History of Ireland (795–1169)
History of Ireland |
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The history of Ireland 795–1169 covers the period in the
Ireland consisted of many semi-independent territories (
Following Brian's death at the Battle of Clontarf in 1014, the political situation became more complex with rivalry for high kingship from several clans and dynasties. Brian's descendants failed to maintain a unified throne, and regional squabbling over territory led indirectly to the invasion of the Normans under Richard de Clare in 1169.
Historiography
Due to the rich amount of written sources, the study of Irish history 795–1169 has, to a large extent, focused on gathering, interpretation and textual criticism of these. Only recently have other sources of historical knowledge received more attention, particularly archaeology. Since the modern excavations of Dublin started in 1961, followed by similar efforts in Wexford, Waterford and Limerick, great advances have been made in the understanding of the physical character of the towns established during this period.[1]
The first part of the period from 795 to 1014 is well-studied; the "Viking age" has attracted the interest of historians for quite some time. The period between 1014 and 1169 has received less attention. In the words of Sean Duffy, this period
has – historiographically speaking – fallen between two stools. Historians of early medieval Ireland, seeking to conclude their narratives on a high note, have traditionally done so after recounting the death of the famous high-king
In trying to interpret the history of early Ireland, one of the most frequently asked questions addressed by historians is how early it is possible to speak of an Irish nation encompassing the whole island of Ireland. Early poet-historians like
Nature of the written sources
A large body of contemporary and near-contemporary material on early medieval Ireland has survived. From the titles of works mentioned in these sources, it is clear that a great deal of additional material has now been lost. The surviving materials usually exist in the form of much later copies, and it is only from comparison of the various texts that the original documents can be reconstructed.[4]
Extant
In addition to the annals, a large number of genealogies survive, along with geographical and legal texts, poetry, sagas and hagiography.
In the 12th century, propaganda text like Caithréim Chellacháin Chaisil and Cogad Gáedel re Gallaib were composed. Even though the historical accuracy of these accounts is dubious, the Cogad especially has had a great impact on the interpretation of Irish medieval history until recently.[6]
Political landscape c. 800
At the end of the 8th century, Ireland was homogeneously
The
The central region of Mide had been dominated by what became known as the "southern Uí Néill" since the 7th century. Until the 8th century, the Síl nÁedo Sláine (also known as the kingdom of Brega) was pre-eminent, but from 728 the western dynasty of Clann Cholmáin was dominant.
In Laigin,
The
's half" (south).During the 7th century the Uí Briúin had emerged in Connacht, and since the first half of the 8th century been the dominant dynasty. Uí Briúin also influenced the kingdom of Breifne on the southern borders of the Northern Uí Néill.
First Viking age (795–902)
Early Viking raids
The first recorded
These early raids interrupted the golden age of Christian Irish culture and marked the beginning of two hundred years of intermittent warfare, with waves of Viking raiders plundering monasteries and towns throughout Ireland. Most of the early raiders came from the fjords of western Norway. They are believed to have sailed first to
Áed Oirdnide
Áed Oirdnide of the Cenél nEógain branch of the Northern Uí Néill became King of Tara in 797, after the death of his predecessor, father-in-law and political rival Donnchad Midi. (Duncan) This followed the classic Uí Néill political arrangement, where over-kingship alternated regularly between Cenél nEógain and Clann Cholmáin of the Southern Uí Néill. During his reign he campaigned in Mide, Leinster and Ulaid to assert his authority, though unlike Donnchad (Duncan) he did not campaign in Munster.
Thomas Charles-Edwards credits Áed for "the absence of any major Viking attacks on Ireland during his reign after 798".[13] The annals gives no reference, however, to Áed at any time being involved with warfare against Viking raiders.
Áed was connected to the monastic community at Armagh, and a supporter of the familia of
Rivalry between north and south
Is he Feidhlimidh in ri
dianid opair oenlaithi
eitrige Connacht cen cath
ocus Midhe do manrath
(Feidlimid is the king
For whom a single day's work is
To take the hostages of Connacht without battle
And to spoil Mide.)
Conchobar was succeeded by Niall Caille in 833. With Niall, we for the first time see a reference in the annals of a Uí Néill leading an army against the Vikings; he defeated Viking raiders in Derry the same year.[17] He sought to further expand Uí Néill influence in the south; in 835 he led an army to Leinster and installed Bran mac Fáeláin as king of Leinster, and also invaded Mide.[18] This brought him into conflict with Feidlimid, however, and in 838 a conference (rígdál mór—"great royal meeting") between Niall and Feidlimid was held.[note 5] This meeting did not result in any lasting peace though; in 840 Feidlimid led an army into Mide and encamped at Tara, thereby challenging the Uí Néill also in the north. In 841, however, Feidlimid was routed in battle by Niall in Leinster. His successors in the south would not be able to challenge the north again to this extent until some 150 years later.
Intensified raiding and the first Viking settlements in Ireland
The Viking raids on Ireland resumed in 821, and intensified during the following decades. The Vikings were beginning to establish fortified encampments,
One of the first named Viking leaders was
In
In 853 Olaf, identified as a "son of the king of Lochlann",[27] came to Ireland. Lochlann has been understood as (a district of) present Norway; it is now considered more plausible that it refers to a Scandinavian colony in the Western Isles of Scotland.[28][note 7] Olaf assumed leadership of the Vikings in Ireland, probably in some way shared with his kinsman Ivar, first mentioned in the Irish Annals in 857. Olaf and Ivar remained active in Ireland and around the Irish Sea for the next two decades. The descendants of Ivar, the Uí Ímair, would be an important political factor for the next two centuries.
Shifting alliances and struggle for power
A significant new trait from the middle of the 9th century was that the Norse now also entered alliances with various Irish rulers. Cerball mac Dúnlainge had become king of Osraige in 842. Cerball had defeated Viking raiders in 846 and 847, but from 858 he is allied with Olaf and Ivar against Máel Sechnaill, campaigning in Leinster and Munster, and in 859 also raiding Máel Sechnaill's heartlands in Mide, though Cerball had to submit to Máel Sechnaill later the same year. These alliances were by no means permanent. In 860 Cerball was allied with Máel Sechnaill in a campaign against Áed Findliath of the Northern Uí Néill, while Olaf and Ivar has allied themselves with Áed. In 870, however, Cerball and Áed appeared as allies in Leinster.
Máel Sechnaill had more success as high king than his predecessors Niall Caille and Conchobar Donnchada (Duncan) in dealing with the south, and forced Munster into submission in 858 and as noted above, Osraige in 859. He also asserted control over Ulaid, Leinster and Connacht, and was in his obituary in the Annals of Ulster described as ri h-Erenn uile, king of all Ireland. The last years of his reign he had however experienced serious opposition from his Uí Néill kinsmen of Ailech and Brega, allied with the Norse of Dublin. Byrne notes: "Máel Sechnaill's unprecedented success in achieving the high-kingship of all Ireland was marred by the chronic complaint of Irish politics: having united the Ulaid, Munster, Osraige, Connacht and Leinster, he was attacked at the end of his reign by a combination of Uí Néill kings."[29]
Áed Findliath was king of Ailech and the leading king within the Northern Uí Néill. After the death of Máel Sechnaill he is counted in the regal lists as high king, following the established scheme where this alternated between Cenél nEógain in the north and Clann Cholmáin of Mide. His kingship was disputed though, and he did not come close to being an actual king over Ireland. He could count some successes against the Norse, however, most notably burning all the Norse longports in the north in 866.
The last report of Olaf is when he and Ivar returned to Dublin in 871 from Alba.[32] Ivar died in 873. In his obituary, the Annals of Ulster call Ivar "king of the Norsemen of all Ireland and Britain".[33] With their disappearance, there were frequent changes of leadership among the Norse in Ireland and a great deal of internecine conflict is reported for the following decades.[34] In 902 Máel Finnia mac Flannacain of Brega and Cerball mac Muirecáin of Leinster joined forces against Dublin, and "The heathens were driven from Ireland, i.e. from the fortress of Áth Cliath [Dublin]".[note 8]
A group of Vikings led by Hingamund who were forced out of Ireland were given permission by the Saxons to settle in Wirral, in the north west of England. "The Three Fragments" refers to a distinct group of settlers living among these Vikings as "Irishmen": "Then the King, who was on the point of death, and the Queen sent messengers to the Irishmen who were among the pagans, for there were many Irish among the pagans, to say to the Irishmen, life and health to you from the King of the Saxons, who is in disease, and from his Queen, who has all authority over the Saxons, and they are certain that you are true and trusty friends to them. Therefore, you should take their side; for they did not bestow any greater honour to a Saxon warrior or cleric than to each warrior and cleric who came to them from Ireland, because this inimical race of pagans is equally hostile to you also." Further evidence of an Irish presence in Wirral comes from the name of the village of Irby in Wirral, which means "farmstead of the Irishmen", and St Bridget's Church, West Kirby which is known to have been founded by "Christian Vikings from Ireland".[35][36]
Failed Conquest
The Vikings were able to exploit internal divisions in order to invade England and France. As Ireland was one of the most politically fractured countries at the time, it was a prime target for Viking conquest. Furthermore, Irish Kings often made alliances with foreign invaders in an attempt to weaken their domestic rivals. The Vikings were able to defeat the centralized Kingdoms of Europe, since the small ruling class was easily removed. However, Ireland was composed of more than 150 different Kingdoms ruling over small territories. This decentralized system of governance made it almost impossible to gain control of a territory, since defeated Kings were easily replaced.
Impact on cultural activity and formation of Irish scholarly diaspora
Historians debate the consequences that the initial phases of Viking settlement had on scholarship and literary output.
Second Viking age (914–980)
After having been forced to leave Dublin in 902, the descendants of Ivar, now described generically in the annals as the
A new and more intensive period of Viking settlement in Ireland began in 914. Between 914 and 922 the Norse established Waterford, Cork, Dublin, Wexford and Limerick.[note 11] Significant excavations in Dublin and Waterford in the 20th century have unearthed much of the Viking heritage of those cities. A large amount of Viking burial stones, called the Rathdown Slabs, have been found in multiple locations across South Dublin.[41]
The Vikings founded many other coastal towns, and after several generations of coexistence and intermarriage a group of mixed Irish and Norse ethnic background arose (often called
Niall Glúndub marched on Dublin in September 919, but Sihtric met his forces at the battle of Islandbridge or Áth Cliath and inflicted on him a decisive defeat, with Niall and numerous other Irish leaders among the casualties. Dublin was secured for the Norse, and in 920 Sitric left for York and following Ragnall's death succeeded him as ruler there in 921. Their kinsman Gofraid assumed control of Dublin. Gofraid was active as a Viking raider and slaver, but there were signs during his reign that the Norse were not just mere Vikings any more. During a raid at Armagh in 921 Gofraid "...spared the prayerhouses... ...and the sick from destruction",[43] considerations never taken by the raiders of the previous century. Another was the intense campaigns led by Dublin in eastern Ulster from 921 to 927, which appear to have aimed at conquest in order to create a Scandinavian kingdom like the one on the eastern side of the Irish sea.[44]
Dublin's ambitions in Ulster were halted by a series of defeats inflicted upon the Norse by Muirchertach mac Néill, the son of Niall Glúndub. According to Benjamin Hudson, "Muirchertach was one of the most successful generals of his day and was described as the 'Hector of the Irish'".[45] In the annals, it is (Duncan) Donnchad Donn from Clann Cholmáin who is titled "high king" after Niall however, and Muirchertach did not succeed his father as king of Ailech either until 938. Apart from his victories over the Norse, Muirchertach led campaigns forcing other provincial kingdoms into submission, most notably taking the king of Munster Cellachán Caisil captive in 941. The same year he led a fleet to the Hebrides, collecting tribute there.[45][note 12]
When Sihtric died in 927 Gofraid left for York, trying to assume kingship there. He was driven out by
In 980 Máel Sechnaill mac Domnaill succeeded Domnall, and the same year he defeated the forces of Dublin at the battle of Tara. Following this victory Máel Sechnaill forced Dublin into submission, and his half-brother, Amlaíbs son Glúniairn, became ruler in Dublin.
Máel Sechnaill mac Domnaill and Brian Boru (980–1022)
In Munster, the influence of the
Brian quickly established himself as the most powerful ruler in Munster, defeating the Norse of Limerick in 977 and the Eóganachta the following year. Having gained control over Munster, he tried to extend his authority by raiding Osraige in 982 and 983, and also, according to the
Máel Sechnaill obviously perceived Brian as a threat, and as early as 982 raided Munster and the territory of the Dal gCais. The next two decades saw more or less constant warfare between them, mostly with Leinster as their battleground. Even if Brian never defeated Máel Sechnaill in battle, Brian's and Munster's influence was growing at the expense of Máel Sechnaill and the Southern Uí Néill. In 997 Máel Sechnaill was forced to acknowledge Brian's authority over the south of Ireland, and they formally divided Ireland according to the traditional scheme of
In 1000, Brian turned against Máel Sechnaill, and by 1002 he had forced Máel Sechnaill to submit to him, and now claimed kingship over the whole of Ireland. In the following decade, there were several campaigns in the north to force the Ulaid and the Northern Uí Néill into submission as well. Even if faced with multiple rebellions, both in the north and in Leinster, by 1011 he had received submission from every major regional king in Ireland, and thus earned the recognition by historians as the first real king of Ireland.[47] During his visit to Armagh in 1005, he had his secretary add a note to the Book of Armagh where he is proclaimed as Imperator Scottorum (emperor of the Irish). According to Bart Jaski, "This can be regarded as a claim that he ruled both the Irish and the Norse in Ireland, and may even imply suzerainty over the Gaels of Scotland".[47] In his obituary in the Annals of Ulster he is styled as "over-king of the Irish of Ireland, and of the foreigners and of the Britons, the Augustus of the whole of north-west Europe".[48]
In 1012,
The battle of Clontarf was not a struggle between the Irish and the Norse for the sovereignty of Ireland; neither was it a great national victory which broke the power of the Norse forever (long before Clontarf the Norse had become a minor political force in Irish affairs). In fact Clontarf was part of the internal struggle for sovereignty and was essentially the revolt of the Leinstermen against the dominance of Brian, a revolt in which their Norse allies played an important but secondary role.
— Donnchadh Ó Corráin[note 13]
Following Brian's death, Máel Sechnaill resumed as High King, supported by Flaithbertach ua Néill.
High kings with opposition (1022 onwards)
Conchobur clannmin, fo-chen!
Áed, Gairbith, Diarmait durgen,
Donnchad, dá Níall cen snim snéid
rig na ré sea co roreid. (Smooth-haired Conchobar, welcome!
Áed, Garbith, hardy Diarmait,
Donnchad, two Nialls without swift sorrow,
are evidently the kings of this era.)— From Rédig dam, a Dé do nim, poem by Flann Mainistrech from 1056[49]
(Duncan) Donnchad mac Brian styled himself as 'King of Ireland' after the death of Máel Sechnaill, but failed to gain recognition as such. A glossing of
The term rí Érenn co fressarba ("High kings with opposition") was used from the 12th century. According to Byrne, "it could be argued that the 'high kings with opposition' met with opposition precisely because they tried to become kings of Ireland in a real sense. They were not less successful than their predecessors, but only seemed so in the light of the teaching of the schools".[52] Following a similar line of reasoning, Byrne suggests that the focus from historians on the decline of the Uí Néill in the 11th century may be a "tribute to the success of their own propaganda".[53] After Brian, the previous Uí Néill monopoly of high kingship as described in poems and chronicles was anyway broken for good. The Cenél nEógain suffered from internal factions, and this allowed the Ulaid, under Niall mac Eochada, to expand their influence. Niall and Diarmait mac Maíl na mBó became allies, and effectively controlled the whole east coast of Ireland. This alliance helped to make it possible for Diarmait to take direct control of Dublin in 1052. Unlike Máel Sechnaill in 980 or Brian in 999, he wasn't content with just looting the city and expelling the Hiberno-Norse ruler (Echmarcach mac Ragnaill); in an unprecedented move he assumed the kingship "of the foreigners" (ríge Gall) himself.[54]
Reform of the Irish Church
There were major reforms in the Irish church during the 12th century. These reforms have been generally interpreted as a reaction to previous secularisation, but could also be seen as a continuous development.[55] The reforms had consequences for, and were influenced by, relations within the church as well as secular politics.
Before the 11th century the church in Ireland was
Toirdelbach appears to have responded favourably to this, and convened a synod in Dublin in 1080
The first of the four main synods associated with the church reforms of the 12th century took place in Cashel in 1101, at the instigation of Muirchertach Ua Briain. How many who actually attended this synod is not known, but some of its decrees have been preserved. There is a decree on simony, on prohibition for laymen to become airchinnig (heads of ecclesiastical establishments) and finally a decree that defines what relationships are considered to be incestuous. None of these decrees are radical, but they are generally interpreted to be in line with the
The second synod was the
Gilla, Cellach and Cellach's successor Máel Máedóc Ua Morgair, better known as
No formal attempts on getting papal approval for the structure chosen at Rathbreasail are known before Malachy sought pallia for the two incumbent archbishops at Cashel and Armagh during his trip to the Continent in 1139/40. This first bid was unsuccessful, but Malachy was told to reapply after he had gained the agreement of all Ireland.[62] Before undertaking his second trip to the Continent in 1148, Malachy convened a synod at St Patrick's Island. The main challenge must have been to reach an accommodation with Dublin, and Tairrdelbach Ua Conchobair, presently the most powerful king in Ireland, was eager to increase Connacht influence on the church. The solution reached was to extend the number of metropolitan sees from two to four, with Tuam and Dublin included alongside Cashel and Armagh. Malachy died on his way to meet the pope, but the message was transmitted by other means and papal approval was granted. Pope Eugene III appointed cardinal John Paparo as papal legate, and sent him to Ireland with pallia for the four archbishops.
Cardinal Paparo's first attempt to reach Ireland was stalled when king
Norman invasion
The
Then on 18 October 1171, Henry II landed a much bigger force in Waterford to at least ensure his continuing control over the Norman force. In the process he took Dublin and had accepted the fealty of the Irish kings and bishops by 1172, so creating the "Lordship of Ireland", which formed part of his Angevin Empire.
Slavery in Ireland
See also
- Early Scandinavian Dublin
- Great Ireland
- History of Ireland
- Scandinavian Scotland
- Papar
- O'Donnell dynasty
- MacDunleavy (dynasty)
Notes and references
Notes
- ^ See also McNeill, "Archaeology", "The 150 years before 1200 have been lost, between the assumptions that life was a continuation of the fifth through eighth-century world and that the incursion of English lords marked a fundamental change throughout Ireland."
- ^ Ó Cróinín also points out the irony of "at no time in the historical period did the political division represented by the word cóiced... ...have a tangible existence"
- ^ They may not have been as dominant in earlier history as medieval sources tend to claim, according to Ó Corráin, "The Vikings & Ireland" they :"paraded illustrious ancestors and their claim to precedence was expressed in an elaborate mythography that passed for history."
- ^ Ó Corráin, The Vikings & Ireland, p. 9. The annals name the site of this attack as Rechru, a name that could mean either modern Lambay Island or Rathlin.
- ^ Hudson, Niall Caille. According to Hudson, "Any agreement made there has not survived, although the report of the meeting from a Munster chronicle with a bias towards the southern prince claims that Niall submitted to Feidlimid, while a contemporary northern chronicle has no report of the proceedings."
- ^ The first report of Vikings spending the winter in Ireland is from Lough Neagh 840–41, the first overwintered in Dublin 841–42.
- ^ For a longer discussion on the location on Lochlann, see Ó Corráin, "The Vikings in Scotland and Ireland in the Ninth Century"
- AU 902.2 Note that the untranslated text [1]reads: "Indarba n-gennti a h-Ere, .í. longport Atha Cliath o Mael Findia m. Flandacain co feraibh Bregh & o Cerball m. Muiricain co Laignibh...", that is "longport", not "fortress".
- ^ Grandsons or great grandsons of Ivar, no other patronym was given for these, which makes it difficult trace their lineage. Modern scholarly literature also refer to later descendants as "of the Uí Ímair". However, "a collective term for all the descendants of Ívarr is lacking in the medieval Irish chronicles"Downham, "Viking Kings...", p. 6.
- ^ The identity between the Ragnall of Waterford and Ragnall (Rögnvald) of York has been questioned, see Downham, Viking Kings of Britain and Ireland, p. 94.
- ^ The archaeology of the early viking age in Ireland "The second and more intensive period of settlement was characterised by the establishment of a series of towns. Waterford (914), Cork (c.915), Dublin (917), Wexford (c.921) and Limerick (922)."
- ^ Hudson, "Muirchertach mac Néill (d. 943)", Hudson also notes that "As a descendant of the kings of Dál Riata, being the great-grandson of the Scottish king Cináed mac Alpin, he may have considered that he had hereditary interests in the region."
- ^ Quoted from Duffy, "Ireland, c. 1000 – c. 1100", p. 288. After quoting Ó Corráin, Duffy states that:"...Few now, beyond the ranks of the purveyors of popular fiction, perpetuate the portrayal of Brian, eliminator of the viking scourge" – which may be an overly optimistic assertion from Duffy.
- ^ AU 1015.2: "Flaithbertach ua Néill went into Mide to assist Mael Sechnaill." This seem to contradict Byrne (p. 864): "..since 970 the Northern and Southern Uí Néill were... ...irreconcilable foes..."
- ^ Gilla received a letter from Anselm congratulating him on his elevation to the see of Limerick, and there was no suggestion that Anselm felt Canterbury had been slighted or ought to have been involved. Flanagan, p. 915.
- ^ The see of Waterford however, where the incumbent bishop Máel Ísu Ua hAinmire also had been consecrated in, and taken vows of obedience to, Canterbury, was moved to Lismore, and Máel Ísu chosen as the first archbishop of Cashel.
References
- Footnotes
- ^ Wallace, The archaeology..., pp. 814–15.
- ^ Duffy, Ireland, c. 1000 – c. 1100, p. 285.
- ^ Ó Corráin, "Nationality and Kingship..."
- ^ Hughes, Early Christian Ireland, is a general survey of the subject.
- ^ Hughes, Early Christian Ireland, chapter 4, especially pp. 135–37.; Charles-Edwards, Early Christian Ireland, p. xix.; Ó Cróinín, "Ireland 400–800", passim.
- ^ Breatnach, "Historical tales"
- ^ Eoin MacNeill, Phases of Irish History, Dublin, 1920, pp. 98–132.
- ^ Ó Cróinín, Dáibhi (2005) Ireland, 400–800 pp. 187–88.
- ^ a b Ó Corráin, "The Vikings & Ireland", p. 2.
- ^ a b Woolf, Alex From Pictland to Alba, p. 47. Woolf "constructs a plausible narrative" based on an entry in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle where these early raiders can be identified as originating on the west-coast of Norway.
- ^ Byrne, F.J. The Viking age, pp. 609–10.
- ^ Ó Corráin, "The Vikings in Scotland and Ireland..."
- ^ T. M. Charles-Edwards, 'Áed Oirdnide mac Néill
- ^ Byrne, Francis John (2005), "Church and politics", p. 663.
- ^ T. M. Charles-Edwards, 'Áed Oirdnide mac Néill, AU 817.8
- ^ a b Bracken, "Feidlimid mac Crimthainn..."
- ^ AU 833.4
- ^ AU 835.1, 835.3
- ^ Ó Corráin, "The Vikings in Ireland", p. 19.
- ^ AU 873.3, Ó Corráin, "The Vikings in Ireland", p. 19.
- ^ a b worldhistory.org
- ^ AFM 843.13
- ^ AU 845.8
- ^ AU 848.5
- ^ AU 848.4
- ^ Ó Corráin, "Vikings & Ireland", p. 16.
- ^ AU 853.2, "Amhlaim m. righ Laithlinde..."
- ^ Hadley, Viking Raids and Conquest, p. 201.
- ^ Byrne, "The Viking Age", p. 617.
- ^ AU 866.8
- ^ Ó Corráin, "Vikings & Ireland", p. 20.
- ^ AU 871.2
- ^ 873.3 Imhar, rex Nordmannorum totius Hibernie & Brittanie, uitam finiuit.
- ^ Downham, Viking Kings, pp. 17–23, 137–45, 238–41, 246, 258–59.; Woolf, "Pictland to Alba", pp. 106–16.
- ^ Irish Migration to Merseyside
- ^ St Bridget's Church West Kirby
- ^ Flechner and Meeder (2016), The Irish in Early Medieval Europe, pp. 231–41.
- ^ Johnston (2013), Literacy and Identity in Early Medieval Ireland, pp. 27–58.
- ^ Flechner and Meeder (2016), The Irish in Early Medieval Europe, pp. 179–94, 231–41.
- ^ Ó Corráin, "The Vikings in Ireland", p. 22.
- JSTOR 25509271.
- ^ McEvoy&al., EJHG article
- ^ AU 921.8, commented by Woolf, From Pictland to Alba, p. 148.
- ^ Ó Corráin, "The Vikings in Ireland", pp. 22–23.
- ^ a b Hudson, "Muirchertach mac Néill (d. 943)"
- ^ a b c Duffy, Brian Bóruma
- ^ a b Jaski, Brian Boru
- ^ AU 1014.2, "ardrí Gaidhel Erenn & Gall & Bretan, August iartair tuaiscirt Eorpa uile"
- ^ a b Byrne, Ireland and her neighbours, pp. 866–67.
- ^ Byrne, Ireland and her neighbours, p. 865.
- ^ Byrne, Ireland and her neighbours, p. 869.
- ^ Byrne, Ireland and her neighbours, p. 870.
- ^ Byrne, Ireland and her neighbours, pp. 879–80.
- ^ Duffy, Irishmen and Islesmen, p. 94.
- ^ Hughes, The Irish Church, 800 – c. 1050, p. 655, note 70.
- ^ Flanagan, p. 913.
- ^ Holland, Church reforms
- ^ Flanagan, pp. 911–12
- ^ Holland, Cashel, synod of I (1101)
- ^ Holland, Gille (Gilbert) of Limerick
- ^ Flanagan, p. 923.
- ^ Holland, Church reform
- ^ Holland, Synod of Kells, p. 247.
- ^ AFM 1152.4
- Bibliography
- Annals of Innisfallen, CELT: Corpus of Electronic Texts, 2000, retrieved 19 March 2010
- Annals of the Four Masters, CELT: Corpus of Electronic Texts, 2002, retrieved 19 March 2010
- Annals of Ulster AD 431–1201, CELT: Corpus of Electronic Texts, 2003, retrieved 19 March 2010
- Chronicon Scotorum, CELT: Corpus of Electronic Texts, 2003, retrieved 19 March 2010
- Bracken, Damian (2004), "Feidlimid mac Crimthainn (d. 847)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford: Oxford University Press, retrieved 25 October 2007
- Breatnach, Caoimhín (2005). "Historical tales". In Seán Duffy (ed.). Medieval Ireland. An Encyclopedia. Abingdon and New York. pp. 221–22.
{{cite encyclopedia}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - Byrne, Francis John (2005), "Church and politics, c. 750 – c. 1100", in Ó Cróinín, Dáibhí (ed.), Prehistoric and Early Ireland, A New History of Ireland, vol. I, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 654–79, ISBN 978-0-19-922665-8
- Byrne, Francis John (2005), "The Viking Age", in Ó Cróinín, Dáibhí (ed.), Prehistoric and Early Ireland, A New History of Ireland, vol. I, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 609–34, ISBN 0-19-922665-2
- Byrne, Francis John (2005), "Ireland and her neighbours, c. 1014 – c. 1072", in Ó Cróinín, Dáibhí (ed.), Prehistoric and Early Ireland, A New History of Ireland, vol. I, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 862–98, ISBN 0-19-922665-2
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External links
- Treasures of early Irish art, 1500 B.C. to 1500 A.D., an exhibition catalogue from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on this period (section 4: pp. 144–86 )