History of Hinduism
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Hinduism |
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The history of Hinduism covers a wide variety of related
The history of Hinduism is often divided into periods of development. The first period is the pre-Vedic period, which includes the Indus Valley Civilization and local pre-historic religions, ending at about 1750 BCE. This period was followed in northern India by the Vedic period, which saw the introduction of the historical Vedic religion with the Indo-Aryan migrations, starting somewhere between 1900 BCE and 1400 BCE.[24][note 3] The subsequent period, between 800 BCE and 200 BCE, is "a turning point between the Vedic religion and Hindu religions",[27] and a formative period for Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism. During the Epic and Early Puranic period, from c. 200 BCE to 500 CE, the Epics and the first Purānas were composed.[12][22] It was followed by the classical "Golden Age" of Hinduism (c. 320–650 CE), which coincides with the Gupta Empire. In this period the six branches of Hindu philosophy evolved, namely Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mīmāṃsā, and Vedānta. Monotheistic sects like Shaivism and Vaishnavism developed during this same period through the Bhakti movement. The period from roughly 650 to 1100 CE forms the late Classical period[28] or early Middle Ages, in which classical Puranic Hinduism is established, and Adi Shankara's influential consolidation of Advaita Vedanta.
Hinduism under both Hindu and
Roots of Hinduism
While the Puranic chronology presents a genealogy of thousands of years, scholars regard Hinduism as a fusion[11][note 4] or synthesis[12][note 5] of various Indian cultures and traditions.[12][note 6] Among its roots are the historical Vedic religion,[14][33] itself already the product of "a composite of the Indo-Aryan and Harappan cultures and civilizations",[34][note 7] which evolved into the Brahmanical religion and ideology of the Kuru Kingdom of Iron Age northern India; but also the Śramaṇa[21] or renouncer traditions[14] of northeast India,[21] and mesolithic[35] and neolithic[36] cultures of India, such as the religions of the Indus Valley Civilisation,[37] Dravidian traditions,[38] and the local traditions[14] and tribal religions.[39]
This
From northern India this "Hindu synthesis", and its societal divisions, spread to southern India and parts of
According to
Periodisation
James Mill (1773–1836), in his The History of British India (1817), distinguished three phases in the history of India, namely Hindu, Muslim and British civilisations. This periodisation has been criticised, for the misconceptions it has given rise to. Another periodisation is the division into "ancient, classical, medieval and modern periods", although this periodization has also received criticism.[54]
Romila Thapar notes that the division of Hindu-Muslim-British periods of Indian history gives too much weight to "ruling dynasties and foreign invasions",[55] neglecting the social-economic history which often showed a strong continuity.[55] The division in Ancient-Medieval-Modern overlooks the fact that the Muslim-conquests took place between the eighth and the fourteenth century, while the south was never completely conquered.[55] According to Thapar, a periodisation could also be based on "significant social and economic changes", which are not strictly related to a change of ruling powers.[56][note 16]
Smart and Michaels seem to follow Mill's periodisation, while Flood and Muesse follow the "ancient, classical, medieval and modern periods" periodisation. An elaborate periodisation may be as follows:[28]
- Pre-history and Indus Valley Civilisation (until c. 1750 BCE);
- Vedic period (c. 1750–500 BCE);
- "Second Urbanisation" (c. 600–200 BCE);
- Classical Period (c. 200 BCE – 1200 CE);[note 17]
- Pre-classical period (c. 200 BCE – 300 CE);
- "Golden Age" of India (Gupta Empire) (c. 320–650 CE);
- Late-Classical period (c. 650–1200 CE);
- Medieval Period (c. 1200–1500 CE);
- Early Modern Period (c. 1500–1850);
- Modern period (British Raj and independence) (from c. 1850).
History of Hinduism | |||||||||||||
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James Mill (1773–1836), in his The History of British India (1817),[A] distinguished three phases in the history of India, namely Hindu, Muslim and British civilisations.[A][B] This periodisation has been influential, but has also been criticised, for the misconceptions it has given rise to.[C] Another influential periodisation is the division into "ancient, classical, mediaeval and modern periods".[D] | |||||||||||||
Smart[E] | Michaels[F] | Muesse[G] | Flood[H] | ||||||||||
Indus Valley civilisation and Vedic period (c. 3000–1000 BCE) |
Prevedic religions (until c. 1750 BCE)[I] |
Indus Valley civilisation (3300–1400 BCE) |
Indus Valley civilisation (c. 2500 to 1500 BCE) | ||||||||||
Vedic | Early Vedic Period (c. 1750–1200 BCE) |
Vedic period (1600–800 BCE) |
Vedic period (c. 1500–500 BCE) | ||||||||||
Middle Vedic period (c. 1200–850 BCE) | |||||||||||||
Pre-classical period (c. 1000 BCE – 100 CE) |
Late Vedic period (c. 850–500 BCE) |
Classical period (800–200 BCE) | |||||||||||
Ascetic reformism (c. 500–200 BCE) |
Epic and Puranic period (c. 500 BCE to 500 CE) | ||||||||||||
Classical | Preclassical Hinduism (c. 200 BCE – 300 CE)[J] |
Epic and Puranic period (200 BCE – 500 CE) | |||||||||||
Classical period (c. 100 – 1000 CE) |
"Golden Age" (Gupta Empire) (c. 320–650 CE)[K] | ||||||||||||
Late-Classical Hinduism (c. 650–1100 CE)[L] |
Medieval and Late Puranic period (500–1500 CE) |
Medieval and Late Puranic period (500–1500 CE) | |||||||||||
Hindu-Islamic civilisation (c. 1000–1750 CE) |
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[[History of India#Early modern period (c. 1526–1858 CE)|Modern]] (1500–present) |
[[History of India#Early modern period (c. 1526–1858 CE)|Modern period]] (c. 1500 CE to present) | ||||||||||||
Modern period (c. 1750 CE – present) |
Modern Hinduism (from c. 1850)[N] | ||||||||||||
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Pre-Vedic religions (until c. 1750 BCE)
Prehistory
Hinduism may have roots in Mesolithic prehistoric religion, such as evidenced in the rock paintings of Bhimbetka rock shelters,[note 18] which are about 10,000 years old (c. 8,000 BCE),[57][58][59][60][61] as well as neolithic times. At least some of these shelters were occupied over 100,000 years ago.[62][note 19] Several tribal religions still exist, though their practices may not resemble those of prehistoric religions.[web 3]
Indus Valley Civilization (c. 3300–1700 BCE)
Some Indus valley seals show
In view of the large number of figurines found in the Indus valley, some scholars believe that the Harappan people worshipped a mother goddess symbolizing fertility, a common practice among rural Hindus even today.[70] However, this view has been disputed by S. Clark who sees it as an inadequate explanation of the function and construction of many of the figurines.[71]
There are no religious buildings or evidence of elaborate burials. If there were temples, they have not been identified.[attribution needed][72] However, House – 1 in HR-A area in Mohenjo Daro's Lower Town has been identified as a possible temple.[73]
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Fighting scene between a beast and a man with horns, hooves and a tail, who has been compared to the Mesopotamian bull-man Enkidu.[77][78][79] Indus Valley Civilisation seal.
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Swastika Seals from the Indus Valley Civilization preserved at the British Museum
Vedic period (c. 1750–500 BCE)
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The commonly proposed period of earlier Vedic age is dated back to 2nd millennium BCE.
Origins
The Vedic period, named after the Vedic religion of the
According to the
The Indo-Aryans were pastoralists[86] who migrated into north-western India after the collapse of the Indus Valley Civilization.[87][88][89][note 25] The Indo-Aryans were a branch of the Indo-Iranians, which originated in the Andronovo culture[90] in the Bactria-Margiana era, in present northern Afghanistan.[91] The roots of this culture go back further to the Sintashta culture, with funeral sacrifices which show close parallels to the sacrificial funeral rites of the Rigveda.[92]
Although some early depictions of deities seem to appear in the art of the
During the Early Vedic period (c. 1500–1100 BCE[86]) Indo-Aryan tribes were pastoralists in north-west India.[96] After 1100 BCE, with the introduction of iron, the Indo-Aryan tribes moved into the western Ganges Plain, adopting an agrarian lifestyle.[86][97][98] Rudimentary state-forms appeared, of which the Kuru-tribe and realm was the most influential.[86][99] It was a tribal union, which developed into the first recorded state-level society in South Asia around 1000 BCE.[86] It decisively changed their religious heritage of the early Vedic period, collecting their ritual hymns into the Veda-collections, and developing new rituals which gained their position in Indian civilization as the orthodox Śrauta rituals,[86] which contributed to the so-called "classical synthesis"[100] or "Hindu synthesis".[12]
Rigvedic religion
Who really knows?
Who will here proclaim it?
Whence was it produced? Whence is this creation?
The gods came afterwards, with the creation of this universe.
Who then knows whence it has arisen?
The Indo-Aryans brought with them their language
Many of the qualities of Indo-Iranian god of might/victory, Verethragna, were transferred to the adopted god Indra, who became the central deity of the developing Old Indic culture. Indra was the subject of 250 hymns, a quarter of the Rig Veda. He was associated more than any other deity with Soma, a stimulant drug (perhaps derived from Ephedra) probably borrowed from the BMAC religion. His rise to prominence was a peculiar trait of the Old Indic speakers.[91]
The oldest inscriptions in Old Indic, the language of the Rig Veda, are found not in northwestern India and Pakistan, but in northern Syria, the location of the Mitanni kingdom.[111] The Mitanni kings took Old Indic throne names, and Old Indic technical terms were used for horse-riding and chariot-driving.[111] The Old Indic term r'ta, meaning "cosmic order and truth", the central concept of the Rig Veda, was also employed in the Mitanni kingdom.[111] And Old Indic gods, including Indra, were also known in the Mitanni kingdom.[112][113][114]
Their religion was further developed when they migrated into the Ganges Plain after c. 1100 BCE and became settled farmers,[86][115][116] further syncretising with the native cultures of northern India.[100] The Vedic religion of the later Vedic period co-existed with local religions, such as the Yaksha cults,[100][117][web 5] and was itself the product of "a composite of the Indo-Aryan and Harappan cultures and civilizations".[34][note 7] David Gordon White cites three other mainstream scholars who "have emphatically demonstrated" that Vedic religion is partially derived from the Indus Valley Civilisation.[118][note 7]
Vedas
Its liturgy is preserved in the three Vedic Samhitas: the Rigveda, Samaveda and the Yajurveda. The Vedic texts were the texts of the elite, and do not necessarily represent popular ideas or practices.[121] Of these, the Rig-Veda is the oldest, a collection of hymns composed between c. 1500 and 1200 BCE.[122][123][91] The other two add ceremonial detail for the performance of the actual sacrifice. The Atharvaveda may also contain compositions dating to before 1000 BCE. It contains material pertinent to domestic ritual and folk magic of the period.
These texts, as well as the voluminous commentary on orthopraxy collected in the
The Hindu samskaras
go back to a hoary antiquity. The Vedas, the Brahmanas, the Grhyasutras, the Dharmasutras, the Smritis and other treatises describe the rites, ceremonies and customs.[124]
The earliest text of the Vedas is the Rigveda,[125] a collection of poetic hymns used in the sacrificial rites of Vedic priesthood. Many Rigvedic hymns concern the fire ritual (Agnihotra) and especially the offering of Soma to the gods (Somayajna). Soma is both an intoxicant and a god itself, as is the sacrificial fire, Agni. The royal horse sacrifice (Ashvamedha) is a central rite in the Yajurveda.
The
, the supreme Asura (or Aditya). While Rigvedic deva is variously applied to most gods, including many of the Asuras, the Devas are characterised as Younger Gods while Asuras are the Older Gods (pūrve devāḥ). In later Vedic texts, "Asura" comes to mean demon.The Rigveda has 10 mandalas ('books'). There is significant variation in the language and style between the family books (RV books 2–7),
, Asura (Ahura) is considered good and Devas (Daevas) are considered evil entities, quite the opposite of the Rig Veda.Cosmic order
Ethics in the Vedas are based on the concepts of Satya and Ṛta. Satya is the principle of integration rooted in the Absolute.[128] Ṛta is the expression of Satya, which regulates and coordinates the operation of the universe and everything within it.[129] Conformity with Ṛta would enable progress whereas its violation would lead to punishment. Panikkar remarks:
Ṛta is the ultimate foundation of everything; it is "the supreme", although this is not to be understood in a static sense. ... It is the expression of the primordial dynamism that is inherent in everything....[130]
The term "dharma" was already used in Brahmanical thought, where it was conceived as an aspect of
Upanishads
The 9th and 8th centuries BCE witnessed the composition of the earliest
Brahmanism
Brahmanism, also called Brahminism, developed out of the Vedic religion, incorporating non-Vedic religious ideas, and expanding to a
In
Second Urbanisation and decline of Brahmanism (c. 600–200 BCE)
Upanishads and Śramaṇa movements
Mahavira (c. 549–477 BCE), proponent of
[Jainism] does not derive from Brahman-Aryan sources, but reflects the cosmology and anthropology of a much older pre-Aryan upper class of northeastern India – being rooted in the same subsoil of archaic metaphysical speculation as Yoga, Sankhya, and Buddhism, the other non-Vedic Indian systems.[140][note 26]
The Sramana tradition in part created the concept of the cycle of birth and death, the concept of Saṃsāra, and the concept of liberation, which became characteristic for Hinduism.[note 27]
Pratt notes that Oldenberg (1854–1920), Neumann (1865–1915) and Radhakrishnan (1888–1975) believed that the Buddhist canon had been influenced by Upanishads, while la Vallee Poussin thinks the influence was nil, and "Eliot and several others insist that on some points the Buddha was directly antithetical to the Upanishads".[142][note 28]
Mauryan Empire
The Mauryan period saw an early flowering of
Decline of Brahmanism
Decline
The post-Vedic period of the Second Urbanisation saw a decline of Brahmanism.[144][145][note 29] At the end of the Vedic period, the meaning of the words of the Vedas had become obscure, and was perceived as "a fixed sequence of sounds"[146][note 30] with a magical power, "means to an end."[note 31] With the growth of cities, which threatened the income and patronage of the rural Brahmins; the rise of Buddhism; and the Indian campaign of Alexander the Great (327–325 BCE), the expansion of the Maurya Empire (322–185 BCE) with its embrace of Buddhism, and the Saka invasions and rule of northwestern India (2nd c. BCE – 4th c. CE), Brahmanism faced a grave threat to its existence.[147] In some later texts, Northwest-India (which earlier texts consider as part of "Aryavarta") is even seen as "impure", probably due to invasions.
Survival of Vedic ritual
Vedism as the religious tradition of a priestly elite was marginalised by other traditions such as
Hindu synthesis and Classical Hinduism (c. 200 BCE – 1200 CE)
Early Hinduism (c. 200 BCE – 320 CE)
Hindu synthesis
The decline of Brahmanism was overcome by providing new services
According to Embree, several other religious traditions had existed side by side with the Vedic religion. These indigenous religions "eventually found a place under the broad mantle of the Vedic religion".[158] When Brahmanism was declining[note 29] and had to compete with Buddhism and Jainism,[note 32] the popular religions had the opportunity to assert themselves.[158] According to Embree,
[T]he Brahmanists themselves seem to have encouraged this development to some extent as a means of meeting the challenge of the heterodox movements. At the same time, among the indigenous religions, a common allegiance to the authority of the Vedas provided a thin, but nonetheless significant, thread of unity amid their variety of gods and religious practices.[158]
This "new Brahmanism" appealed to rulers, who were attracted to the supernatural powers and the practical advice Brahmins could provide,
Smriti
The Brahmins response of assimilation and consolidation is reflected in the smriti literature which took shape in this period.[159] The smriti texts of the period between 200 BCE and 100 CE proclaim the authority of the Vedas, and acceptance of the Vedas became a central criterion for defining Hinduism over and against the heterodoxies, which rejected the Vedas.[160] Most of the basic ideas and practices of classical Hinduism derive from the new smriti literature.[note 33]
Of the six Hindu darsanas, the Mimamsa and the Vedanta "are rooted primarily in the Vedic sruti tradition and are sometimes called smarta schools in the sense that they develop smarta orthodox current of thoughts that are based, like smriti, directly on sruti".
The major Sanskrit epics, Ramayana and Mahabharata, which belong to the smriti, were compiled over a protracted period during the late centuries BCE and the early centuries CE.[web 7] They contain mythological stories about the rulers and wars of ancient India, and are interspersed with religious and philosophical treatises. The later Puranas recount tales about devas and devis, their interactions with humans and their battles against rakshasa. The Bhagavad Gita "seals the achievement"[162] of the "consolidation of Hinduism",[162] integrating Brahmanic and sramanic ideas with theistic devotion.[162][163][164][web 8]
Schools of Hindu philosophy
In early centuries CE several schools of
Sangam literature
The
Indian trade with Africa
During the time of the Roman Empire, trade took place between India and east Africa, and there is archaeological evidence of small Indian presence in Zanzibar, Zimbabwe, Madagascar, and the coastal parts of Kenya along with the Swahili coast,[166][167] but no conversion to Hinduism took place.[167][168]
Hindu Colony in the Middle East (The Levant)
Armenian historian Zenob Glak (300–350 CE) said "there was an Indian colony in the canton of Taron on the upper Euphrates, to the west of Lake Van, as early as the second century B.C. The Indians had built there two temples containing images of gods about 18 and 22 feet high."[169]
"Golden Age" of India (Gupta and Pallava period) (c. 320–650 CE)
During this period, power was centralised, along with a growth of near distance trade, standardization of legal procedures, and general spread of literacy.[170] Mahayana Buddhism flourished, but orthodox Brahmana culture began to be rejuvenated by the patronage of the Gupta Dynasty,[171] who were Vaishnavas.[172] The position of the Brahmans was reinforced,[170] the first Hindu temples dedicated to the gods of the Hindu deities, emerged during the late Gupta age.[170][note 34] During the Gupta reign the first Puranas were written,[44][note 8] which were used to disseminate "mainstream religious ideology amongst pre-literate and tribal groups undergoing acculturation".[44] The Guptas patronised the newly emerging Puranic religion, seeking legitimacy for their dynasty.[172] The resulting Puranic Hinduism, differed markedly from the earlier Brahmanism of the Dharmasastras and the smritis.[44]
According to P. S. Sharma, "the Gupta and Harsha periods form really, from the strictly intellectual standpoint, the most brilliant epocha in the development of Indian philosophy", as Hindu and Buddhist philosophies flourished side by side.[173] Charvaka, the atheistic materialist school, came to the fore in North India before the 8th century CE.[174]
Gupta and Pallava Empires
The
The
During early Pallavas period, there are different connections to Southeast Asian and other countries. Due to it, in the Middle Ages, Hinduism became the state religion in many kingdoms of Asia, the so-called Greater India—from Afghanistan (Kabul) in the West and including almost all of Southeast Asia in the East (Cambodia, Vietnam, Indonesia, Philippines)—and only by the 15th century was near everywhere supplanted by Buddhism and Islam.[175][176][177]
The practice of dedicating temples to different deities came into vogue followed by fine artistic temple architecture and sculpture (see Vastu shastra).
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The HinduUNESCO World Heritage Site) at Mamallapuram built by Narasimhavarman II
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around 400 CE.
Bhakti
This period saw the emergence of the Bhakti movement. The Bhakti movement was a rapid growth of bhakti beginning in Tamil Nadu in Southern India with the and the Vaisnava Alvars (3rd to 9th centuries CE)[178] and Saiva Nayanars (4th to 10th centuries CE)[179] who spread bhakti poetry and devotion throughout India by the 12th to 18th centuries CE.[180][179][181]
Expansion in South-East Asia
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Expansion of Hinduism in Southeast Asia
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Angkor Wat in Cambodia is one of the largest Hindu monuments in the world. It is one of hundreds of ancient Hindu temples in Southeast Asia.
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Pura Besakih, the holiest temple of Hindu religion in Bali
Hindu influences reached the
and numerous urbanised coastal settlements were established there.For more than a thousand years, Indian Hindu/Buddhist influence was, therefore, the major factor that brought a certain level of cultural unity to the various countries of the region. The
From the 5th to the 13th century, South-East Asia had very powerful Indian colonial empires and became extremely active in Hindu and Buddhist architectural and artistic creation. The
From the 5th to 15th centuries
The kingdom of
Later, from the 9th to the 13th century, the Mahayana Buddhist and Hindu Khmer Empire dominated much of the South-East Asian peninsula. Under the Khmer, more than 900 temples were built in Cambodia and in neighboring Thailand. Angkor was at the centre of this development, with a temple complex and urban organisation able to support around one million urban dwellers. The largest temple complex of the world, Angkor Wat, stands here; built by the king Vishnuvardhan.
Late-Classical Hinduism – Puranic Hinduism (c. 650–1200 CE)
After the end of the Gupta Empire and the collapse of the Harsha Empire, power became decentralised in India. Several larger kingdoms emerged, with "countless vasal states".[184][note 35] The kingdoms were ruled via a feudal system. Smaller kingdoms were dependent on the protection of the larger kingdoms. "The great king was remote, was exalted and deified",[184] as reflected in the Tantric Mandala, which could also depict the king as the centre of the mandala.[185]
The disintegration of central power also lead to regionalisation of religiosity, and religious rivalry.
Puranic Hinduism
The Brahmanism of the Dharmaśāstra and the smritis underwent a radical transformation at the hands of the Purana composers, resulting in the rise of Puranic Hinduism,[44] "which like a colossus striding across the religious firmanent soon came to overshadow all existing religions".[189] Puranic Hinduism was a "multiplex belief-system which grew and expanded as it absorbed and synthesised polaristic ideas and cultic traditions".[189] It was distinguished from its Vedic Smarta roots by its popular base, its theological and sectarian pluralism, its Tantric veneer, and the central place of bhakti.[189][note 9]
The early mediaeval
The Brahmanic group was enlarged by incorporating local subgroups, such as local priests.[49] This also lead to stratification within the Brahmins, with some Brahmins having a lower status than other Brahmins.[49] The use of caste worked better with the new Puranic Hinduism than with the Sramanic sects.[192] The Puranic texts provided extensive genealogies which gave status to the new kshatriyas.[192] Buddhist myths pictured government as a contract between an elected ruler and the people.[192] And the Buddhist chakkavatti[note 38] "was a distinct concept from the models of conquest held up to the kshatriyas and the Rajputs".[192]
Many local religions and traditions were assimilated into puranic Hinduism. Vishnu and Shiva emerged as the main deities, together with Sakti/Deva.[194] Vishnu subsumed the cults of Narayana, Jagannaths, Venkateswara "and many others".[194] Nath:
[S]ome incarnations of Vishnu such as Matsya, Kurma, Varaha and perhaps even Nrsimha helped to incorporate certain popular totem symbols and creation myths, especially those related to wild boar, which commonly permeate preliterate mythology, others such as Krsna and Balarama became instrumental in assimilating local cults and myths centering around two popular pastoral and agricultural gods.[195]
The transformation of Brahmanism into Pauranic Hinduism in post-
Bhakti movement
Rama and Krishna became the focus of a strong bhakti tradition, which found expression particularly in the Bhagavata Purana. The Krishna tradition subsumed numerous Naga, yaksa and hill and tree-based cults.[196] Shiva absorbed local cults by the suffixing of Isa or Isvara to the name of the local deity, for example, Bhutesvara, Hatakesvara, and Chandesvara.[194] In 8th-century royal circles, the Buddha started to be replaced by Hindu gods in pujas.[note 37] This also was the same period of time the Buddha was made into an avatar of Vishnu.[197]
The first documented Bhakti movement was founded by the first three
During the 12th century CE in Karnataka, the Bhakti movement took the form of the
Advaita Vedanta
The early Advaitin Gaudapada (6th–7th c. CE) was influenced by Buddhism.[203][204][205][206] Gaudapda took over the Buddhist doctrines that ultimate reality is pure consciousness (vijñapti-mātra)[207] and "that the nature of the world is the four-cornered negation".[207] Gaudapada "wove [both doctrines] into a philosophy of the Mandukya Upanishad, which was further developed by Shankara".[204] Gaudapada also took over the Buddhist concept of "ajāta" from Nagarjuna's Madhyamaka philosophy.[205][206] Gaudapada seems to have ignored the Brahma-sutras, and it was Shankara who succeeded in reading Gaudapada's mayavada, a polemic term used by opponents,[208][note 39] into Badarayana's Brahma Sutras, "and give it a locus classicus",[208] against the realistic strain of the Brahma Sutras.[208]
Shankara (8th century CE) was a scholar who synthesized and systematized Advaita Vedanta views which already existed at his lifetime.[209][210][211][web 13] Shankara propounded a unified reality, in which the innermost self of a person (atman) and the supernatural power of the entire world (brahman) are one and the same. Perceiving the changing multiplicity of forms and objects as the final reality is regarded as maya, "illusion", obscuring the unchanging ultimate reality of brahman.[212][213][214][215]
While Shankara has an unparalleled status in the history of Advaita Vedanta, Shankara's early influence in India is doubtful.[216] Until the 11th century, Vedanta itself was a peripheral school of thought,[217] and until the 10th century Shankara himself was overshadowed by his older contemporary Maṇḍana Miśra, who was considered to be the major representative of Advaita.[218][219]
Several scholars suggest that the historical fame and cultural influence of Shankara and Advaita Vedanta grew only centuries later, during the era of the Muslim invasions and consequent devastation of India,[216][220][221] due to the efforts of Vidyaranya (14th c.), who created legends to turn Shankara into a "divine folk-hero who spread his teaching through his digvijaya ("universal conquest") all over India like a victorious conqueror."[222][223]
Shankara's position was further established in the 19th an 20th-century, when neo-Vedantins and western Orientalists elevated Advaita Vedanta "as the connecting theological thread that united Hinduism into a single religious tradition".[224] Advaita Vedanta has acquired a broad acceptance in Indian culture and beyond as the paradigmatic example of Hindu spirituality,[143] Shankara became "an iconic representation of Hindu religion and culture", despite the fact that most Hindus do not adhere to Advaita Vedanta.[225]
Contact with Persia and Mesopotamia
Hindu and also
Under the
Medieval and early modern periods (c. 1200–1850 CE)
Muslim rule
The Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent took place between the 13th and the 18th centuries. The Ghurid ruler Muhammad of Ghor laid the foundation of Muslim rule in India in 1192,[229] expanding up to Bengal by 1202. The Ghurid Empire soon evolved into the Delhi Sultanate in 1206, transitioning to the Mamluk dynasty.[230][231] During this historical period, Buddhism experienced a decline,[232] and there were instances of religious tensions and conflicts in the Indian subcontinent. Some records indicate incidents of raids, property seizures, and the enslavement of some Hindu families.[233][234] Additionally, there were accounts suggesting that some Hindus may have converted to Islam, possibly under various circumstances, including to secure their freedom.[235][236] In between the periods of wars and conquests, there were periods of cooperation and syncretism. There were harmonious Hindu-Muslim relations in most Indian communities.[237] No populations were expelled based on their religion by either the Muslim or Hindu kings, nor were attempts made to annihilate a specific religion.[237]
In the 16th century, the
The impact and consequences of the Muslim conquest of South Asia remain subjects of scrutiny and diverse viewpoints. Will Durant characterizes the Muslim conquest of India as a particularly tumultuous chapter in history. He suggests that it was marked by significant violence and upheaval, which he attributes in part to factors such as internal divisions, the influence of religions like Buddhism and Jainism. Alain Daniélou criticized the Muslim rulers, claiming that the violence was often justified in the name of religious holy wars.[246] Other, like Sir Thomas Arnold and De Lacy O'Leary, criticized the view that Islam was spread by force and sword as 'absurd.'[247] According to Ira Lapidus, while instances of forced conversion in Muslim regions did occur, they were relatively infrequent. Muslim conquerors generally sought to exert control rather than enforce conversion, with the majority of conversions to Islam being voluntary in nature.[248][247]
Bhakti Vedanta
Teachers such as Ramanuja, Madhva, and Chaitanya aligned the Bhakti movement with the textual tradition of Vedanta, which until the 11th century was only a peripheral school of thought,[217] while rejecting and opposing the abstract notions of Advaita. Instead, they promoted emotional, passionate devotion towards the more accessible Avatars, especially Krishna and Rama.[249][250][page needed]
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Ramanuja is one of the most important exponents of the Sri Vaishnavism tradition within Hinduism, depicted with Vaishnava Tilaka and Varadraja (Vishnu) statue.[251]
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Dvaita) school of Vedanta within Hinduism, depicted with Vaishnava Gopichandana Urdhva Pundra and Gnana Mudra (or Jnana Mudra or Jana Mudra), a symbol of knowledge and wisdom.[252]
Unifying Hinduism
According to Nicholson, already between the 12th and the 16th century, "certain thinkers began to treat as a single whole the diverse philosophical teachings of the Upanishads, epics, Puranas, and the schools known retrospectively as the 'six systems' (saddarsana) of mainstream Hindu philosophy."[253][note 40] Michaels notes that a historicization emerged which preceded later nationalism, articulating ideas which glorified Hinduism and the past.[254]
Several scholars suggest that the historical fame and cultural influence of Shankara and Advaita Vedanta was intentionally established during this period.[216][220][221] Vidyaranya (14th c.), also known as Madhava and a follower of Shankara, created legends to turn Shankara, whose elevated philosophy had no appeal to gain widespread popularity, into a "divine folk-hero who spread his teaching through his digvijaya ("universal conquest") all over India like a victorious conqueror."[222][223] In his Savadarsanasamgraha ("Summary of all views") Vidyaranya presented Shankara's teachings as the summit of all darsanas, presenting the other darsanas as partial truths which converged in Shankara's teachings.[222] Vidyaranya enjoyed royal support,[255] and his sponsorship and methodical efforts helped establish Shankara as a rallying symbol of values, spread historical and cultural influence of Shankara's Vedānta philosophies, and establish monasteries (mathas) to expand the cultural influence of Shankara and Advaita Vedānta.[216]
Eastern Ganga and Surya States
Eastern Ganga and Surya were Hindu polities, which ruled much of present-day Odisha (historically known as Kalinga) from the 11th century until the mid-16th century CE. During the 13th and 14th centuries, when large parts of India were under the rule of Muslim powers, an independent Kalinga became a stronghold of Hindu religion, philosophy, art, and architecture. The Eastern Ganga rulers were great patrons of religion and the arts, and the temples they built are considered among the masterpieces of Hindu architecture.[web 15][web 16]
Early Modern period (c. 1500–1850 CE)
The fall of Vijayanagara Empire to Muslim rulers had marked the end of Hindu imperial defences in the Deccan. But, taking advantage of an over-stretched Mughal Empire (1526–1857), Hinduism once again rose to political prestige, under the Maratha Empire, from 1674 to 1818.
Vijayanagara Empire
The Vijayanagara Empire was established in 1336 by
The Vijayanagara Emperors were tolerant of all religions and sects, as writings by foreign visitors show.
The
The Vijayanagara Empire created an epoch in South Indian history that transcended regionalism by promoting Hinduism as a unifying factor. The empire reached its peak during the rule of
Vijayanagara went into decline after the defeat in the
Renovations of temples by the Vijayanagara Empire
The Vijayanagara Empire renovated many ancient temples of Ancient Tamilakam, they made significant contributions to temples like
Mughal period
The official state religion of
Akbar's son, Jahangir, half Rajput, was also a religious moderate, his mother being Hindu. The influence of his two Hindu queens (the Maharani Maanbai and Maharani Jagat) kept religious moderation as a centre-piece of state policy which was extended under his son, Emperor Shah Jahan, who was by blood 75% Rajput and less than 25% Moghul.
Religious orthodoxy would only play an important role during the reign of Shah Jahan's son and successor,
Maratha Empire
The
-
The lastHindu empire of India, the Maratha Empire, in 1760 CE
-
Ahilya Ghat, part of the Ghats in Varanasi, many of which were built by the Marathas[290]
Kingdom of Nepal
King
After the Gorkhali conquest of
Early colonialism
The
The
Modern Hinduism (after c. 1850 CE)
With the onset of the
Hindu revivalism
This section needs additional citations for verification. (August 2019) |
During the 19th century, Hinduism developed a large number of
These reform movements are summarised under
- Swaminarayan establishes the Swaminarayan Sampradaya sect around 1800.[319]
- Raja Ram Mohan Roy. He was one of the first Indians to visit Europe and was influenced by western thought. He died in Bristol, England. The Brahmo Samaj movement thereafter resulted in the Brahmo religion in 1850 founded by Debendranath Tagore — better known as the father of Rabindranath Tagore.[320]
- Ramakrishna and his pupil Swami Vivekananda led reform in Hinduism in the late 19th century. Their ideals and sayings have inspired numerous Indians as well as non-Indians, Hindus as well as non-Hindus.[321]
- ancestor worship, pilgrimages, priestcraft, offerings made in temples, the caste system, untouchability and child marriages, on the grounds that all these lacked Vedic sanction. It aimed to be a universal church based on the authority of the Vedas. Dayananda stated that he wanted 'to make the whole world Aryan', i.e. he wanted to develop missionary Hinduism based on the universality of the Vedas. To this end, the Arya Samaj started Shuddhi movement in the early 20th century to bring back to Hinduism people converted to Islam and Christianity, set up schools and missionary organisations, and extended its activities outside India.[322][323][324]
Reception in the West
An important development during the British colonial period was the influence Hindu traditions began to form on
The sojourn of
In the early 20th century, Western occultists influenced by Hinduism include
Hinduism-inspired elements in
Influential 20th-century Hindus were
Contemporary Hinduism
Hinduism is followed by around 1.1 billion people in India.
Neo-Hindu movements in the West
In modern times Smarta-views have been highly influential in both the Indian[web 23] and western[web 24] understanding of Hinduism via Neo-Vedanta. Vivekananda was an advocate of Smarta-views,[web 24] and Radhakrishnan was himself a Smarta-Brahman.[326][327] According to iskcon.org,
Many Hindus may not strictly identify themselves as Smartas but, by adhering to Advaita Vedanta as a foundation for non-sectarianism, are indirect followers.[web 23]
Influential in spreading Hinduism to a western audience were
Hindutva
In the 20th century, Hinduism also gained prominence as a political force and a source for national identity in India. With origins traced back to the establishment of the
Besides
-
Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh in India
-
Saffron Flag of Hinduism in India
See also
- Indianisation
- Hinduism by country
- Central Asians in ancient Indian literature
- Hinduism in Southeast Asia
- Hinduism in Arab states
- Balinese Hinduism
- Indianization of Southeast Asia
- Indianized kingdom
- History of Indian influence on Southeast Asia
- South-East Asia campaign of Rajendra Chola I
- Chola invasion of Srivijaya
- Indian influences in early Philippine polities
- History of India
- Indian religions
- Religion in India
- History of Yoga
- History of Shaivism
- History of Buddhism
- Historicity of the Mahabharata
Notes
- ^ See:
- "Oldest religion":
- The "oldest living religion"[5]
- The "oldest living major religion" in the world.[6][7]
- Ancestor worshipfor some of the oldest forms of religion
- Sarnaism and Sanamahism, Indian Tribal religions connected to the earliest migrations into India
- Australian Aboriginal mythology, one of the oldest surviving religions in the world.
- ^ There is no exact dating possible for the beginning of the Vedic period. Witzel mentions a range between 1900 and 1400 BCE.[25] Flood mentions 1500 BCE.[26]
- ^ Lockard (2007, p. 50): "The encounters that resulted from Aryan migration brought together several very different peoples and cultures, reconfiguring Indian society. Over many centuries a fusion of Aryan and Dravidian occurred, a complex process that historians have labeled the Indo-Aryan synthesis." Lockard: "Hinduism can be seen historically as a synthesis of Aryan beliefs with Harappan and other Dravidian traditions that developed over many centuries."
- ^ Hiltebeitel (2007, p. 12): "A period of consolidation, sometimes identified as one of 'Hindu synthesis', 'Brahmanic synthesis', or 'orthodox synthesis', takes place between the time of the late Vedic Upanishads (c. 500 BCE) and the period of Gupta imperial ascendency (c. 320–467 CE)."
- ^ See also:
- J. H. Hutton (1931), in Ghurye (1980, pp. 3–4)[subnote 1]
- Zimmer (1951, pp. 218–219)
- Tyler (1973), India: An Anthropological Perspective, Goodyear Publishing Company. In: Sjoberg (1990, p. 43).[subnote 2]
- Sjoberg (1990)
- Flood (1996, p. 16)
- Vijay Nath (2001)
- Werner (2005, pp. 8–9)
- Lockard (2007, p. 50)
- Hiltebeitel (2007)
- Hopfe & Woodward (2008, p. 79)[subnote 3]
- Samuel (2010)
- ^ a b c See:
- White (2006, p. 28): "[T]he religion of the Vedas was already a composite of the indo-Aryan and Harappan cultures and civilizations."
- Gombrich (1996, pp. 35–36): "It is important to bear in mind that the Indo-Aryans did not enter an uninhabited land. For nearly two millennia they and their culture gradually penetrated India, moving east and south from their original seat in the Punjab. They mixed with people who spoke Munda or Dravidian languages, who have left no traces of their culture beyond some archaeological remains; we know as little about them as we would about the Indo-Aryans if they had left no texts. In fact we cannot even be sure whether some of the archaeological finds belong to Indo-Aryans, autochthonous populations, or a mixture. It is to be assumed – though this is not fashionable in Indian historiography – that the clash of cultures between Indo-Aryans and autochtones was responsible for many of the changes in Indo-Aryan society. We can also assume that many – perhaps most – of the indigenous population came to be assimilated into Indo-Aryan culture.
- ^ a b The date of the production of the written texts does not define the date of origin of the Puranas (Johnson 2009, p. 247). They may have existed in some oral form before being written down (Johnson 2009, p. 247).
- ^ a b Michaels (2004, p. 38): "The legacy of the Vedic religion in Hinduism is generally overestimated. The influence of the mythology is indeed great, but the religious terminology changed considerably: all the key terms of Hinduism either do not exist in Vedic or have a completely different meaning. The religion of the Veda does not know the ethicised migration of the soul with retribution for acts (karma), the cyclical destruction of the world, or the idea of salvation during one's lifetime (jivanmukti; moksa; nirvana); the idea of the world as illusion (maya) must have gone against the grain of ancient India, and an omnipotent creator god emerges only in the late hymns of the rgveda. Nor did the Vedic religion know a caste system, the burning of widows, the ban on remarriage, images of gods and temples, Puja worship, Yoga, pilgrimages, vegetarianism, the holiness of cows, the doctrine of stages of life (asrama), or knew them only at their inception. Thus, it is justified to see a turning point between the Vedic religion and Hindu religions." See also Halbfass 1991, pp. 1–2
- ^ University of Oslo: "During the period following Ashoka, until the end of the 7th century AD, the great gift ceremonies honoring the Buddha remained the central cult of Indian imperial kingdoms".[web 1]
- ^ Samuel (2010, p. 76): "Certainly, there is substantial textual evidence for the outward expansion of Vedic-Brahmanical culture." Samuel (2010, p. 77): "[T]he Buddhist sutras describe what was in later periods a standard mechanism for the expansion of Vedic-Brahmanical culture: the settlement of Brahmins on land granted by local rulers." See also Vijay Nath (2001).
Samuel (2010, p. 199): "By the first and second centuries CE, the Dravidian-speaking regions of the south were also increasingly being incorporated into the general North and Central Indian cultural pattern, as were parts at least of Southeast Asia. The Pallava kingdom in South India was largely Brahmanical in orientation although it included a substantial Jain and Buddhist population, while Indic states were also beginning to develop in Southeast Asia."
- ^ Larson (1995, p. 81): "Also, the spread of the culture of North India to the South was accomplished in many instances by the spread of Buddhist and Jain institutions (monasteries, lay communities, and so forth). The Pallavas of Kanci appear to have been one of the main vehicles for the spread of specifically Indo-Brahmanical or Hindu institutions in the South, a process that was largely completed after the Gupta Age. As Basham has noted, "the contact of Aryan and Dravidian produced a vigorous cultural synthesis, which in turn had an immense influence on Indian civilization as a whole."
- ^ Flood (1996, p. 129): "The process of Sanskritization only began to significantly influence the south after the first two centuries CE and Tamil deities and forms of worship became adapted to northern Sanskrit forms."
- Jagannatha, Venkateswara and many others, Sivabecame identified with countless local cults by the sheer suffixing of Isa or Isvarato the name of the local deity, e.g., Bhutesvara, Hatakesvara, Chandesvara."
- ^ Wendy Doniger: "The process, sometimes called 'Sanskritization', began in Vedic times and was probably the principal method by which the Hinduism of the Sanskrit texts spread through the subcontinent and into Southeast Asia. Sanskritization still continues in the form of the conversion of tribal groups, and it is reflected in the persistence of the tendency among some Hindus to identify rural and local deities with the gods of the Sanskrit texts."[web 2]
- ^ See also Tanvir Anjum, Temporal Divides: A Critical Review of the Major Schemes of Periodization in Indian History.
- ^ Different periods are designated as "classical Hinduism":
- Smart (2003, p. 52) calls the period between 1000 BCE and 100 CE "pre-classical". It is the formative period for the Upanishads and Brahmanism[subnote 4] Jainism and Buddhism. For Smart, the "classical period" lasts from 100 to 1000 CE, and coincides with the flowering of "classical Hinduism" and the flowering and deterioration of Mahayana-buddhism in India.
- For Michaels (2004, pp. 36, 38), the period between 500 BCE and 200 BCE is a time of "Ascetic reformism", whereas the period between 200 BCE and 1100 CE is the time of "classical Hinduism", since there is "a turning point between the Vedic religion and Hindu religions".
- Muesse (2003, p. 14) discerns a longer period of change, namely between 800 BCE and 200 BCE, which he calls the "Classical Period". According to Muesse, some of the fundamental concepts of Hinduism, namely karma, reincarnation and "personal enlightenment and transformation", which did not exist in the Vedic religion, developed in this time.
- Stein (2010, p. 107) The Indian History Congress, formally adopted 1206 CE as the date medieval India began.
- ^ Doniger 2010, p. 66: "Much of what we now call Hinduism may have had roots in cultures that thrived in South Asia long before the creation of textual evidence that we can decipher with any confidence. Remarkable cave paintings have been preserved from Mesolithic sites dating from c. 30,000 BCE in Bhimbetka, near present-day Bhopal, in the Vindhya Mountains in the province of Madhya Pradesh."[subnote 5]
- ^ Jones & Ryan 2006, p. xvii: "Some practices of Hinduism must have originated in Neolithic times (c. 4000 BCE). The worship of certain plants and animals as sacred, for instance, could very likely have very great antiquity. The worship of goddesses, too, a part of Hinduism today, may be a feature that originated in the Neolithic."
- ^ Mallory 1989, p. 38f. The separation of the early Indo-Aryans from the Proto-Indo-Iranian stage is dated to roughly 1800 BCE in scholarship.
- ^ Michaels (2004, p. 33): "They called themselves arya ('Aryans', literally 'the hospitable', from the Vedic arya, 'homey, the hospitable') but even in the Rgveda, arya denotes a cultural and linguistic boundary and not only a racial one."
- ^ There is no exact dating possible for the beginning of the Vedic period. Witzel (1995, pp. 3–4) mentions a range between 1900 and 1400 BCE. Flood (1996, p. 21) mentions 1500 BCE.
- ^ Allchin & Erdosy (1995): "There has also been a fairly general agreement that the Proto-Indoaryan speakers at one time lived on the steppes of Central Asia and that at a certain time they moved southwards through Bactria and Afghanistan, and perhaps the Caucasus, into Iran and India-Pakistan (Burrow 1973; Harmatta 1992)."
- ^ Kulke & Rothermund (1998): "During the last decades intensive archaeological research in Russia and the Central Asian Republics of the former Soviet Union as well as in Pakistan and northern India has considerably enlarged our knowledge about the potential ancestors of the Indo-Aryans and their relationship with cultures in west, central and south Asia. Previous excavations in southern Russia and Central Asia could not confirm that the Eurasian steppes had once been the original home of the speakers of Indo-European language."
- Aryan migration theory has been challenged by some researchers (Michaels 2004, p. 33, Singh 2008, p. 186), due to a lack of archaeological evidence and signs of cultural continuity (Michaels 2004, p. 33), hypothesizing instead a slow process of acculturation or transformation (Michaels 2004, p. 33, Flood 1996, pp. 30–35). Nevertheless, linguistic and archaeological data clearly show a cultural change after 1750 BCE (Michaels 2004, p. 33), with the linguistic and religious data clearly showing links with Indo-European languages and religion (Flood 1996, p. 33). According to Singh 2008, p. 186, "The dominant view is that the Indo-Aryans came to the subcontinent as immigrants."
- ^ Zimmer's point of view is supported by other scholars, such as:
- Smart (1964, pp. 27–32)[141]
- Belvakar & Ranade (1974, pp. 81, 303–409)[141]
- ^ Flood (2008, pp. 273–274): "The second half of the first millennium BCE was the period that created many of the ideological and institutional elements that characterise later Indian religions. The renouncer tradition played a central role during this formative period of Indian religious history ... Some of the fundamental values and beliefs that we generally associate with Indian religions in general and Hinduism, in particular, were in part the creation of the renouncer tradition. These include the two pillars of Indian theologies: samsara – the belief that life in this world is one of suffering and subject to repeated deaths and births (rebirth); moksa/nirvana – the goal of human existence."
- ^ King (1999) notes that Radhakrishnan was a representative of Neo-Vedanta,[143] which had a specific understanding of Indian religions: "The inclusivist appropriation of other traditions, so characteristic of neo-Vedanta ideology, appears on three basic levels. First, it is apparent in the suggestion that the (Advaita) Vedanta philosophy of Sankara (c. eighth century CE) constitutes the central philosophy of Hinduism. Second, in an Indian context, neo-Vedanta philosophy subsumes Buddhist philosophies in terms of its own Vedantic ideology. The Buddha becomes a member of the Vedanta tradition, merely attempting to reform it from within. Finally, at a global level, neo-Vedanta colonises the religious traditions of the world by arguing for the centrality of a non-dualistic position as the philosophia perennis underlying all cultural differences."
- ^ a b Michaels (2004, p. 38): "At the time of upheaval [500–200 BCE], many elements of the Vedic religion were lost".
- ^ Klostermaier 2007, p. 55: "Kautas, a teacher mentioned in the Nirukta by Yāska (ca. 500 BCE), a work devoted to an etymology of Vedic words that were no longer understood by ordinary people, held that the word of the Veda was no longer perceived as meaningful "normal" speech but as a fixed sequence of sounds, whose meaning was obscure beyond recovery."
- ^ Klostermaier: "Brahman, derived from the root bŗh = to grow, to become great, was originally identical with the Vedic word, that makes people prosper: words were the principal means to approach the gods who dwelled in a different sphere. It was not a big step from this notion of "reified speech-act" to that "of the speech-act being looked at implicitly and explicitly as a means to an end". Klostermaier 2007, p. 55 quotes Madhav M. Deshpande (1990), Changing Conceptions of the Veda: From Speech-Acts to Magical Sounds, p. 4.
- ^ Hiltebeitel (2007, p. 13): "The emerging self-definitions of Hinduism were forged in the context of continuous interaction with heterodox religions (Buddhists, Jains, Ajivikas) throughout this whole period, and with foreign people (Yavanas, or Greeks; Sakas, or Scythians; Pahlavas, or Parthians; and Kusanas, or Kushans) from the third phase on [between the Mauryan empire and the rise of the Guptas].
- ^ Larson (2009, p. 185): "[I]n contrast to the sruti, which Hindus, for the most part, pay little more than lip service to."
- ^ Michaels (2004, p. 40) mentions the Durga temple in Aihole and the Visnu Temple in Deogarh. Michell (1977, p. 18) notes that earlier temples were built of timber, brick and plaster, while the first stone temples appeared during the period of Gupta rule.
- ^ Michaels (2004, p. 41):
- In the east the Pala Empire (770–1125 CE),
- in the west and north the Gurjara-Pratihara(7th–10th century),
- in the southwest the Rashtrakuta Dynasty(752–973),
- in the Dekkhan the Chalukya dynasty (7th–8th century),
- and in the south the Pallava dynasty (7th–9th century) and the Chola dynasty (9th century).
- Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period (907–960/979), during which power became decentralised end new Chán-schools emerged.
- ^ a b Inden (1998, p. 67): "Before the eighth century, the Buddha was accorded the position of universal deity and ceremonies by which a king attained to imperial status were elaborate donative ceremonies entailing gifts to Buddhist monks and the installation of a symbolic Buddha in a stupa ... This pattern changed in the eighth century. The Buddha was replaced as the supreme, imperial deity by one of the Hindu gods (except under the Palas of eastern India, the Buddha's homeland) ... Previously the Buddha had been accorded imperial-style worship (puja). Now as one of the Hindu gods replaced the Buddha at the imperial centre and pinnacle of the cosmo-political system, the image or symbol of the Hindu god comes to be housed in a monumental temple and given increasingly elaborate imperial-style puja worship."
- ^ Thapar (2003, p. 325): The king who ruled not by conquest but by setting in motion the wheel of law.
- ^ The term "mayavada" is still being used, in a critical way, by the Hare Krshnas. See[web 9][web 10][web 11][web 12]
- ^ The tendency of "a blurring of philosophical distinctions" has also been noted by Burley (2007, p. 34). Lorenzen locates the origins of a distinct Hindu identity in the interaction between Muslims and Hindus (Lorenzen 2006, pp. 24–33), and a process of "mutual self-definition with a contrasting Muslim other" which started well before 1800 (Lorenzen 2006, pp. 26–27). Both the Indian and the European thinkers who developed the term "Hinduism" in the 19th century were influenced by these philosophers (Nicholson 2010, p. 2)
- ^ Owing to his contributions to carnatic music, Purandaradasa is known as Karnataka Sangita Pitamaha. (Kamat, Saint Purandaradasa)
- ^ Many historians consider Attock to be the final frontier of the Maratha Empire.[289]
- Shinbutsu Bunri (Sharf 1993, Sharf 1995).
- communalism. Yet, Rinehart emphasises that it is "clear that there isn't a neat line of causation that leads from the philosophies of Rammohan Roy, Vivekananda and Radhakrishnan to the agenda of ... militant Hindus."
Subnotes
- ^ Ghurye: He [Hutton] considers modern Hinduism to be the result of an amalgam between pre-Aryan Indian beliefs of Mediterranean inspiration and the religion of the Rigveda. "The Tribal religions present, as it were, surplus material not yet built into the temple of Hinduism".[31]
- ^ Tyler, in India: An Anthropological Perspective (1973), p. 68, as quoted by Sjoberg, calls Hinduism a "synthesis" in which the Dravidian elements prevail: "The Hindu synthesis was less the dialectical reduction of orthodoxy and heterodoxy than the resurgence of the ancient, aboriginal Indus civilization. In this process the rude, barbaric Aryan tribes were gradually civilised and eventually merged with the autochthonous Dravidians. Although elements of their domestic cult and ritualism were jealously preserved by Brahman priests, the body of their culture survived only in fragmentary tales and allegories embedded in vast, syncretistic compendia. On the whole, the Aryan contribution to Indian culture is insignificant. The essential pattern of Indian culture was already established in the third millennium B.C., and ... the form of Indian civilization perdured and eventually reasserted itself."[32]
- ^ Hopfe & Woodward (2008, p. 79): "The religion that the Aryans brought with them mingled with the religion of the native people, and the culture that developed between them became classical Hinduism."
- ^ Smart (2003, pp. 52, 83–86) distinguishes "Brahmanism" from the Vedic religion, connecting "Brahmanism" with the Upanishads.
- ^ 30,000 BCE is incorrect; this must be 8,000 BCE.[57][58][59][60][61]
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- ^ Stevens 2001, p. 191.
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- ^ Laderman 2003, p. 119.
- ^ Turner & 1996-B, p. 359.
- ^ Smart 1993, p. 1.
- ^ a b c Lockard 2007, p. 50.
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- ^ Samuel 2010, p. 193.
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An anthropomorphic figure has knelt in front of a fig tree, with hands raised in respectful salutation, prayer or worship. This reverence suggests the divinity of its object, another anthropomorphic figure standing inside the fig tree. In the ancient Near East, the gods and goddesses, as well as their earthly representatives, the divine kings and queens functioning as high priests and priestesses, were distinguished by a horned crown. A similar crown is worn by the two anthropomorphic figures in the fig deity seal. Among various tribal people of India, horned head-dresses are worn by priests on sacrificial occasions.
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Further reading
- ISBN 0-333-90298-X, archived from the originalon 6 February 2009, retrieved 22 October 2017
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- The Wonder That was India
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- "The history of Hinduism (article)". Khan Academy.