History of Gujarat

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History of Gujarat
Stone Age (before 4000 BCE)
Stone Age(before 4000 BCE)
Chalcolithic to Bronze Age (4000–1300 BCE)
Chalcolithic Gujarat
 –
Black and Red Ware
 (3950–900 BCE)
 – Reserved Slip Ware(3950–1900 BCE)
 – Micaceous Red Ware(2600–1600 BCE)
 – Malwa Ware
 – Jorwe Ware
Indus Valley Civilisation(3300–1300 BCE)
 – Early Harappan(3300–2600 BCE)
 – Mature Harappan(2600–1900 BCE)
 – Late Harappan(1900–1300 BCE)
Late cultures(2200–1700 BCE)
 – Prabhas Assemblage(2200–1700 BCE)
 – Lustrous Red Ware (1900–1300 BCE)
Vedic Civilisation(2000–500 BCE)
Iron Age (1500–300 BCE)
Dwaraka Kingdom
 –Sindhu Kingdom
 –Saurashtra Kingdom
Classical period (380 BCE – 1299 CE)
Western Chalukya
(9–10th century)
Chalukyas of Lata (c. 970 – c. 1070 CE)
Chaulukya dynasty (c. 940 – 1243 CE)
Vaghela dynasty (1243–1299 CE)
Medieval and early modern periods (1299–1819)
Mughal Gujarat
 (1573–1756)
Maratha Empire (1756–1819)
 –Peshwa
 –Gaekwad
Cutch State(1365–1947)
Colonial period (1819–1961)
Portuguese India(1534–1961)
Company Raj (1819–1858)
British Raj (1858–1947)
 –Princely states(till 1948)
 –Residencies (1819–1947)
 –Agencies of British India(1819–1947)
 –Bombay Presidency(1618–1947)
Post-independence (1947–)
Saurashtra State
 (1948–1956)
Kutch State (1947–1956)
Bombay State (1947–1960)
Gujarat (1960–)

The history of Gujarat began with Stone Age settlements followed by Chalcolithic and Bronze Age settlements like

Zoroastrian) refugees arrived in Gujarat from Greater Iran.[2]

During the 10th century, the native

Anhilwara and incorporated Gujarat into the Delhi Sultanate. After Timur's sacking of Delhi at the end of the 14th century weakened the Sultanate, Gujarat's governor Zafar Khan Muzaffar asserted his independence and established the Gujarat Sultanate; his son, Sultan Ahmad Shah I (ruled 1411 to 1442), restructured Ahmedabad as the capital. In the early 16th century the Rana Sanga invasion of Gujarat weakened the Sultanate's power as he annexed northern Gujarat and appointed his vassal to rule there, however after his death, the Sultan of Gujarat recovered the kingdom and even sacked Chittor Fort in 1535.[3] The Sultanate of Gujarat remained independent until 1576, when the Mughal emperor Akbar conquered and annexed it to the Mughal Empire as a province. Surat
had become the prominent and main port of India during Mughal rule.

Later in the 18th century, Gujarat came under control of the

Indian Independence Movement against British colonial rule.[4]

Gujarat was formed by splitting Bombay state in 1960 on linguistic lines. From 1960 to 1995, the Indian National Congress retained power in the Gujarat Legislative Assembly while other political parties ruled for incomplete terms in the 1970s and 1990. The Bharatiya Janata Party has been in power since 1998.

Early history (before 4000 BCE)

The cultural history of Gujarat begins from the

Narmada rivers of Gujarat.[5][6]

The

Palaeolithic artifacts include hand-axes, cleavers, chopping tools, borers, points, and scrapers.[7] The sites in Kutch and Bhadar riverbeds in Saurashtra has also yielded Stone Age tools. Bhandarpur near Orsang valley is rich in Palaeolithic tools. Some of other such sites are Hirpura, Derol, Kapadvanj, Langhnaj and Shamlaji.[8]

More than 700 sites are located in Gujarat which indicate Mesolithic/Microlithic using communities dated to 7000 BC to 2000 BCE divided in Pre-Chalcolithic and Chalcolithic period.[9] Some Mesolithic sites include Langhnaj, Kanewal, Tarsang, Dhansura, Loteshwar, Santhli, Datrana, Moti Pipli and Ambakut. The people of the Mesolithic period were nomadic hunter-gathers with some managing the herds of sheep-goat and cattle.[5][10] Neolithic tools are found at Langhnaj in north Gujarat.[11]

Chalcolithic to Bronze Age (4000–1300 BCE)

See also:
Indus Valley Civilization
An ancient well at Lothal, and the city drainage canals.

Total 755

Black and Red Ware (3950–900 BCE), Reserved Slip Ware (3950–1900 BCE), Micaceous Red Ware (2600–1600 BCE). Prabhas Assemblage (2200–1700 BCE) and Lustrous Red Ware (1900–1300 BCE) are some late material cultures. The few sites associated with Malwa Ware and Jorwe Ware are also found.[9]

Dholavira Site 36

Gujarat has a large number of archaeological sites associated with the

Desalpur, Pabumath and Dholavira are some major sites of Urban period. The sites of the post-Urban period include Lothal B, Rangpur IIC and III, Rojdi C, Kuntasi, Vagad I B, Surkotada 1C, Dholavira VI &VII.[5] It has been noted that in Gujarat, urban cities quickly expanded rather than the slow evolution of urbanism in the northwest.[12]

Map of the Rangpur culture and other late Indus Valley cultures

During the end of the Indus Valley Civilisation, there was a migration of people from Sindh to Gujarat forming the Rangpur culture.[13][14]

Iron Age (1500–200 BCE)

The post-Harappan culture continued at several sites. Pastoralism was also widespread and served as trade-links between the sites.

Vedic literature.[17] Bharuch was the major port town of Iron Age.[18]

Early Historic

The Early Historic material culture of Gujarat include the presence of

Black-and-Red Ware, slow introduction and later domination of Red Polished Ware, occurrence of Roman Amphorae, Rang Mahal Ware (100–300), introduction of glass and lead, followed by gradual conquest of iron, an agriculture-based economy, shell industry, development of script, rise of the urban settlements, brick structural remains, monumental buildings, international trade and development of Jainism, Buddhism, and Vaishnavism.[5][19]

The excavated sites of the Early Historic period include Dhatva, Jokha,

Devnimori from north Gujarat and Amreli, Vallabhi, Prabhas Patan, Padri and Dwarka from Saurashtra.[5]Bharuch was the major port town of Iron Age.[18]

Mauryas

The Junagadh Rock inscription, which attests to Maurya rule over Gujarat

Yavana king Tuṣāspha. What is now Gujarat comprised two provinces, Ānarta (northern mainland Gujarat and northern Kathiawar), and Surāṣṭra (southern Kathiawar).[20][21][22][23][24][25]

According to the Pettavattu and Paramatthadīpanī, a ruler of Suraṭṭha, Piṅgala became a king in 283 BCE. He was converted to "Natthika diṭṭhi" (a nihilistic doctrine) by his general, Nandaka, and attempted to convert the emperor Aśoka, but was himself converted to Buddhism.[22][26]

According to

Kauṭilya, the Kṣatriyas and Vaiśyas of Surāṣṭra belong to various Śreṇīs "corporations or guilds". The Śreṇīs were devoted to the "possession of arms" or "agriculture, cattle-rearing, and trade" respectively.[22][27]

Indo-Greeks

There was a Greek trading presence at the port of Barugaza (Bharuch), but historians are uncertain whether the Indo-Greek Kingdom ruled over Gujarat.[28][29][30]

Indo-scythians

See also: Western Satraps

For nearly 300 years from the start of the 1st century CE, Saka rulers played a prominent part in Gujarat's history. Weather-beaten rock at Junagadh gives a glimpse of the Ruler Rudradaman I (100 CE) of the Saka satraps known as Western Satraps, or Kshatraps. Mahakshatrap Rudradaman I founded the Kardamaka dynasty which ruled from Anupa on the banks of the Narmada up to Aparanta region which bordered Punjab. In Gujarat several battles were fought between the south Indian Satavahana dynasty and the Western Satraps. The greatest ruler of the Satavahana Dynasty was Gautamiputra Satakarni who defeated the Western Satraps and conquered some parts of Gujarat in the 2nd century CE.[31]

Middle Kingdoms (230 BCE – 1297 CE)

Guptas and Maitrakas

See also:
Maitraka, and Saindhava
Maitraka
period.

The Gupta Emperor Samudragupta defeated the Indo-Scythian rulers in battle and had then admit their submission to him. Samudragupta's successor, Chandragupta II, finally conquered the Western Satraps and occupied Gujarat. Chandragupta II assumed the title of "Vikramaditya", in celebration of his victory over the Western Satraps.[32] During the Gupta reign, villagers and peasants were put into forced labour by the Gupta army and officials.[33] During the reign of Skandagupta, Cakrapālita was the governor of Surāṣṭra.[34]

Towards the middle of the 5th century the Gupta empire started to decline. Senapati Bhatarka, the Maitraka general of the Guptas, took advantage of the situation and in 470 CE he set up what came to be known as the Maitraka state. He shifted his capital from Girinagar to Valabhipur, near

Nalanda university. It was during the rule of Dhruvasena Maitrak that Chinese philosopher-traveler Xuanzang visited in 640 CE.[citation needed
]

Gurjara-Pratihara Empire

Further information:
Rani ki Vav (The Queen's stepwell) at Patan was built in the 11th century.[35]

In the early 8th century some parts of Gujarat was ruled by the south Indian

Rashtrakuta dynasty until it was captured by the south Indian ruler Tailapa II of the Western Chalukya Empire.[37]

Coin of the Gujuras of Sindh, Chavda dynasty, circa 570–712 CE. Crowned Sasanian-style bust right / Fire altar with ribbons and attendants; star and crescent flanking flames.[38]

Chaulukya Kingdom

Further information:
Devagiri in the Deccan. Karna of the Vaghela dynasty was the last Hindu ruler of Gujarat. He was defeated and overthrown by the superior forces of Alauddin Khalji
from Delhi in 1297. With his defeat Gujarat not only became part of the Delhi Sultanate but the Rajput hold over Gujarat lost forever.

Delhi Sultanate (1297–1407)

Main article: Gujarat under Delhi Sultanate

Before 1300, Muslims had little presence in Gujarat. The occasional was mainly either as sea-farers or traders coming from Arabian Sea. They were allowed to establish two small settlements in

Tughluq dynasty came to power in Delhi whose emperor carried out expeditions to quell rebellion in Gujarat and established their firm control over the region by the end of the 14th century.[40]

Gujarat Sultanate (1407–1573)

Main article: Gujarat Sultanate
See also:
Gujarati-Portuguese conflicts
Jama Masjid, Ahmedabad.[41]

Following

Battle of Diu (1509)
.

In 1520

Rajputs, other allies of Rana were Rawal Udai Singh of Vagad and Rao Viram deva of Merta. He defeated the Muslim army of Nizam khan and chased them as far as Ahmedabad. Sanga call off his invasion 20 miles before reaching the capital city of Ahmedabad. He plundered the royal treasuries of Gujarat.[42] Sanga successfully annexed Northern Gujarat and appointed one of his vassals to rule there.[43]

Mughal emperor Humayun attacked Gujarat in 1535 and thereafter

Abdul Rahim Khan-I-Khana.[44]

Mughal Era (1573–1756)

Akbar was the first Mughal emperor to rule Gujarat
Main article:
Gujarat under Mughal Empire
Flight of Sultan Bahadur during Humayun's campaign in Gujarat, 1535. Folio from an Akbarnama (History of Akbar), c. 1590.

Akbar (1542–1605) set out on his first campaign of Gujarat from Fatehpur Sikri on 2 July 1572 arriving in Ahmedabad on 20 November 1572.[45] He then reorganized the government of Ahmedabad under the charge of his foster brother Mirza Aziz Koka, the Khan-i-Azam[46] and quelled the rebellion led by the Mirzas by laying siege to the castle of Surat.[47] Akbar then embarked on a second campaign of Gujarat on 23 August 1573 to assist Mirza Aziz Koka against a rebellion from the combined forces of Muhammad Husain Mirza and Ikhtiyar-ul-Mulk.[48] Following Akbar's second campaign, Gujarat was organized into a province (subah) of the Mughal Empire[49] governed by viceroys (subahdars or nazims) responsible for the executive and military branches as well as treasurers (diwans) responsible for the financial branch.[50]

Gujarati ports with significant trade and financial importance now came into the possession of the Mughal Empire and were organized as special districts directly under the authority of the

British East India Company, Surat gained importance as a center of oceanic trade between India and Europe;[52] a factory was established there in 1612.[53] The nobles of the former Sultanate and the Hindu chiefs that rebelled and protested were subdued by the viceroys and officers of the Mughal Empire.[54] Under Shah Jahan (1627–1658), Ahmedabad saw an exodus resulting from officials extracting money from citizens—both the rich and the poor—without the royal permission.[55] Viceroys under Shah Jahan saw to expansion efforts south,[56] taking up of arms against the incursions from the Koli and Kathi tribes,[57] and the implementation of a hardline stance on collection of tribute from the Rajput chiefs of Saurashtra.[58]

The reign of Aurangzeb resulted in massive destruction across Gujarat.

The reign of

capitation tax on all non-Muslims.[62] Aurangzeb's viceroys retaliated against the Khachars and other Kathi tribes,[63] destroyed the Temple of the Sun while attacking and storming the fort of Than,[64] razed the Temple at Vadnagar,[65] and engaged in a drawn out conflict with the Rathores of Marwar.[66]

During the next three emperors (1707–1719) who had brief reigns, the nobles became more powerful due to instability in the Delhi. The royals of Marwar were appointed viceroys frequently. During the reign of the emperor Muhammad Shah, the struggle between the Mughal and Maratha nobles were heightened with frequent battles and incursions.

Maratha Era (1718–1819)

Chhatrapati Shivaji led the initial Maratha campaigns in Gujarat.

When the cracks had started to develop in the edifice of the

Chhatrapati Shivaji
, the great Maratha ruler, attacked Surat twice first in 1664 and again in 1672. These attacks marked the entry of the Marathas into Gujarat.

Later, in the 17th century and early 18th century, Gujarat came under control of the

Pilaji Gaekwad, first ruler of Gaekwad dynasty
, established the control over Baroda and other parts of Gujarat.

Peshwa Balaji Bajirao consolidated Maratha power in Gujarat during his reign.
Laxmi Vilas Palace, completed in 1890 is one of the largest palaces in India. It was commissioned by the Maratha king Sayajirao Gaekwad III of Baroda
.

Starting with

Balaji Bajirao removed the control the Dabhades and Kadam Bande from Gujarat. Balaji Bajirao collected taxes through Damaji Gaekwad. Damaji established the sway of Gaekwad over Gujarat and made Vadodara his capital.[67]

The Marathas continued to grow their hold and the frequent change of viceroys did not reverse the trend. The competing houses of Marathas,

Madhavrao. [68]

Maratha control of Gujarat slowly waned in the 1780s and 1790s due to rivalries between different ruling Maratha houses as well within the Peshwa family. The British

Subsidiary Alliance. With this policy they established their paramountcy over one indigenous state after another. Anandrao Gaekwad joined the Alliance in 1802 and surrendered Surat and adjoining territories to the company. In the garb of helping the Marathas, the British helped themselves, and gradually the Marathas' power came to an end, in 1819 in Gujarat. Gaekwad and other big and small rulers accepted the British Paramountcy.[70]

Early trade with Europeans

Map of Gujarat, 1866
Princely states of Gujarat in 1924

In the 1600s, the Dutch, French, English and

Republic of India
on 19 December 1961 by military conquest.

The

King John IV of Portugal. The state was an early point of contact with the west, and the first English commercial outpost in India was in Gujarat.[71]

Bombay Presidency in 1909, northern portion

17th-century French explorer François Pyrard de Laval, who is remembered for his 10-year sojourn in South Asia, bears witness accounts that the Gujaratis were always prepared to learn workmanship from the Portuguese, also in turn imparting skills to the Portuguese:[72]

I have never seen men of wit so fine and polished as are these Indians: they have nothing barbarous or savage about them, as we are apt to suppose. They are unwilling indeed to adopt the manners and customs of the Portuguese; yet do they regularly learn their manufactures and workmanship, being all very curious and desirous of learning. In fact, the Portuguese take and learn more from them than they from the Portuguese.

British Era (1819–1947 CE)

The East India Company wrested control of much of Gujarat from the Marathas during the Second Anglo-Maratha War in 1802–1803. Many local rulers, notably the Maratha Gaekwad Maharajas of Vadodara, made a separate peace with the British and acknowledged British sovereignty in return for retaining local self-rule.

Gujarat was placed under the political authority of the

princely states, but several districts in central and southern Gujarat, namely Ahmedabad, Broach (Bharuch), Kaira (Kheda), Panchmahal and Surat
, were governed directly by British officials. In 1812, an epidemic outbreak killed and wiped out half the population of Gujarat.[73]

Under British rule, the administration of Gujarat was differentiated based on function, most notably the Revenue Department, Police Department, and Department of the Administration of Justice. The bureaucratic system developed by the British was based on the principle of “legal-rational” authority, where specific duties and powers were assigned to fixed meritocratic positions, in which power could not be arbitrarily exercised. These positions had clear systems of regular salaries, promotions, pensions, and transfers. The British also created a new legal system that was divorced from religion and traditional customs that uniformly applied to all citizens regardless of status, which also necessitated the creation of legislative organs and the legal profession itself. A new tax system was developed that centred mainly on land tax, where agricultural land was taxed on the assessed production capabilities of that land, with payments having to be paid in cash rather than in kind. The native Gujaratis who worked in the political system tended to be of upper castes. Criticism was also found of the British government, where Gujaratis complained about racial discrimination, an excessive and expensive bureaucracy, and overtaxation.[74]

In rural Gujarat, the land tax system was based on the ryotwari system. In this system the agricultural land was assigned a quality of soil which determined the productive capabilities of the land which the farmer would be taxed at, rather than the actual amount of produce grown. The system allowed land to be transformed into a commodity which could be bought, sold, and mortgaged, which hurt the traditional power of collective communities. Additionally since the land revenue had to be paid in cash, this transformed village economies into cash markets. Non-cultivating groups who held proprietary tax rights over agricultural land were also accommodated into the system where they were given land tenures which turned the cultivators into tenants and the tribute gatherers into absentee landlords. These changes slowly deprived upper caste tribute gatherers of their powers and led to mass transfers of land. The production of cash crops, namely cotton, exploded. The status of village artisans also declined.[75]

Under British rule, large numbers of Gujarati trading groups moved to Bombay, which led to the decline of some Gujarati towns such as Surat and Broach, whereas Ahmedabad gained industrial importance after the linkage of railways. In urban areas the production of native handicrafts declined due to the British rulers not being interested in luxury goods, as well as the westernization of Gujaratis themselves who eschewed Indian jewellery and fashions. The British also intentionally sought to destroy the native export market in order to develop Britain’s industrial production through duty-free imports, which became cheaper and of higher quality than native Gujarati goods. The growth of western-style factories in Gujarat itself also dealt a death-blow to traditional handicraft makers. The production of cotton boomed in such factories, which created new opportunities for wealth creation among enterprising groups. New business organizations such as joint-stock companies developed.[76]

Under British rule a new organized educational system developed with a hierarchic-bureaucratic structure which had fixed rules regarding appointments and salary. Classes in this era ranged from primary schools to specialized higher learning institutions in which education was secularized. British-style education led to decline of the monopoly on traditional education by Brahmins and was open to a more diverse body of students however, caste still played a factor in education and upper castes were dominant in receiving it. A new educated class of Gujaratis emerged that led various literary and reform movements as well as economic and political reforms. The British sought to create a job-oriented educated class of Gujaratis who could work in the new politico-economic framework as well as and who would be active supporters of British imperial rule. The growth of a new educated class as well as politico-economic factors led to the rise of local Gujarati journalism who newspapers printed views on social and political matters. In this era arose modern Gujarati literature which heralded the coming of prose and the novel, and writers explored new themes such as social reform, individualism, patriotism while continuing the themes of nature and religion. Despite these changes in Gujarat barely 5% of the population was educated and most printed works were in English.[77]

Indian Independence Movement

See Also:

Freedom fighters from Gujarat

Salt satyagraha
on 5 April 1930

The people of Gujarat were the most enthusiastic participants in India's struggle for freedom. Leaders like

Salt Satyagraha
.

Post-Independence (1947 CE – present)

K. M. Munshi with archaeologists and engineers of the Government of India, inspecting the ruins of Somnath Temple, c. 1950. The temple, which was destroyed several times by invaders, was reconstructed in 1951.

1947–1960

See also:
Mahagujarat Movement

After

Bombay state on linguistic lines. On 1 May 1960, Bombay state bifurcated into Gujarat and Maharashtra. The capital of Gujarat was Ahmedabad.[78]

Kutch was hit by the

Sindhi
Hindu refugees arriving from Pakistan after partition.

1960–1973

See also: Gujarat Beechcraft incident and 1969 Gujarat riots
Bombay State (1956–1960) and its reorganisation.

Members of legislative assembly were elected from 132 constituencies of newly formed Gujarat state.

1971 Indo-Pakistani war. Chimanbhai Patel opposed Oza and became chief minister in 1972. The capital of Gujarat moved from Ahmedabad to Gandhinagar in 1971 but legislative assembly building was completed in 1982.[82]

1974–2000

Navnirman Andolan, the "Navnirman movement" started in December 1973 due to price rise and corruption in public life. People demanded resignation of Chief Minister Patel.[83][84][85][86] Due to pressure of protests, Indira Gandhi asked Patel to step down. He resigned on 9 February 1974 and President's rule imposed.[83][85] The governor suspended the state assembly and President's rule was imposed. Opposition parties led stepped in with demand for dissolution of state assembly.[84] Congress had 140 out of 167 MLAs in state assembly. 15 Congress (O) and three Jan Sangh MLAs also resigned. By March, protesters had got 95 of 167 to resign. Morarji Desai, leader of Congress (O), went on an indefinite fast in March and the assembly was dissolved bringing end to agitation.[83][84][85] No fresh election held until Morarji Desai went on indefinite hunger strike in April 1975.[84] The fresh elections were held in June 1975. Chimanbhai Patel formed new party named Kisan Mazdoor Lok Paksh and contested on his own. Congress lost elections which won only 75 seats. Coalition of Congress (O), Jan Sangh, PSP and Lok Dal known as Janata Morcha won 88 seats and Babubhai J. Patel became Chief Minister. Indira Gandhi imposed the emergency in 1975.[84] Janata Morcha government lasted nine months and president's rule imposed in March 1976 following failure of passage of budget in assembly to opposition of coalition partners.[85] Later Congress won elections in December 1976 and Madhav Singh Solanki became Chief Minister.[84][85] A year later Madhav Singh Solanki resigned and again Babubhai Patel led Janata Party formed the government. He shifted his cabinet to Morbi for six months during 1979 Machchhu dam failure disaster which resulted in large casualties.[87]

Janata Morcha government was dismissed and president's rule was imposed in 1980 even though it had majority. Later Madhav Singh Solanki led INC won the election in 1980 and formed the government which completed five years in office.

plague endemic broke out in Surat resulting in 52 deaths.[88]

Following the rise of Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) at centre, Keshubhai Patel led BJP won in 1995 assembly election. Keshubhai Patel became the chief minister of Gujarat in March but resigned eight months later as his colleague Shankersinh Vaghela revolted against him. BJP was split as Rashtriya Janata Party was formed by Vaghela who became the Chief Minister by support of INC. Assembly was dissolved in 1998 as INC withdrew its support. BJP returned to power led by Patel in 1998 assembly elections and he became the chief minister again.[89] In 1998, a severe tropical cyclone hit Kandla port and Saurashtra and Kutch regions.[90]

2000–present

See also:
2002 Gujarat violence, and Akshardham Temple attack
Aftershocks, 2001 Gujarat earthquake – yellow star marks epicenter

Gujarat was hit with a devastating earthquake on 26 January 2001 which claimed a staggering 20,000 lives, injured another 200,000 people and severely affected the lives of 40 million of the population. Patel resigned as chief minister in October 2001 due to his failing health. Allegations of abuse of power, corruption and poor administration; as well as a loss of BJP seats in

2001 Bhuj earthquake; prompted the BJP's national leadership to seek a new candidate for the office of chief minister. He was replaced by Narendra Modi.[91][92][93][94]

The skyline of Ahmedabad filled with smoke as buildings are set on fire by rioting mobs during the Gujarat Riots of 2002. The riots led to at least 1,044 dead, 223 missing, and 2,500 injured.

The

communalist riot, the events of 2002 have been described as a pogrom by many scholars. Scholars studying the 2002 riots state that they were premeditated and constituted a form of ethnic cleansing, and that the state government and law enforcement were complicit in the violence that occurred.[95][96][97][98][99][100][101] However, Special Investigation Team (SIT) appointed by the Supreme Court of India, rejected claims that the state government had not done enough to prevent the riots.[102]

In September 2002, there was a

bomb blasts hit Ahmedabad, within a span of 70 minutes. 56 people were killed and over 200 people were injured in the attack.[104][105][106] 2009 Gujarat hepatitis outbreak resulted in 49 deaths. In July 2009, more than 130 people died in hooch tragedy.[107]

In 2006, Gujarat became the first state in India to electrify all villages of the state.[108]

Ahmedabad resulted in five and twelve deaths respectively.[122][123]

The Narendra Modi Stadium of Motera became the world's largest stadium following the renovation in 2021.[124]

Notes

  1. ^ The Chaulukya dynasty is not to be confused with the Chalukya dynasty.

References

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Bibliography

Further reading
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