History of Iraq

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History of Iraq
Prehistory
Bronze Age
Iron Age
Middle Ages
Early modern period
Modern Iraq
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Neo-Babylonian empires, a succession of local ruling dynasties that reigned over Mesopotamia and various other regions of the Ancient Near East during the Bronze and Iron Ages.[1]

Iraq during antiquity witnessed some of the world's earliest

Cradle of Civilization
.

This era of self-rule lasted until 539 BC, when the

King of Babylon". The ancient city of the same name
, which had been the titular center of both Babylonian civilizations, became the most important of the four Achaemenid capitals.

Over the next 700 years, the regions forming modern Iraq came under

Mamluk
control.

Ottoman rule ended with World War I, after which the

High Commissioner Francis Humphrys and Iraqi Prime Minister Nuri al-Said two years prior. A republic formed in 1958 following a coup d'état. Saddam Hussein governed from 1968 to 2003, into which period fall the Iran–Iraq War and the Gulf War. Saddam Hussein was deposed following the 2003 U.S. invasion of Iraq
.

Prehistory

Inside the Shanidar Cave where the remains of eight adults and two infant Neanderthals, dating from around 65,000–35,000 years ago were found.[4][5]

During 1957–1961 Shanidar Cave was excavated by Ralph Solecki and his team from Columbia University, and nine skeletons of Neanderthal man of varying ages and states of preservation and completeness (labelled Shanidar I–IX) were discovered dating from 60,000 to 80,000 years BP. A tenth individual was recently discovered by M. Zeder during examination of a faunal assemblage from the site at the Smithsonian Institution. The remains seemed to Zeder to suggest that Neanderthals had funeral ceremonies, burying their dead with flowers (although the flowers are now thought to be a modern contaminant), and that they took care of injured and elderly individuals.

Mesopotamia is the site of the earliest developments of the Neolithic Revolution from around 10,000 BC. It has been identified as having "inspired some of the most important developments in human history including the invention of the wheel, the planting of the first cereal crops and the development of cursive script, Mathematics, Astronomy and Agriculture."[6]

Ancient Mesopotamia

Main articles: Mesopotamia and History of Mesopotamia
See also: Ancient Near East

Bronze Age

Main articles: Sumer, Akkadian Empire, Assyria, and Babylonia
Bronze head of an Akkadian ruler from Nineveh, presumably depicting either Sargon of Akkad, or Sargon's grandson Naram-Sin. The Akkadian Empire was the first ancient empire of Mesopotamia after the long-lived civilization of Sumer.

Kassite Babylonian
rule.

The north of Mesopotamia had become the Akkadian-speaking state of Assyria by the late 25th century BC. Along with the rest of Mesopotamia it was ruled by Akkadian kings from the late 24th to mid 22nd centuries BC, after which it once again became independent.[7]

Sumuabum in 1894 BC.[8]

Akkadian gradually replaced Sumerian as the spoken language of Mesopotamia somewhere around the turn of the 3rd and the 2nd millennium BC,[9] but Sumerian continued to be used as a written or ceremonial language in Mesopotamia well into the period of classical antiquity.

Babylonia emerged from the Amorite dynasties (c. 1900 BC) when Hammurabi (c. 1792–1750 BC), unified the territories of the former kingdoms of Sumer and Akkad. During the early centuries of what is called the "Amorite period", the most powerful city-states were Isin and

Old Babylonian
Period.

Assyria was an Akkadian (East Semitic) kingdom in Upper Mesopotamia, that came to rule regional empires a number of times through history. It was named for its original capital, the ancient city of Assur (Akkadian Aššūrāyu).

Of the early history of the kingdom of Assyria, little is positively known. In the

Assyrian King List, the earliest king recorded was Tudiya. He was a contemporary of Ibrium of Ebla who appears to have lived in the late 25th or early 24th century BC, according to the king list. The foundation of the first true urbanised Assyrian monarchy was traditionally ascribed to Ushpia a contemporary of Ishbi-Erra of Isin and Naplanum of Larsa.[10]
c. 2030 BC.

Assyria had a period of empire from the 19th to 18th centuries BC. From the 14th to 11th centuries BC Assyria once more became a major power with the rise of the Middle Assyrian Empire.

Panoramic view of ruins in Babylon.
Panoramic view of ruins in Babylon photographed in 2005

Iron Age

Main article: Fall of Babylon
7th-century BC relief depicting Ashurbanipal (r. 669–631 BC) and three royal attendants in a chariot. Ashurbanipal was the king of the Neo-Assyrian Empire which was the largest empire in history up to that point.[11][12]

The

Aramaic was also made an official language of the empire, alongside the Akkadian language
.

The

Persians, Scythians and Cimmerians, they sacked the city of Nineveh in 612 BC, and the seat of empire was transferred to Babylonia for the first time since the death of Hammurabi
in the mid 18th century BC. This period witnessed a general improvement in economic life and agricultural production, and a great flourishing of architectural projects, the arts and science.

The Neo-Babylonian period ended with the reign of Nabonidus in 539 BC. To the east, the Persians had been growing in strength, and eventually Cyrus the Great established his dominion over Babylon.

Classical Antiquity

Achaemenid and Seleucid rule

Main articles:
Babylonia (Persian province), Achaemenid Assyria, and Seleucid Empire

Mesopotamia was conquered by the Achaemenid Persians under Cyrus the Great in 539 BC, and remained under Persian rule for two centuries.

The Persian Empire fell to

Seleucia on the Tigris, the new Seleucid Empire
capital. The Seleucid Empire at the height of its power stretched from the Aegean in the west to
India in the east. It was a major center of Hellenistic culture that maintained the preeminence of Greek customs where a Greek political elite dominated, mostly in the urban areas.[14] The Greek population of the cities who formed the dominant elite were reinforced by immigration from Greece.[14][15]
Much of the eastern part of the empire was conquered by the Parthians under Mithridates I of Parthia in the mid-2nd century BC.

Parthian and Roman rule

Main articles: Asoristan, Osroene, Adiabene, Mesopotamia (Roman province), and Assyria (Roman province)
Charles LeBrun, depicts Alexander the Great's uncontested entry into the city of Babylon, envisioned with pre-existing Hellenistic architecture
.

At the beginning of the 2nd century AD, the Romans, led by emperor Trajan, invaded Parthia and conquered Mesopotamia, making it an imperial province. It was returned to the Parthians shortly after by Trajan's successor, Hadrian.

Mandeism
is also believed to have either originated there around this time or entered as Mandaeans sought refuge from Palestine. Sumerian-Akkadian religious tradition disappeared during this period, as did the last remnants of cuneiform literacy, although temples were still being dedicated to the Assyrian national god Ashur in his home city as late as the 4th century.[7]

Sassanid Empire

Main article: Asoristan

In the 3rd century AD, the Parthians were in turn succeeded by the

Asuristān (Assyria), Adiabene
and Lower Media. The term Iraq is widely used in the medieval Arabic sources for the area in the center and south of the modern republic as a geographic rather than a political term, implying no greater precision of boundaries than the term "Mesopotamia" or, indeed, many of the names of modern states before the 20th century.

There was a substantial influx of Arabs in the Sassanid period.

ʿIrāq-i ʿArab, meaning "the escarpment of the Arabs" (viz. to the south and east of "the island".[16]

Until 602, the desert frontier of the Persian Empire had been guarded by the Arab

Syria-Iraq border and continued northward, passing between Nisibis (modern Nusaybin) as the Sassanian frontier fortress and Dara and Amida (modern Diyarbakır) held by the Byzantines
.

Middle Ages

Islamic conquest

Main article:
Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia
The Age of the Caliphs
  Muhammad, 622–632
  Rashidun Caliphate, 632–661
  Umayyad Caliphate, 661–750
This earthenware dish was made in 9th-century Iraq. It is housed in the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C.

The first organized conflict between invading Arab tribes and occupying Persian forces in Mesopotamia seems to have been in 634, when the Arabs were defeated at the Battle of the Bridge. There was a force of some 5,000

Battle of al-Qādisiyyah and moved on to capture the Persian capital of Ctesiphon. By the end of 638, the Muslims had conquered all of the Western Sassanid provinces (including modern Iraq), and the last Sassanid Emperor, Yazdegerd III
, had fled to central and then northern Persia, where he was killed in 651.

The Islamic expansions constituted the largest of the Semitic expansions in history. These new arrivals did not disperse and settle throughout the country; instead they established two new garrison cities, at

al-Kūfah, near ancient Babylon, and at Basrah
in the south, while the north remained largely Assyrian and Arab Christian in character.

Abbasid Caliphate

Main articles: Abbasid Caliphate, Islamic Golden Age, Anarchy at Samarra, and Iranian Intermezzo
Abbasid Caliphate at its greatest extent

The city of Baghdad was built in the 8th century and became the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate. Baghdad soon became the primary cultural center of the Muslim world during the centuries of the incipient "Islamic Golden Age" of the 8th to 9th centuries.

In the 9th century, the Abbasid Caliphate entered a period of decline. During the late 9th to early 11th centuries, a period known as the "

Shia
sects of Islam.

Mongol invasion

Further information:
Siege of Baghdad (1258)
The Mongol Empire's expansion

In the later 11th century, Iraq fell under the rule of the

Mongol invasions of the 13th century.[17]
The Mongols under
conquered Khwarezmia
by 1221, but Iraq proper gained a respite due to the death of Genghis Khan in 1227 and the subsequent power struggles.
Hulagu Khan in 1258. With the destruction of the Abbasid Caliphate, Hulagu had an open route to Syria and moved against the other Muslim powers in the region.[18]

Turco-Mongol rule

Main articles: Ilkhanate, Timurid Empire, Jalayirid Sultanate, Qara Qoyunlu, Aq Qoyunlu, and Eldiguzids

Iraq now became a province on the southwestern fringes of the Ilkhanate and Baghdad would never regain its former importance.

The

Kara Koyunlu
in 1432.

Ottoman and Mamluk rule

Further information: Ottoman Empire, Baghdad Eyalet, Mosul Eyalet, Basra Eyalet, and Mamluk dynasty (Iraq)

During the late 14th and early 15th centuries, the Qara Qoyunlu or Black Sheep Turkmens ruled the area now known as Iraq. In 1466, the Aq Qoyunlu or White Sheep defeated the Qara Qoyunlu and took control. Later, the Aq Qoyunlu were defeated by the Safavid dynasty, who took control over Mesopotamia for some time and asserted their hegemony over Iraq in the periods 1508–1533, ending with the Ottoman–Safavid War (1532–1555), and 1622–1638, ending with the Ottoman–Safavid War (1623–1639).

In the 16th century, most of the territory of present-day Iraq came under the control of

pashalik
of Baghdad. Throughout most of the period of Ottoman rule (1533–1918) the territory of present-day Iraq was a battle zone between the rival regional empires and tribal alliances. Iraq was divided into three
vilayets
:

  • Mosul Province
  • Baghdad Province
  • Basra Province

During the years 1747–1831, Iraq was ruled by

Janissaries, restored order, and introduced a program of modernization of the economy and the military. In 1831, the Ottomans managed to overthrow the Mamluk regime and again imposed their direct control over Iraq.[21]

20th century

Main article: Modern history of Iraq

British mandate of Mesopotamia

Main articles: Mandate for Mesopotamia and Mandatory Iraq
Nuri Said (1888 – 1958) contributed to the establishment of the Kingdom of Iraq and the armed forces while also served as the Prime minister of the state.

Ottoman rule over Iraq lasted until

British Mandate of Mesopotamia was established by League of Nations mandate
.

Britain imposed a

Assyrian Levies to help quell these insurrections. Iraq also became an oligarchy
government at this time.

Although the monarch

plebiscite on 23 August 1921, simultaneously changing the official name of the country from Mesopotamia to Iraq,[22]
independence was achieved in 1932, when the British Mandate officially ended.

Independent Kingdom of Iraq

Coat of arms of the Kingdom of Iraq 1932–1959

Establishment of Arab Sunni domination in Iraq was followed by Assyrian, Yazidi and Shi'a unrests, which were all brutally suppressed. In 1936, the first military coup took place in the Kingdom of Iraq, as Bakr Sidqi succeeded in replacing the acting Prime Minister with his associate. Multiple coups followed in a period of political instability, peaking in 1941.

During

Mandate of Syria and support for the Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran.[23]

In 1945, Iraq joined the United Nations and became a founding member of the Arab League. At the same time, the Kurdish leader Mustafa Barzani led a rebellion against the central government in Baghdad. After the failure of the uprising, Barzani and his followers fled to the Soviet Union.

In 1948, massive violent protests known as the Al-Wathbah uprising broke out across Baghdad with partial communist support, having demands against the government's treaty with Britain. Protests continued into spring and were interrupted in May when martial law was enforced as Iraq entered the failed 1948 Arab–Israeli War along with other Arab League members.

In February 1958, King

Nuri as-Said wanted Kuwait
to be part of the proposed Arab-Hāshimite Union. Shaykh `Abd-Allāh as-Salīm, the ruler of Kuwait, was invited to Baghdad to discuss Kuwait's future. This policy brought the government of Iraq into direct conflict with Britain, which did not want to grant independence to Kuwait. At that point, the monarchy found itself completely isolated. Nuri as-Said was able to contain the rising discontent only by resorting to even greater political oppression.

Republic of Iraq

Further information: Iraqi Republic (1958–1968)
Socialist heraldry
.

Inspired by

Baghdad Pact
ceased.

Mandeans, Yarsans
, and others.

Qasim's vision of nationalism involved the recognition of an Iraqi identity stemming from ancient Mesopotamia including its civilizations of Sumer, Akkad, Babylonia and Assyria.[24]

In 1961, Kuwait gained independence from Britain and Iraq claimed sovereignty over Kuwait. A period of considerable instability followed.

The same year,

First Kurdish Iraqi War
.

Ba'athist Iraq

Main article: Ba'athist Iraq
Saddam Hussein, a leading member of the revolutionary Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party, served as the fifth president of Iraq from 16 July 1979 until 9 April 2003.

Qāsim was assassinated in February 1963, when the Ba'ath Party took power under the leadership of General Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr (prime minister) and Colonel Abdul Salam Arif (president). In June 1963, Syria, which by then had also fallen under Ba'athist rule, took part in the Iraqi military campaign against the Kurds by providing aircraft, armoured vehicles and a force of 6,000 soldiers. Several months later, `Abd as-Salam Muhammad `Arif led a successful coup against the Ba'ath government. Arif declared a ceasefire in February 1964 which provoked a split among Kurdish urban radicals on one hand and Peshmerga (Freedom fighters) forces led by Barzani on the other.

On April 13, 1966, President Abdul Salam Arif died in a helicopter crash and was succeeded by his brother, General

Kurdish insurrection
, which stalled in 1969. This can be partly attributed to the internal power struggle in Baghdad and also tensions with Iran. Moreover, the Soviet Union pressured the Iraqis to come to terms with Barzani. The war ended with more than 100,000 mortal casualties, with little achievements to both Kurdish rebels and the Iraqi government.

In the aftermath of the

Second Kurdish Iraqi War
, to last until 1975.

Under Saddam Hussein

Saddam Hussein promoting women's education in the 1970s

In July 1979, President Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr was forced to resign by Saddam Hussein, who assumed the offices of both President and Chairman of the Revolutionary Command Council. Saddam then purged his opponents including those from within the Baath party.

Iraq's Territorial Claims to Neighboring Countries

Iraq's territorial claims to neighboring countries were largely due to the plans and promises of the

Entente countries in 1919–1920, when the Ottoman Empire was divided, to create a more extensive Arab state in Iraq and Jazeera, which would also include significant territories of eastern Syria, southeastern Turkey, all of Kuwait and Iran
’s border areas, which are shown on this English map of 1920.

British ruled Mesopotamia in pink

Territorial disputes with

Qādisiyyah'), which devastated the economy. Iraq falsely declared victory in 1988 but actually only achieved a weary return to the status quo ante bellum
, meaning both sides retained their original borders.

The war began when Iraq invaded Iran, launching a simultaneous invasion by air and land into Iranian territory on 22 September 1980, following a long history of

calls for a ceasefire by the United Nations Security Council, hostilities continued until 20 August 1988. The war finally ended with a United Nations-brokered ceasefire in the form of United Nations Security Council Resolution 598, which was accepted by both sides. It took several weeks for the Iranian armed forces to evacuate Iraqi territory to honor pre-war international borders between the two nations (see 1975 Algiers Agreement). The last prisoners of war were exchanged in 2003.[28][29]

The war came at a great cost in lives and economic damage—half a million Iraqi and Iranian soldiers, as well as civilians, are believed to have died in the war with many more injured—but it brought neither reparations nor change in borders. The conflict is often compared to

UN Security Council
issued statements that "chemical weapons had been used in the war." However, in these UN statements, it was never made clear that it was only Iraq that was using chemical weapons, so it has been said that "the international community remained silent as Iraq used weapons of mass destruction against Iranian as well as Iraqi Kurds" and it is believed.

A long-standing territorial dispute was the ostensible reason for Iraq's

Desert Storm") ensued on January 17, 1991. Estimates range from 1,500 to as many as 30,000 Iraqi soldiers killed, as well as less than a thousand civilians.[31][32]

In March 1991 revolts in the

Iraqi no-fly zones
.

Kuwait became a Governorate of Iraq.

On 6 August 1990, after the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait, the U.N. Security Council adopted

Resolution 687.[33]
To varying degrees, the effects of government policy, the aftermath of Gulf War and the sanctions regime have been blamed for these conditions.

The effects of the sanctions on the civilian population of Iraq have been disputed.

oil for food program
was established in 1996 to ease the effects of sanctions.

Iraqi cooperation with UN weapons inspection teams was questioned on several occasions during the 1990s.

UN Security Council afterwards in which he expressed dissatisfaction with the level of compliance [2]
. The same month, US President Bill Clinton authorized air strikes on government targets and military facilities. Air strikes against military facilities and alleged WMD sites continued into 2002.

U.S. invasion and the aftermath (2003–present)

2003 U.S. invasion

Main article: 2003 invasion of Iraq

After the terrorist attacks on New York and Washington in the United States in 2001 were linked to the group formed by the multi-millionaire Saudi Osama bin Laden, American foreign policy began to call for the removal of the Ba'ath government in Iraq. Neoconservative think-tanks in Washington had for years been urging regime change in Baghdad. On August 14, 1998, President Clinton signed Public Law 105–235, which declared that ‘‘the Government of Iraq is in material and unacceptable breach of its international obligations.’’ It urged the President ‘‘to take appropriate action, in accordance with the Constitution and relevant laws of the United States, to bring Iraq into compliance with its international obligations.’’ Several months later, Congress enacted the Iraq Liberation Act of 1998 on October 31, 1998. This law stated that it "should be the policy of the United States to support efforts to remove the regime headed by Saddam Hussein from power in Iraq and to promote the emergence of a democratic government to replace that regime." It was passed 360 - 38 by the United States House of Representatives and 99–0 by the United States Senate in 1998.

The US urged the

UN Security Council
on November 8, 2002, offering Iraq "a final opportunity to comply with its disarmament obligations" that had been set out in several previous UN resolutions, threatening "serious consequences" if the obligations were not fulfilled. The UN Security Council did not issue a resolution authorizing the use of force against Iraq.

In March 2003, the United States and the United Kingdom, with military aid from other nations, invaded Iraq.

Over the following years in the

ISIL insurgency continues mostly in the rural parts of northern western parts of the country, due to Iraq's long border with Syria.[40]

Occupation (2003–11)

Main article: Occupation of Iraq (2003–2011)
Occupation zones in Iraq in September 2003
U.S. Army
soldier searches an Iraqi boy, March 2011.

In 2003, after the American and British invasion, Iraq was occupied by U.S.-led

Iraqi insurgency and occupation forces. Saddam Hussein, who vanished in April, was captured on December 13, 2003 in ad-Dawr, Saladin Governorate
.

a further parliamentary election in December 2005
.

Terrorism emerged as a threat to Iraq's people not long after the invasion of 2003.

Abu Musab Al Zarqawi. Al Zarqawi was a Jordanian militant Islamist who ran a militant training camp in Afghanistan. He became known after going to Iraq and being responsible for a series of bombings, beheadings and attacks during the Iraq war. Al Zarqawi was killed on June 7, 2006. Many foreign fighters and former Ba'ath Party officials also joined the insurgency, which was mainly aimed at attacking American forces and Iraqis who worked with them. The most dangerous insurgent area was the Sunni Triangle
, a mostly Sunni-Muslim area just north of Baghdad.

Reported acts of violence conducted by an uneasy tapestry of insurgents steadily increased by the end of 2006.

Al Askari Mosque in Samarra, one of Shi'ite Islam's holiest sites leading to a civil war between Sunni and Shia militants in Iraq. Analysis of the attack suggested that the Mujahideen Shura Council and Al-Qaeda in Iraq were responsible, and that the motivation was to provoke further violence by outraging the Shia population.[42] In mid-October 2006, a statement was released stating that the Mujahideen Shura Council had been disbanded and was replaced by the "Islamic State of Iraq". It was formed to resist efforts by the U.S. and Iraqi authorities to win over Sunni supporters of the insurgency. Shia militias, some of whom were associated with elements in the Iraq government, reacted with reprisal acts against the Sunni minority. A cycle of violence thus ensued whereby Sunni insurgent attacks were followed reprisals by Shiite militias, often in the form of Shi'ite death squads that sought out and killed Sunnis. Following a surge in U.S. troops in 2007 and 2008, violence in Iraq began to decrease. The U.S. ended their main military presence in 2011, however, resulting in renewed escalation into war.[43]

Insurgency and war (2011–2017)

Main article: History of Iraq (2011–present)
Further information: Iraqi insurgency (2011–2013), War in Iraq (2013–2017), Northern Iraq offensive (June 2014), Northern Iraq offensive (August 2014), and Battle of Mosul (2016–2017)

The

government of Iraq
being opposed by various factions, primarily radical Sunni forces.

The

YPG forces. The war ended with a government victory in December 2017.[52]

On 30 April 2016,

Muqtada Al Sadr. Although Iraqi security forces were present, they did not attempt to stop the protesters from entering the parliament building.[53]

Continued ISIL insurgency and protests (2017–present)

Main articles: Islamic State insurgency in Iraq (2017–present) and 2019–2021 Iraqi protests

By 2018, violence in Iraq was at its lowest level in ten years.[54]

Protests over deteriorating economic conditions and state corruption started in July 2018 in Baghdad and other major Iraqi cities, mainly in the central and southern provinces. The latest nationwide protests, erupting in October 2019, had a death toll of at least 93 people, including police.[55]

In November 2021, Iraqi Prime Minister Mustafa al-Kadhimi survived a failed assassination attempt.[56]

Cleric Muqtada al-Sadr's

2022 Iraqi political crisis.[58]

In October 2022, Abdul Latif Rashid was elected as the new President of Iraq after winning the parliamentary election against incumbent Barham Salih, who was running for a second term. The presidency is largely ceremonial and is traditionally held by a Kurd.[59] On 27 October 2022, Mohammed Shia al-Sudani, close ally of former Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki, took the office to succeed Mustafa al-Kadhimi as new Prime Minister of Iraq.[60]

See also

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Sources

Further reading

Historiography

External links
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