History of Germans in Russia, Ukraine, and the Soviet Union
Total population | |
---|---|
~3 million | |
Regions with significant populations | |
Germany | ~2.3 million |
Kazakhstan | 226,092 (2021)[1] |
Russia | 195,256 (2021)[2] |
Ukraine | 33,302 (2001)[3] |
Languages | |
German, Russian, Ukrainian, Kazakh | |
Religion | |
Historically:[4][5] Lutheran majority Catholic minority Currently:[6] majority Lutheran, Baptist, Germans in Kazakhstan, Baltic Germans, Germans from Russia, Estonian Swedes |
The German minority population in Russia, Ukraine, and the Soviet Union stemmed from several sources and arrived in several waves. Since the second half of the 19th century, as a consequence of the
Emigrants from Germany first arrived in Kievan Rus during the reign of Olga of Kiev.[12] Before Catherine the Great's reign (1762–1796), ethnic Germans were also already strongly represented amongst royalty and aristocracy, as the European nobility was highly interrelated.[citation needed] In addition, Germans had become prominent among large land-owners, military officers, and the upper echelons of the imperial service, engineers, scientists, artists, physicians, and the bourgeoisie in general, because there was strong education among some of the German peoples.[citation needed] The Germans of Russia did not necessarily speak Russian; many spoke German, while French was often used as the language of the high aristocracy. Depending on geography and other circumstances, many Russian Germans spoke Russian as their first or second language. During the 19th century many of the early immigrants began to identify primarily as Russians, particularly during and after the Napoleonic Wars of 1803-1815. The large numbers of farmers and village tradesmen who arrived following Catherine the Great's invitation were allowed to settle in German-only villages and to keep their German language, religion, and culture until the 1920s. She was seeking to repopulate some areas devastated by Ottoman invasions and by disease.
Today's Russian Germans speak mostly Russian, as they are in the gradual process of assimilation. As such, many may not necessarily be fluent in German. Consequently, Germany has recently strictly limited their re-patriation. A decline in the number of Germans in the Russian Federation has moderated as they are no longer emigrating to Germany. In addition, Kazakhstan Germans from Kazakhstan are moving to Russia rather than Germany. As conditions for Germans in Russia generally deteriorated in the late 19th-century and early 20th-century during the period of unrest and revolution, many ethnic Germans migrated from Russia to the Americas and elsewhere. They became collectively known as Germans from Russia.
Germans in Imperial Russia (partitioned Poland and Caucasus)
German merchants established a trading post at
The earliest German settlement in Moscow dates to the reign of Vasili III, Grand Prince of Moscow, from 1505 to 1533. A handful of German and Dutch craftsmen and traders were allowed to settle in Moscow's German Quarter (Немецкая слобода, or Nemetskaya sloboda), as they provided essential technical skills in the capital. Gradually, this policy extended to a few other major cities. In 1682, Moscow had about 200,000 citizens; some 18,000 were classified as Nemtsy, which means either "German" or "western foreigner".
The international community located in the German Quarter greatly influenced
Vistula Germans (Poland)
Through wars and the partitions of Poland,
During World Wars I and II, the eastern front was fought over in this area. The Soviet government increased conscription of young men. The rate of Vistula Germans' migrations to this area from Congress Poland increased. Some became Polonized, however, and their descendants remain in Poland.
During the last year and after World War II, many ethnic Germans fled or were forcibly
Volga Germans (Russia)
Czarina
German immigration was motivated in part by religious intolerance and warfare in central Europe, as well as by frequently difficult economic conditions, particularly among the southern principalities. Catherine II's declaration freed German immigrants from requirements for military service (which was imposed on native Russians) and from most taxes. It placed the new arrivals outside of Russia's feudal hierarchy and granted them considerable internal autonomy. Moving to Russia gave German immigrants political rights that they would not have possessed in their own lands. Religious minorities found these terms very agreeable, particularly
Other German minority churches took advantage of Catherine II's offer as well, particularly
German colonization was most intense in the
In 1803 Catherine II's grandson,
The abolition of serfdom in the Russian Empire in 1861 created a shortage of labour in agriculture. The need for workers attracted new German immigration, particularly from the increasingly crowded central European states. There was no longer enough fertile land there for full employment in agriculture.
Furthermore, a sizable portion of Russia's ethnic Germans migrated into Russia from its Polish possessions. The 18th-century
Germans settled in the
According to the
Black Sea Germans (Moldova and Ukraine)
The Black Sea Germans - including the
The area of settlement did not develop as compact as that of the
- Crimea
From 1783 onward the Crown initiated a systematic settlement of
In 1939, around 60,000 of the 1.1 million inhabitants of Crimea were ethnic German. Two years later, following the end of the alliance and the Nazi German invasion of the Soviet Union, the government deported ethnic Germans from the Crimea to Central Asia in the Soviet Union's program of population transfers. Conditions were harsh and many of the deportees died. It was not until the period of Perestroika in the late 1980s that the government granted surviving ethnic Germans and their descendants the right to return from Central Asia to the peninsula.
Volhynian Germans (Poland and Ukraine)
The migration of Germans into Volhynia (as of 2013[update] covering northwestern Ukraine from a short distance west of Kiev to the border with Poland) occurred under significantly different conditions than those described above. By the end of the 19th century, Volhynia had more than 200,000 German settlers.[15] Their migration began was encouraged by local noblemen, often Polish landlords, who wanted to develop their significant land-holdings in the area for agricultural use. Probably 75% or more of the Germans came from Congress Poland, with the balance coming directly from other regions such as East and West Prussia, Pomerania, Posen, Württemberg, and Galicia, among others.
Shortly after 1800, the first German families started moving into the area. A surge occurred after the first
Between 1911 and 1915, a small group of Volhynian German farmers (36 families - more than 200 people were relocated to Eastern Siberia. They also were instructed that they would now be official citizens of Russia, including the requirement of military service and contribution of taxes. They were able to also make use of the resettlement subsidies of the government's
Caucasus Germans
A German minority of about 100,000 people existed in the Caucasus region, in areas such as the North Caucasus, Georgia, and Azerbaijan. In 1941 Joseph Stalin ordered all inhabitants with a German father to be deported, mostly to Siberia or Kazakhstan.
Mass emigration of Germans from Russia to the Americas 1870s to 1910s
Prior to the 1870s, the Germans in Russia had enjoyed a unique ability to preserve their heritage and independence. Along with the freedoms from military service or taxes from Russian, Their colonies continued to speak in their mother tongue of German, their children were taught in German classrooms, and they could practice their faith in peace. However, when Czar Alexander II came to power he changed this. In 1871 he rescinded most of the freedoms the Germans had been granted by Catherine II and Alexander I since first settling. Military service was required of all men of a certain age starting in 1874. This left the colonists with the loss of their men and reduce income, reducing their socioeconomic level down to the level of Russian Peasants. As Czar Alexander III came to power, this move toward “Russification” of the Germans continued with his work to eliminate the use of the german language. [17]
Many Germans, discouraged by the elimination of privileges they had been promised, chose to emigrate. The Germans from Russia who emigrated to different countries of the Americas at the end of the 19th century, unlike those who remained in the Russian Empire, were able to avoid Russification, preserving their ancestral German culture.
North America
Most of the people on the Great Plains of North America with German heritage had ancestors who emigrated from the Russian Empire, and not modern-day Germany. The Canadian Encyclopedia states simply: "Canada's main source of Germans was Russia — especially from the Volga, the Black Sea coast and Volhynia."[18] The Encyclopedia of the Great Plains says that "[b]etween 1873 and 1914 approximately 115,000 German Russians immigrated to the United States and about 150,000 to western Canada" and "it is estimated[...] that by 1910 approximately 44 percent of all German settlers in western Canada were Germans from Russia".[19]
South America
Brazil
By 1876 the Empire of Brazil, now Brazil, was a monarchy and Pedro II invited the Volga Germans and other Germans from Russia to populate his territory. From then on, waves of German immigrants settled in the states of São Paulo, Paraná, Santa Catarina and Río Grande do Sul.
Argentina
Germans from Russia, especially Volga Germans, founded many colonies in Argentina. Mainly in the South of Buenos Aires Province, Entre Ríos Province and La Pampa Province. These colonies maintain their culture to this day and organize different festivals (Kerb, Kreppelfest, Schlachtfest, etc.) in which they welcome the rest of the country's population. The total number of Volga German descendants in Argentina is estimated at more than 2,000,000 inhabitants.[20]
Decline of the Russian Germans
The decline of the Russian German community started with the reforms of Alexander II. In 1871, he repealed the open-door immigration policy of his ancestors, effectively ending any new German immigration into the Empire. Although the German colonies continued to expand, they were driven by natural growth and by the immigration of Germans from Poland.
The Russian nationalism that took root under Alexander II served as a justification for eliminating in 1871 the bulk of the tax privileges enjoyed by Russian Germans, and after 1874 they were subjected to military service. Only after long negotiations, Mennonites, traditionally a pacifist denomination, were allowed to serve alternative service in the form of work in forestry and the medical corps. The resulting disaffection motivated many Russian Germans, especially members of traditionally dissenting Protestant churches, to migrate to the United States and Canada, while many Catholics chose Brazil and Argentina. They moved primarily to the American Great Plains and western Canada, especially North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, and Colorado; to Canada Manitoba and Saskatchewan, and Alberta; to Brazil, especially Paraná, Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul; and to Argentina, especially South of Buenos Aires Province, Entre Ríos Province and La Pampa Province. North Dakota and South Dakota attracted primarily Odesa (Black Sea area) Germans from Russia while Nebraska and Kansas attracted mainly Volga Germans from Russia. The majority of Volhynia Germans chose Canada as their destination with significant numbers later migrating to the United States. Smaller settlement pockets also occurred in other regions such as Volga and Volhynian Germans in southwestern Michigan, Volhynian Germans in Wisconsin, and Congress Poland and Volhynian Germans in Connecticut.
After 1881, Russian Germans were required to study Russian in school and lost all their remaining special privileges. Many Germans remained in Russia, particularly those who had done well as Russia began to industrialise in the late 19th century. Russian Germans were disproportionately represented among Russia's engineers, technical tradesmen, industrialists, financiers and large land owners.
The loyalties of Russian Germans during the revolution varied. While many supported the royalist forces and joined the
In the chaos of the Russian Revolution and the civil war that followed it, many ethnic Germans were displaced within Russia or emigrated from Russia altogether. The chaos surrounding the Russian Civil War was devastating to many German communities, particularly to religious dissenters like the Mennonites. Many Mennonites
This period was also one of regular food shortages, caused by famine and the lack of long-distance transportation of food during the fighting. Coupled with the
The Soviet Union seized the farms and businesses of Russian Germans, along with all other farms and businesses, when Stalin ended
Nonetheless,
As a result of the German invasion of the Soviet Union on 22 June 1941, Stalin decided to deport the German Russians to internal exile and forced labor in Siberia and Central Asia. It is evident that, at this point, the regime considered national minorities with ethnic ties to foreign states, such as Germans, potential fifth columnists. On 12 August 1941, the Central Committee of the Communist Party decreed the expulsion of the Volga Germans, allegedly for treasonous activity, from their autonomous republic on the lower Volga. On 7 September 1941, the Volga German Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic was abolished and about 438,000 Volga Germans were deported. In subsequent months, an additional 400,000 ethnic Germans were deported to Siberia from their other traditional settlements such as Ukraine and the Crimea.
The Soviets were not successful in deporting all German settlers living in the Western and Southern Ukraine, however, due to the rapid advance of the Wehrmacht (German Army from 1935 to 1945). The secret police, the NKVD, was able to deport only 35% of the ethnic Germans from Ukraine. Thus in 1943, the Nazi German census registered 313,000 ethnic Germans living in the occupied territories of the Soviet Union. With the Soviet re-conquest, the Wehrmacht evacuated about 300,000 German Russians and brought them back to the Reich. Because of the provisions of the Yalta Agreement, all former Soviet citizens living in Germany at war's end had to be repatriated, most by force. More than 200,000 German Russians were deported, against their will, by the Allies and sent to the Gulag. Thus, shortly after the end of the war, more than one million ethnic Germans from Russia were in special settlements and labor camps in Siberia and Central Asia. It is estimated that 200,000 to 300,000 died of starvation, lack of shelter, over-work, and disease during the 1940s.[22]
On 26 November 1948, Stalin made the banishment permanent, declaring that Russia's Germans were permanently forbidden from returning to Europe, but this was rescinded after his death in 1953. Many Russian Germans returned to European Russia, but quite a few remained in Soviet Asia.
Although the post-Stalin Soviet state no longer persecuted ethnic Germans as a group, their Soviet republic was not re-founded. Many Germans in Russia largely assimilated and integrated into Russian society. There were some 2 million ethnic Germans in the Soviet Union in 1989.
Russian Germans and Perestroika
This article relies largely or entirely on a single source. (July 2016) |
Since migrating to Russia in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, Germans had adopted many of the Slavic traits and cultures and formed a special group known as "rossiskie nemtsy", or Russian Germans.[27] Recently, Russian Germans have become of national interest to Germany and to the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS).[28] Although ethnic Germans were no longer persecuted, their pre-Bolshevik lives and villages were not re-founded. Many Germans integrated into Soviet society where they now continue to live. The displaced Germans are unable to return to their ancestral lands in the Volga River Valley or the Black Sea regions, because in many instances, those villages no longer exist after being destroyed during Stalin's regime. In 1990, approximately 45,000 Russian Germans, or 6% of the population, lived in the former German Volga Republic.[29] During the late twentieth century, three-quarters of Russian Germans were living in Central Asia (Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tadzhikistan and Uzbekistan), South-West Siberia and Southern Urals.[30]
Starting in the 1970s, a push-pull effect began that would influence where Russian Germans would eventually live. Because of a bad economy, tensions increased between autochthonous groups and recently settled ethnic minorities living in Central Asia.[31] This strain worsened after the Afghanistan War began in 1979.[31] Germans and other Europeans felt culturally and economically pressured to leave these countries, and moved to the Russian Republic. This migration continued into the 1990s.[31]
During Perestroika in the 1980s, the Soviet borders were opened and the beginnings of a massive migration of Germans from the Soviet Union occurred. Entire families, and even villages, would leave their homes and relocate together in Germany or Austria.[31] This was because they needed to show the German Embassy certain documents, such as a family Bible, as proof that their ancestors were originally from Germany.[32] This meant if a family member stayed in the Soviet Union, but then decided to leave later, they would be unable to because they would no longer have the necessary paperwork. Also, Russian German villages were pretty much self-sustaining so if an individual that was necessary for that community, such as a teacher, mechanic or blacksmith left, then the entire village might disappear because it was hard to find a replacement for these vital community members.[33]
Legal and economic pull factors contributed to Russian Germans decision to move to Germany. They were given special legal status of Aussiedler (exiles from former German territories or of German descent) which gave them instant German citizenship, the right to vote, unlimited work permit, the flight from Moscow to Frankfurt (with all of their personal belongings and household possessions), job training, and unemployment benefits for three years.[34]
Russian Germans from South-West Siberia received a completely different treatment than the Germans living in Central Asia.[why?] Local authorities were persuading Germans to stay by creating two self-governing districts.[28][dubious ]
The All-Union Society Wiedergeburt (Renaissance) was founded in 1989 to encourage Russian Germans to move back to, and restore the Volga Republic.[35] This plan was not successful because Germany interfered with the discussions and created diplomatic friction, which resulted in Russian opposition to this project.[dubious ][citation needed] A couple of those problems were the two sides could not put aside their differences and agree on certain principles such as the meaning of the word "rehabilitation".[36] They also neglected the economic reasons why Russia wanted to entice Russian Germans back to the Volga. In 1992, Russian Germans and Russian officials finally agreed on a plan, but Germany did not approve it.[37]
On 21 February 1992, Boris Yeltsin, President of the Russian Federation, signed a German-Russian Federation agreement with Germany to restore citizenship to Russian Germans.[38] This Federal Program intended to gradually restore the homeland of Russian Germans, and their descendants, in the former Republic of Volga, thus encouraging Russian Germans to immigrate back to Russia.[39] It would also guarantee the national and cultural identity of Russian Germans would be preserved, such as their culture, language and religion.[40] At the same time, it would not block or regulate their right to leave if they decide to do so at a later point.[41]
Events for a separate territory proceeded differently in Siberia, because financially stable Russian German settlements already existed. Siberian officials were economically driven to keep their skilled Russian German citizens and not see them leave for other republics or countries.[37] In the late 1980s, 8.1% of Russian Germans lived in the county of Altay in South-West Siberia and they controlled one-third of profitable farms.[42]
In early 1990, a few ideas offered to the Officer of Exiles (the bureau in charge of emigrants after arriving in Germany) in order to retain Russian Germans, or to promote their return included the suggestion that the necessary important village specialists (mechanics, teachers, doctors, etc.) should be offered incentives such as Trade Associations and additional training in order to keep, or to attract them to Russia. Russian German schools and universities should also be reopened. A third idea is to establish a financial institution that would motivate individuals to buy homes, and start farms or small businesses.[43] Unfortunately, proposed initiatives have not gained traction and have not been instituted due to corruption, incompetency and inexperience.[44] The Association for Germans Abroad (VDA) contracted with the business Inkoplan, to move families from Central Asia at vastly inflated costs. This resulted in VDA and Inkoplan personnel pocketing the difference.[45] Examples of incompetency and inexperience included: VDA falsely projected the idea all Russian Germans wanted to leave their present homes and lives and move to the Volga region where they would start over.[45] The Home Office was not fluent in the Russian language or familiar with foreign cultures abroad and this created many misunderstandings between various groups.[46] Because of these actions by the Home Office, the migration back to Germany continues. Over 140,000 individuals migrated to Germany from CIS in 1990 and 1991, and almost 200,000 people migrated in 1992.[33]
Demographics
Year | Pop. | ±% |
---|---|---|
1897 | 1,790,489 | — |
1926 | 1,238,549 | −30.8% |
1939 | 1,427,232 | +15.2% |
1959 | 1,619,655 | +13.5% |
1970 | 1,846,317 | +14.0% |
1979 | 1,936,214 | +4.9% |
1989 | 2,038,603 | +5.3% |
Source: |
In the
In 2011, the Kaluga Oblast included ethnic Germans living in the former republics of USSR, under the federal program for the return of compatriots to Russia.[51]
According to the 1989 census there were 100,309 Germans living in Kyrgyzstan. According to the most recent census data (1999), there were 21,472 Germans in Kyrgyzstan. The German population in Tajikistan was 38,853 in 1979.[52]
In Germany, there are an estimated 2.3 million German Russians, who have established one of the largest Russian-speaking communities outside of the former Soviet Union along with Israel's.
Education
Several German international schools for expatriates living in the former Soviet Union are in operation.
Russia:
Georgia:
Ukraine:
Germans in the Baltics
The German presence on the eastern shores of the
During Peter the Great's rule, the Russian Empire gained control over most of Latvia and Estonia from Sweden in the Great Northern War (1700–1721), but left the local German nobility in control. Until the Russification policies of the 1880s, the Baltic German community and its institutions were intact and protected under the Russian Empire. The Baltic German nobility were very influential in the Russian Tsar's army and administration.
The reforms of Alexander III replaced many of the traditional privileges of the German nobility with elected local governments and more uniform tax codes. Schools were required to teach Russian, and the Russian nationalist press began targeting segregated Germans as unpatriotic and "insufficiently Russian". Baltic Germans also became the target of emerging Latvian and Estonian nationalist movements.
In late 1939 (after the start of World War II), the majority of the Baltic German community in Latvia and Estonia answered the call of the Führer
Notable Russian Germans
- Rudolf Abel (1903–1971), Soviet intelligence officer
- Nikolay Bauman (1873–1905), Russian revolutionary of the Bolshevik Party
- Ernst Johann von Biron - a regent of Ivan VI of Russia
- Ivan VI of Russia as son of Duke Anthony Ulrich of Brunswick - Emperor
- Duke Anthony Ulrich of Brunswick - father of Emperor Ivan IV and Generalissimo
- Alexandra Feodorovna (Alix of Hesse) (1872–1918), Empress Consort of Russia
- Georgy Boos (born 1963), governor of Kaliningrad Oblast, 2005 to 2010.
- Peter III of Russia as son of Charles Frederick, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp - Emperor
- Catherine the Great (1729–1796), Empress of Russia
- Nikolai Erdmann(1900–1970), dramatist
- Helene Fischer (born 1984), singer, dancer, entertainer, TV presenter and actress.
- Alisa Freindlich (born 1934) actress
- Jeanna Friske (1974–2015), singer, model, actress, socialite
- Andrei Geim(Andre Geim) (born 1958), Physics Nobel Laureate for his work on graphene
- Anna German (Anna Hörmann) (1936–1982), singer
- Edgar Gess (born 1954), football player & coach
- Reinhold Glière (Reinhold Ernst Glier) (1875–1956), composer
- Hermann Gräf(born 1964), Minister of Economics and Trade
- Angelina Grün (born 1979) volleyball player
- Gustav Klinger (1876–1937), communist politician
- Olga Knipper-Chekhova (1868–1959), actress, wife of Anton Chekhov
- Alfred Koch (born 1961), statesman, writer, mathematician, economist and businessman
- Wladimir Köppen (1846–1940), meteorologist, climatologist and botanist
- Viktor Kress (born 1948) governor of Tomsk Oblast, 1991 to 2012.
- Vladimir Lenin (1870–1924), Soviet Chairman of Soviet Union
- Andreas Maurer(born 1970), local politician
- Alexander Merkel (born 1992), football player
- Vsevolod Meyerhold (Karl Kasimir Theodor Meyerhold), (1874–1940), actor & theatre director
- Irina Mikitenko (born 1972), long-distance runner
- Alexei Miller(born 1962), Gazprom CEO
- Karl Nesselrode (1780–1862), count and diplomat
- Peter Neustädter (born 1966), football player and manager
- Vladimir Pachmann(1848–1933), pianist
- Decembristleaders
- Vyacheslav von Plehve (Vyacheslav Pleve) (1846–1904), Minister of the Interior
- Boris Rauschenbach (1915–2001), physicist and engineer
- Sviatoslav Richter (1915–1997), pianist
- Patriarch Alexy II(Alexey Ridiger) (1929–2008), primate of the Russian Orthodox Church
- Nicholas Roerich (1874–1947), painter
- Eduard Rossel (born 1937), governor of Sverdlovsk Oblast, 1995–2009
- Otto Schmidt (1891–1956), geophysicist and statesman
- Pyotr Schmidt (1867–1906), Russian naval officer and 1905 revolutionary
- Alfred Schnittke (1934–1998), composer
- Dennis Siver (born 1979), mixed martial arts fighter
- Jordin Sparks (born 1989), singer and actress[citation needed]
- Vasiliy Ulrikh (Vasiliy Ulrich) (1889–1951), Soviet political judge
- Maria Alexandrovna Ulyanova (1835–1916), mother of Vladimir Lenin
- Max Vasmer (1886–1962), wrote the Etymological dictionary of the Russian language
- Brad Wall (born 1965), Premier of Saskatchewan, 2007 to 2018.
- Lawrence Welk (1903–1992), an accordionist, bandleader and TV impresario
- Immanuel Winkler (1886–1932) – Pastor, official representative of Black Seas Germans
- Sergei Witte (1849–1915), the first Prime Minister of Russia Empire
- Field Marshal in the Imperial Russian Army
- Andreas Wolf (born 1982), football player
- Dennis Wolf (born 1978), bodybuilder
- Zedd (born 1989), stage name of Anton Zaslavski, record producer, DJ, musician & songwriter.
See also
- Bessarabia Germans
- Crimean Goths
- Deutsche Nationalkreis Asowo
- Deutsche Nationalkreis Halbstadt
- Kazakhstan Germans
- German operation of the NKVD
- House of Holstein-Gottorp-Romanov
- Mennonite settlements of Altai
- Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact
- Nazi–Soviet population transfers
- Population transfer in the Soviet Union
- Russians in Germany
- Russian Mennonite
- Volga German Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic
Notes
- ^ 2021 Kazakhstan Census
- ^ 2021 Russian census
- ^ 2001 Ukrainian Census
- ^ Gerhard Reichling, Die deutschen Vertriebenen in Zahlen, part 1, Bonn: 1995, pp. 8
- Flight and expulsion of Germans1,119,000 were Protestant and 254,000 were Catholic
- ^ "Главная страница проекта "Арена" : Некоммерческая Исследовательская Служба "Среда"". Retrieved 18 March 2015.
- ^ L Schaitberger. "The Long March of the Innocents". Retrieved 18 March 2015.
- JSTOR 43919398.
- ^ Bonn Urges Russia to Restore Land for Its Ethnic Germans, New York Times.
- ^ Case Studies Database Archived 8 August 2009 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ 2001 Ukrainian Population Census Archived 6 July 2007 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "GRIN - Russlanddeutsche Schamkultur im Konflikt mit der deutschen Schuldkultur". www.grin.com (in German). Retrieved 20 September 2021.
- ^ Translation of the grant of privileges to merchants in 1229: "Medieval Sourcebook: Privileges Granted to German Merchants at Novgorod, 1229". Fordham.edu.
- ^ Karl Stumpp, "The Emigration From Germany to Russia in the Years 1763-1862"
- ^ The Germans from Volhynia and Russian Poland Archived 5 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine, University of Alberta, Canada
- ^ Olga Solovyova (Ольга Соловьева) "Bug 'Hollanders'" (БУЖСКИЕ ГОЛЕНДРЫ) (in Russian)
- ^ Accor History of Germans from Russia. Who are the Germans from Russia?
- ^ Bassler, Gerhard P. (22 January 2018). "German Canadians". The Canadian Encyclopedia. Historica Canada.
- ^ Laegreid, Renee M. (2011). "German Russians". Encyclopedia of the Great Plains. University of Nebraska-Lincoln.
- ^ Accor Centro Argentino Cultural Wolgadeutsche
- ^ The Volga Germans and the Famine of 1921
- ISBN 978-0-692-60337-6, pp 2,3,166
- ^ Germans from Russia Heritage Collection Archived 5 July 2008 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ KAZAKHSTAN: Special report on ethnic Germans, IRIN Asia
- ^ "Russia - Other Ethnic Groups". Retrieved 18 March 2015.
- ^ "gms - 50. Jahrestagung der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Medizinische Informatik, Biometrie und Epidemiologie (gmds) 12. Jahrestagung der Deutschen Arbeitsgemeinschaft für Epidemiologie (dae) - External causes of death in a cohort of Aussiedler from the former Soviet Union, 1990-2002". 8 September 2005. pp. Doc05gmds038. Retrieved 18 March 2015.
- ^ Helmut Kluter, "People of German Descent in CIS States – Areas of Settlement, Territorial Autonomy and Emigration," GeoJournal, Vol. 31, No. 4 (December 1993): 421.
- ^ a b Kluter, 419.
- ^ Kluter, 425.
- ^ Kluter, 421.
- ^ a b c d Kluter, 423.
- ^ Kluter 428.
- ^ a b Kluter, 428.
- ^ Kluter, 429.
- ^ Kluter, 424.
- ^ Kluter, 419, 427.
- ^ a b Kluter, 427.
- ^ "Germany-Russian Federation: Protocol of Collaboration on the Gradual Restoration of Citizenship to Russian Germans, with Decree of the Russian Federation," International Legal Materials, Vol. 31, No. 6 (November 1992): 1301, 1302
- ^ "Germany-Russian Federation:" 1301.
- ^ Björn Arp, International Norms and Standards for the Protection of National Minorities: Bilateral and Multilateral Texts for Commentary, (Leiden, Boston, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2008), 288. "Germany-Russian Federation:" 1301.
- ^ Arp, 288.
- ^ Kluter, 422
- ^ Kluter, 433, 434.
- ^ Kluter, 431 - 433.
- ^ a b Kluter, 431.
- ^ Kluter, 432.
- ^ "Приложение Демоскопа Weekly". Demoscope.ru. Archived from the original on 12 October 2013. Retrieved 27 April 2016.
- ^ "Orientation - Siberian Germans". Retrieved 18 March 2015.
- ^ As transliterated from Russian, in German, his name would probably be written as Hermann Graef.
- ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 17 February 2007. Retrieved 20 July 2006.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) - ^ "Калужская область готова принять немцев, переселившихся из стран СНГ". Retrieved 18 March 2015.
- ^ J. Otto Pohl (29 March 2007). "Otto's Random Thoughts". Retrieved 18 March 2015.
External links
- Black Sea German Research
- Germans From Russia Heritage Society
- American Historical Society of Germans from Russia
- German-Russian Settlement Map
- Manifesto of the Empress Catherine II issued July 22, 1763
- Vistula Germans - history and map settlements by religion
- Germans from Volhynia - genealogy, culture, history
- JewishGen's Gazetteer