish community fought alongside the Byzantine garrison.[38] In the summer of 637, Amr's forces broke the siege and captured Gaza, killing its Byzantine garrison, but not attacking its inhabitants.[39] Amr's victory is attributed to a combination of Arab strategy, Byzantine weakness, and the influence of Gaza's Arab residents.[14] Believed to be the site where Muhammad's great-grandfather Hashim ibn Abd Manaf—who also lived as a merchant in Gaza—was buried, the city was not destroyed by the victorious Arab army.[40]

Islamisation

The arrival of the Muslim Arabs brought drastic changes to Gaza; its churches were transformed into mosques, including the Cathedral of John the Baptist (previously the Temple of Marnas), which became the

Samaritan residents deposited their property with their high priest and fled the city east upon the Muslim conquest.[42]

Administrative district

Gaza was placed under the administration of

Abbasids.[43]

Umayyad period

Under the Umayyads Gaza served as a minor administrative center.[41] In 672 an earthquake struck the city but there are few details of its effects. Under the caliph-appointed governors, Christians and Jews were taxed, though their worship and trade continued, as noted in the writings of bishop Willibald, who visited the city in 723.[44] Nevertheless, exports of wine and olives declined and the overall prosperity of Palestine and Gaza went down.[45]

Abbasid period

The year 750 saw the end of Umayyad rule in Palestine and the arrival of the Abbasids, with Gaza becoming a center for the writing of Islamic law.

Shafi'i after him.[46]

In 796 the city was laid waste during a

Persian geographer Istakhri who wrote that merchants grew rich there "for this place was a great market for the people of the Hejaz."[48] A Christian writer, writing in 867, described it as "rich in all things".[18] Gaza's port, however, occasionally succumbed to neglect under Arab rule and an overall decline in commerce followed because of infighting among Palestine's rulers and Bedouin bandits who disrupted overland trade routes towards the city.[40]

Tulunids and Fatimids

From 868 to 905 the

al-Muqaddasi described Gaza as "a large town lying on the highroad to Egypt on the border of the desert. There is here a beautiful mosque, also to be seen is the monument for the Khalif Umar."[50] The Arabic-language poet Sulayman al-Ghazzi, who later also became bishop of the city, wrote many poems that thematise the hardships Palestinian Christians suffered during the reign of caliph al-Hakim.[51] Another poet, Abu Ishaq Ibrahim al-Ghazzi, was born in the city in 1049.[52]

Crusader/Ayyubid period

The Crusaders wrested control of Gaza from the Fatimids in 1100. According to the chronicler William of Tyre, the Crusaders found it uninhabited and in ruins. Unable to totally refortify the hilltop on which Gaza was built, due to a lack of resources, King Baldwin III built a small castle there in 1149. The possession of Gaza completed the military encirclement of the Fatimid-held city of Ascalon to the north. After the castle's construction, Baldwin granted it and the surrounding region to the Knights Templar.[27] He also had the Great Mosque converted into the Cathedral of Saint John.[11][27]

In 1154, the Arab traveler

Treaty of Ramla agreed upon months later in 1193.[27]

According to geographer

Abu al-Fida, Gaza was a medium-sized city, possessing gardens and a seashore in the early 13th century.[54] The Ayyubids constructed the Shuja'iyya neighborhood—the first extension of Gaza beyond the Old City.[55]

Mamluk period

See also: List of governors of Gaza § Mamluks
The Gold Market in Gaza dates from the Mamluk period

Ayyubid rule virtually ended in 1260, after the

Baysan in 1260. He was proclaimed sultan of Egypt on his way back from the battlefield after the assassination of Sultan Qutuz. Baibars passed through Gaza six times during his expeditions against the remnants of the Crusader states and the Mongols between 1263 and 1269.[56]

Mamluk domination started in 1277,

al-Mansur Qalawun encamped in Gaza for fifty days while on a march against the Mongols.[56]

Gaza Governorate (est. 1293)

In 1293, Qalawun's son

an-Nasir Muhammad instituted Gaza as the capital of the province that bore its name, Mamlakat Ghazzah, lit. the Governorate of Gaza.[56] This province covered the coastal plain from Rafah in the south to just north of Caesarea, extending in the east to the western slopes of Samaria and the Hebron Hills; its major towns were Qaqun, Ludd, and Ramla.[57]

In 1294, an earthquake devastated Gaza, and five years later the Mongols again destroyed all that was restored by the Mamluks.[40] That same year, Gaza was the center of a conspiracy against Sultan al-Adil Kitbugha, but the plot was detected and crushed before being carried out.[56]

The

al-Arish (in north-central the Sinai) to the south; Bayt Jibrin, Karatiyya, Hebron and Jerusalem to the east—all of which had their own sub-governors.[58] He further described Gaza in 1300 as "so rich in trees it looks like a cloth of brocade spread out upon the land".[14]

Emir

Baybars al-Jashnakir.[59] Gaza was one of the places that returned to the allegiance of the exiled sultan; in 1310, an-Nasir Muhammad defeated Sultan Baybars in Gaza, forcing the latter to surrender his throne to him. Baybars was imprisoned in the city.[58]

Emir

Taynal al-Ashrafi as governor, some of the provincial privileges of Gaza, such as the governor's direct subordination to the sultan in Cairo, were removed by an-Nasir Muhammad's decree. From then, and until 1341, when Sanjar al-Jawli served a second term as governor, Gaza became subordinate to the na'ib as-saltana (viceroy) of Syria, Emir Tankiz al-Husami.[61]

In 1348 the

Berber traveller Ibn Battuta visited the city and noted that it was "large and populous, and has many mosques. But there were no walls round it. There was here of old a fine Jami' Mosque (the Great Mosque), but the one present[ly] used was built by Amir Jawli [Sanjar al-Jawli]."[63]

In the early 1380s, the governor of Gaza, Akbugha as-Safawi, plotted to commit treason against Sultan

dawadar (executive secretary) had the Madrasa of Birdibak built in the Shuja'iyya neighborhood.[67]

Ottoman period

Early Ottoman rule and the Ridwan dynasty

In 1516, Gaza—by now a small town with an inactive port, ruined buildings and reduced trade—was incorporated into the

Sunni Muslims.[62]

Shortly after Palestine's quick submission to the Ottomans, it was divided into six districts, including the

monastery of St. Catherine on the Sinai.[70]

An early governor of Gaza Sanjak was Kara Shahin Mustafa, a former

Safavid Persia in 1579. The sultan then awarded him the province of Anatolia, where he died in 1585.[72]

Although no explanation is provided in the biographies of the Ridwan family, it is evident they chose Gaza as their home and built there their residence, known as

Fakhr ad-Din, in a series of battles. He was later appointed Governor of Tripoli in today's Lebanon, but he was deposed in 1644. 'Arab Hasan had many wives and concubines, who bore him 85 children. He led the Ridwans successfully militarily, however, he burdened the dynasty with heavy debt.[73]

Qur'an with Gaza in the background, painting by Harry Fenn

'Arab Hasan's son

Turkish baths and market stalls proliferated.[62] Anonymous petitions from Damascus sent to Istanbul complaining about Husayn's failure to protect the hajj caravan and his alleged pro-Christian tendencies,[74] however, served as an excuse for the Ottoman government to depose him. He was soon imprisoned in Damascus and his assets confiscated by provincial authorities. He was later sent to Istanbul and died in prison there in 1663.[73]

Husayn's brother

Musa Pasha then governed Gaza into the early 1670s, implementing an anti-French and anti-Christian regime to appease the Ottoman government.[74] Soon after his reign ended, Ottomans officials were appointed to govern. The Ridwan period is considered Gaza's last golden age during Ottoman rule and the city gradually dwindled after they were removed from office.[73]

Decay after the Ridwans

In 1723, the Ottomans appointed Salih Pasha Tuqan of the

Napoleon Bonaparte, who referred to it as "the outpost of Africa, the door to Asia", in 1799.[78] Most of its inhabitants fled as a result. His forces easily razed the remains of the city walls (which had not been rebuilt since their destruction by Saladin), but abandoned the city after their failed siege of Acre that same year. The duration of French influence in Gaza was too short to have a palpable effect.[62]

Egyptian rule and Ottoman revival

Painting of Gaza by David Roberts, 1839, in The Holy Land, Syria, Idumea, Arabia, Egypt, and Nubia
Ghuzzeh (Gaza), painting by Charles van de Velde

Gaza was culturally dominated by neighboring Egypt from the early 19th century; Muhammad Ali of Egypt conquered it and most of Palestine in 1832.[11] Strangely, in 1833, Muhammad Ali instructed his son Ibrahim Pasha not to purchase Gaza's cotton harvest (cotton production was Ali's main source of wealth and Egypt's production was low that year), instead allowing its residents to dispose of it how they wished.[79]

American scholar Edward Robinson visited Gaza in 1838, describing it as a "thickly populated" town larger than Jerusalem, with its Old City lying upon a hilltop, while its suburbs laid on the nearby plain.[80] He further stated that its soil was rich and supported groves of "delicious and abundant" apricots and mulberries. Although Gaza's port was by then inactive, it benefited from trade and commerce because of its position on the caravan route between Egypt and Syria, as well as from the production of soap and cotton for trade with the Bedouin.[81] The governor of Gaza at the time was Sheikh Sa'id.[80] Robinson noted that virtually all of Gaza's vestiges of ancient history and antiquity had disappeared due to constant conflict and occupation.[82]

The bubonic plague struck again in 1839 and the city stagnated, as it lacked political and economic stability. In 1840, Egyptian and Ottoman troops battled outside of Gaza, with the Ottomans emerging victorious, effectively ending Egyptian rule over Palestine. The battles brought about more death and destruction, just barely after the city began to recover from the plague.

Charles Clermont-Ganneau visited Gaza, gathering and cataloging a sizable collection of Byzantine inscriptions and describing the city's Great Mosque in detail.[62] Sultan Abdul Hamid II had the wells of Gaza restored in 1893.[83]

Although the first municipal council of Gaza was formed in 1893 under the chairmanship of Ali Khalil Shawa, modern mayorship began in 1906 with his son

Said al-Shawa, who was appointed mayor by Ottoman authorities.[84] Like other regions and cities in Palestine at the time, Gaza was economically and politically dominated by a number of powerful clans, particularly the Shawa, Husseini, and Sourani families.[85] Two destructive earthquakes occurred in 1903 and 1914.[62]

The Great Mosque of Gaza was heavily damaged during World War I

When World War I erupted in 1917, British forces were defeated by the Ottomans in the

Edmund Allenby, leading the Allied Forces, finally conquered Gaza in a third battle.[62]

British Mandate

Gaza after surrender to British forces, 1918

After the First World War, the League of Nations granted quasi-colonial authority over former Ottoman territories to Great Britain and France, with Gaza becoming part of the British Mandate of Palestine.[86]

During the 1929 Palestine riots, the Jewish Quarter of Gaza was destroyed and most of Gaza's fifty Jewish families fled the city. In the 1930s and 1940s, Gaza underwent major expansion, with new neighborhoods, such as Rimal and Zeitoun being built along the coast, and the southern and eastern plains. Areas damaged in the riots underwent reconstruction. Most of the funding for these developments came from international organizations and missionary groups.[83]

World War One.[87] The majority of the graves (3082 of 3691) are British, but there are also the graves of 263 Australians, 50 Indians, 23 New Zealanders, 23 Canadians, 36 Poles, and 184 Ottoman-era Turkish graves, plus small numbers of South African, Greek, Egyptian, German, French and Yugoslav soldiers.[87]

Egyptian control

See also:
Occupation of the Gaza Strip by Egypt

At the conclusion of the

refugees fleeing nearby cities, towns and villages that were captured by Israel. From 1948 until 1959, Gaza was nominally under the jurisdiction of the All-Palestine Government, an entity established by the Arab League during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, purportedly as the government for a liberated Palestine.[88] However, the government was ineffective with little or no influence over events in Gaza and was dissolved by Cairo in 1959.[88] Egyptian occupation of the Gaza Strip was broken for four months during the 1956 Suez Crisis.[89]

Upon the withdrawal of Israeli forces, Egyptian president

Palestinian Liberation Army.[89]

Israeli control

The newly appointed mayor of Gaza, Rushdi al-Shawwa, speaking at the inauguration ceremony of the Gaza municipal council, 26 November 1956

Gaza was occupied by Israel in the 1967 Six-Day War after the defeat of a coalition of Arab armies. Under Israeli occupation, existing structures of administration in Gaza would be maintained and administrative tasks would continue to be executed by Palestinian civil servants. Although this policy of "government but not administration" was declared, some felt that the Israeli military frequently interfered in the city's administration in order to control local violent incidents. In the immediate aftermath of the 1967 War, the military governor of Gaza threatened to dismiss the municipal council and cut off utility services if the local leadership was unable to force the residents of the city to turn in their weapons. This action was deemed excessive and was revoked by the Israeli military governor of the Gaza Strip, however.

Israeli soldiers check Palestinian men in Gaza in 1969

Organized armed struggle against Israel peaked between 1969 and 1971, but was largely crushed by the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) under the command of Ariel Sharon.[90] Ehud Yaari recounted that "by the beginning of 1970, 90% of Arab terrorism in Gaza was directed against Arab men and women employed by Israeli companies."[91] After the killing of one Jewish family by a grenade thrown at their car, Sharon conducted a year long operation, authorized by Shlomo Gazit, involving the demolition of homes[a] and the employment of special assassination teams that killed suspects. Entire families identified as those related to men suspected of terrorism, one numbering up to 50 members, were rounded up and bussed to remote camps in the desert and detained there for a year. Another camp served to sequester unemployed Gazan youths not suspected of anything.[b] The Red Cross described their treatment there as 'merciless'. The purpose was to dissuade other families from allowing their sons to join Fatah.[92]

Israeli soldiers and Palestinian protesters in Gaza during the First Intifada, 1987

In 1971, the Israeli Army attempted to disperse the high concentration of Palestinian refugees in

United Nations Relief and Works Agency (UNRWA) and the PLO were vociferous in their opposition to the move, claiming it was forced resettlement.[93] In 1972, Gaza's military governor dismissed the city's mayor, Rashad al-Shawwa, for refusing to annex al-Shati camp to the municipality of Gaza.[94] Since the 1970s, frequent conflicts erupted between Palestinians and the Israeli authorities in the city, leading to the First Intifada in 1987. Gaza became a center of confrontation during this uprising.[62] The result has been the devastation of Gaza's economy and of the lives of its residents.[95]

Palestinian administration

See also:
Israel-Gaza conflict

Palestinian National Authority (PNA)

In September 1993, leaders of Israel and the PLO signed the Oslo Accords calling for Palestinian administration of the Gaza Strip and the West Bank town of Jericho, which was implemented in May 1994. Israeli forces withdrew from Gaza, leaving a new Palestinian National Authority (PNA) to administer and police the city.[13] Led by Yasser Arafat, the PNA chose Gaza as its first provincial headquarters. The newly established Palestinian National Council held its inaugural session in Gaza in March 1996.[83]

2008–2009 Israel-Gaza conflict (Source: Al Jazeera English
)

In 2005, Israel implemented its

Palestinian elections of 2006, and has been engaged in a violent power struggle with Fatah.[96]

Hamas administration

See also:
Hamas Government in Gaza

In 2007, following the

Islamic Jihad, and to secure the release of an Israeli soldier captured by Palestinian militants.[97]

In March 2008, a human rights coalition charged that the humanitarian situation in Gaza had reached its worst point since Israel occupied the territory in the 1967 Six-Day War.

2023 Israel–Hamas war started, and on 2 November, Israel started the siege of Gaza City
.

Chronology of the sovereignty over Gaza

The red bars in the chronology below indicate periods during which the indicated group had limited self-rule, and not sovereignty.[104]

Ancient EgyptCanaanCanaanHyksosAncient EgyptPhilistinesKingdom of Israel (Samaria)Neo-Assyrian EmpireAncient EgyptNeo-Babylonian EmpireAchaemenid EmpireMacedonia (ancient kingdom)Ptolemaic kingdomSeleucid EmpireRoman EmpireByzantine EmpireKnights TemplarEnglandAyyubid SultanateMongol EmpireMedieval EgyptOttoman EmpireEgyptOttoman EmpireGreat BritainEgyptIsraelPalestinian National AuthorityHamas


See also

Notes

  1. ^ Moshe Dayan stated at the time,'“It’s exactly like razing homes. We destroy a house even if the Fatah man is just a tenant and the landlord doesn’t know a thing about it. What they know in Hebron, Nablus or Gaza is that if someone joins Fatah, eventually their house will be razed. In such a case, the family will be deported.'
  2. Judea and Samaria
    and find work there. It should be assumed that on Sunday and Monday, 100 to 200 young people will be arrested, and that after the arrests, the other unemployed young people will realize that they will be spared arrest if they find work in Judea and Samaria.'

Citations

  1. ^ a b c d Filfil, Rania; Louton, Barbara (September 2008). "The Other Face of Gaza: The Gaza Continuum". This Week in Palestine. Archived from the original on 2009-02-07. Retrieved 2009-02-16.
  2. ^ Grimal 1988, p. 193.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Gaza – (Gaza, al -'Azzah), Studium Biblicum Franciscanum – Jerusalem, 2000-12-19, archived from the original on 2012-07-28, retrieved 2009-02-16
  4. ^ Deuteronomy 2:23
  5. ^ Judges 16:21
  6. ^ Amos 1:7
  7. ^ Zephaniah 2:4
  8. ^ Zev Vilnay, The Guide to Israel, Jerusalem, Hamakor, 1970, pp.298–299
  9. ^ Bassir 2017, p. 9.
  10. ^ Bassir 2017, p. 13.
  11. ^ a b c d e f Remondino (June 5, 2007). "Gaza at the crossroads of civilisations" (PDF). Exhibition: Gaza at the crossroads of civilisations (April 27 to October 7, 2007). Art and History Museum, Geneva, Switzerland. Retrieved 2008-01-23.
  12. ^ Bury, John Bagnell.The Cambridge Ancient History. Cambridge University Press, p. 147.
  13. ^ a b c d e Ring, 1996, p. 287.
  14. ^ a b c d e Doughty, Dick (November 2006). "Gaza: Contested Crossroads". This Week in Palestine. Archived from the original on 2011-09-07. Retrieved 2009-01-30.
  15. ^ a b Rigsby 1997, p. 522.
  16. ^ (Josephus, Antiq. XIII, 360), (Josephus, Antiq. XIII, 364), (Josephus, Antiq. XIII, 357; War I,87)
  17. ^ Dowling, 1913, p.33.
  18. ^ a b c d Meyer, 1907, p.58.
  19. ^ Acts 8:26–39
  20. ^ Yardeni et al., 2014, p.419.
  21. ISBN 9780812292237
    . Retrieved 9 November 2023.
  22. ^ a b c d Meyer, 1907, pp. 59-61.
  23. ^ Bitton-Ashkelony and Kofsky, 2004, p.45.
  24. ^ Meyer, 1907, p.63.
  25. ISBN 0-19-504652-8
    .
  26. ^ a b Meyer, 1907, pp.63–64.
  27. ^ a b c d e f Pringle, 1993, p.208
  28. ISBN 0-300-03216-1
  29. ^ King David playing the Lyre, Israel Museum, Jerusalem Archived 2017-05-17 at the Wayback Machine
  30. ^ a b c Donner, Herbert (2000-12-19), Excerpt in Gaza (1992), pages 75-76)- (Gaza, al -'Azzah), Studium Biblicum Franciscanum – Jerusalem, archived from the original on 2012-07-28, retrieved 2009-01-19
  31. ^ Bitton-Ashkelony and Kofsky, 2004, pp.43-46.
  32. ISBN 978-0-19-921288-0
    . Retrieved 6 January 2024.
  33. ISBN 9783110337679
    . Retrieved 6 January 2024.
  34. ISBN 9789047408444
    . Retrieved 9 November 2023.
  35. ^ Yardeni et al., 2014, pp.420-421.
  36. al-Biladhuri quoted in le Strange, 1890, p. xix. Al-Biladhuri lists the cities captured by Amr ibn al-'As as Ghazzah (Gaza), Sebastiya (Sebastia), Nabulus (Nablus), Amwas (Imwas), Kaisariyya (Caesarea), Yibna, Ludd (Lydda), Rafh (Rafah), Bayt Jibrin, and Yaffa (Jaffa
    ).
  37. ^ Filiu, 2014, pp. 18–19.
  38. ISBN 1-59045-493-6
  39. ^ a b Filiu, 2014, p. 19.
  40. ^ a b c d e f g Ring, 1996, p. 289.
  41. ^ a b Sharon, 2009, p. 23.
  42. ^ Meyer, 1907, p. 71.
  43. al-Muqaddasi
    quoted in le Strange, 1890, p. 39.
  44. ^ Meyer, 1907, p. 76.
  45. ISBN 978-0-521-51441-5
    . Retrieved 18 January 2024.
  46. ^ Gil, 1992, p. 292.
  47. ^ Dowling, 1913, p. 37.
  48. Ibn Hauqal
    quoted in le Strange, 1890, p. 442.
  49. ^ Gil, 1992, p. 349.
  50. al-Muqaddasi
    quoted in le Strange, 1890, p. 442.
  51. ISBN 978-90-04-21618-1
    . Retrieved 16 January 2024.
  52. ^ Meyer, 1907, p. 78.
  53. ^ Yaqut al-Hamawi quoted in le Strange, 1890, p.442.
  54. Abu al-Fida
    quoted in le Strange, 1890, p.442.
  55. ^ Haldimann and Humbert, 2007, p.195.
  56. ^ a b c d Meyer, 1907, pp.85-86.
  57. ^ Sharon, 1997, pp.XII-XIII.
  58. ^ a b Meyer, 1907, p.87.
  59. ^ Sharon, 2009, p. 83.
  60. ^ Meyer, 1907, p.83.
  61. ^ Sharon, 2009, p. 101.
  62. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Ring, 1996, p.290.
  63. ^ Ibn Battuta quoted in le Strange, 1890, p.442.
  64. ^ Meyers, 1907, pp.90–91.
  65. ^ Meyers, 1907, p. 97.
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Sources

External links

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