History of Irish Americans in Boston
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With an expanding population, group loyalty, and block-by-block political organization, the Irish took political control of the city, leaving the Yankees in charge of finance, business, and higher education. The Irish left their mark on the region in a number of ways: in still heavily Irish neighborhoods such as
History
Early America
The Catholic Irish have been in Boston since colonial times, when they arrived as
Most of the early arrivals were
On March 17, 1737, after a particularly harsh winter, a group of Irish Protestants met in Boston to organize the
Once the Irish had proved their loyalty by fighting in the American Revolutionary War, they were more welcome in Boston and better able to assimilate—provided, of course, that they were Protestants. According to historian Michael J. O'Brien, hundreds of Irish Americans fought in the Battle of Bunker Hill despite being protestant analysis of their names in the records shows them to have bore Irish surnames derived from the Irish language[7] One son of Irish immigrants, John Sullivan, served under George Washington and became a brigadier general. According to local legend, Sullivan used "Saint Patrick" as the official password when he led Colonial troops into town following the British evacuation of Boston in 1776. Boston still celebrates the event each year on Evacuation Day, which coincides with Saint Patrick's Day. Sullivan's brother, James Sullivan, was elected governor of Massachusetts in 1807.[8]
19th century
A wave of Irish immigration to Boston started in the 1820s. Initially most of the newcomers were Protestants, but increasingly they were joined by Catholics. From the start, there were problems. The "
On July 11, 1837, a company of Yankee firemen returning from a call met with an Irish funeral procession on Broad Street. What started as a street brawl escalated into an all-out riot when a fireman sounded the emergency alarm, summoning all of the fire engines in Boston. Local Yankee and Irish Americans came running to join the fight, bearing sticks, stones, bricks, and cudgels. Some 800 men were involved in the actual fighting and at least 10,000 gathered in the street to cheer them on. The riot ended when the mayor called in the National Lancers and the state militia. Remarkably, no one was killed. Three Irishmen, and none of the firemen, received jail sentences. The incident became known as the Broad Street Riot.[10]
Famine years
The
Many Irish women became domestic servants; by 1860, two-thirds of the servants in Boston were Irish.[14] Most Irish men worked in construction, in quarries, or on the docks. Irish laborers helped build up the business district behind Faneuil Hall, built townhouses on Beacon Hill, cleared land for North Station, and filled in the South End; others worked on the waterfront as fish cutters and stevedores.[15]
A notable exception was
Another influential figure was Thomas F. Ring, president of the St. Vincent de Paul Society and the Catholic Union of Boston. A Boston native of Irish descent, Ring worked for his family's paper export business and was a leading member of several charitable organizations.[18] Ring was also involved in the founding, in 1870, of the Union Institution for Savings, which provided loans to Catholics who were turned away by other banks.[19] Other successful Irish businessmen included Christopher Blake, who started a large furniture factory in Dorchester; Patrick Maguire, founder of The Republic, a weekly political journal; and Dennis Hern, founder of a telegram service that employed 400 messengers.[20]
The Boston Irish Famine Memorial was erected at the corner of Washington and School Streets, on the Freedom Trail, in 1998. One bronze sculpture depicts a starving woman, looking up to the heavens as if to ask "Why?", while her children cling to her. A second sculpture shows the figures hopeful as they land in Boston.[21]
The Know Nothings
In 1854 the Know Nothings took control of the
In Boston's public schools, Catholic children were required to say Protestant prayers and sing Protestant hymns, and their history books were written from an anti-Catholic point of view.[28] In 1859, a Catholic boy who refused to recite the Protestant version of the Ten Commandments was severely beaten, leading to the Eliot School Rebellion. Over 300 boys withdrew from the school, prompting St. Mary's Parish to create a primary school to educate them.[29]
Civil War
Although Boston was an important center of
- The basic conservatism of the Catholic hierarchy, which had previously led it to attack abolitionists for challenging the existing social order was, after Sumter, turned against the Confederacy....Lay Catholics, according to the Church, were to answer the Union call to arms, not out of anti-slavery zeal, but out of "loyal submission to legitimate rule."[33]
By 1870, Boston had 250,000 residents, 56,900 of whom were Irish.
As Irish Americans began to gain political power, there was a resurgence of anti-Catholic nativism. Groups such as the American Protective Association (APA), the Immigration Restriction League, and Loyal Women of American Liberty were active in Boston.[37] The APA introduced legislation aimed at disaccrediting local Catholic schools, while other groups focused on purging Catholics from the School Committee. Area Catholics responded by founding as many Catholic schools (such as St. Augustine's in South Boston, founded in 1895) as their limited resources allowed.[38]
By the end of the century, the city's core neighborhoods had become enclaves of ethnically distinct immigrants; the Irish dominated South Boston and Charlestown.[39]
20th century
In the early 20th century, Boston's Irish Americans were successful in
Few Irish women in Boston were active in the
During this period the Irish often clashed with
Leading politicians
The most prominent figure in Boston politics early in the 20th century was John F. Fitzgerald, a man so well known for his charming personality that he was nicknamed "Honey Fitz". During his two terms as mayor, Fitzgerald made major improvements to the Port of Boston, an investment that brought increased traffic from Europe. Perhaps more significantly, in his later years he taught his grandchildren how to succeed in politics. One of them, John F. Kennedy, would go on to become the 35th president of the United States.
Fitzgerald was succeeded as mayor by another charismatic Irish American,
Historian James M. O'Toole has argued:
- Surely there has been no more flamboyant political personality than James Michael Curley, who dominated politics in Boston for half a century. Whether as incumbent or as candidate, he was always there: alderman, congressman, mayor, governor. People loved him or hated him, but they could not ignore him. He mastered the politics of ethnic and class warfare by defining a manichaean world of "us" versus "them"....He presided over state and city during the challenge of the Depression, leaving behind impressive monuments in stone and public works. In the end, he even managed to enter American political mythology, remembered as much in his fictional incarnations as for his real life.[46]
Urban historian Kenneth T. Jackson has argued that:
- Curley was among the best-known and most colorful of the big-city, paternalistic bosses, Irish, Catholic, and Democratic....Capitalizing on Irish-American resentment against the Republican, Harvard-educated Brahmans who dominated Boston's social and economic life, Curley like to think of himself as "Mayor of the Poor"....Curley helped immigrants to adjust to urban life by finding them jobs, easing their troubles with the law, building them playgrounds and public baths, and attending their weddings and wakes.... Because his feuds with fellow Irish chieftains like John (Honey Fitz) Fitzgerald, Patrick Kennedy, and Martin Lomasney were legendary, he tried as mayor to centralize patronage and make the ward healer obsolete. During the depression he used federal relief and work projects as a tool of his political ambitions. But Curley never built a really solid organization in Boston and never enjoyed the power or statewide influence of other well-known urban bosses. [47]
Depression and World War II
During
Despite Coughlin's popularity with Boston's Irish Catholics, South Boston residents overwhelmingly voted against William Lemke, Coughlin's candidate in the 1936 presidential election.[51]
Exodus to the suburbs
After 1945, a large-scale movement to the suburbs was made possible by the steady upward social mobility of the Irish.[52]
Boston's politics changed after the war.
Irish Americans in Boston responded with alarm to news reports of the
In the 1970s, many of Boston's remaining working class Irish residents became embroiled in the
In 1992, the Irish-American Gay, Lesbian and Bisexual Group of Boston (GLIB) was barred from marching in the city-sponsored
21st century
The Irish no longer dominate Boston politics as they once did, This differs from other areas like metropolitan New York and Illinois where the Irish vote barely differs from the general white vote, and some heavily Irish small towns in Northern New England where it is quite Republican, but is similar to some other places like Gloucester, New Jersey and Butte, Montana which retain strongly liberal and Democratic-leaning Irish populations.
The voting intentions of Irish Americans and other white ethnic groups attracted attention in the 2016 US election. In the Democratic primaries, Boston's Irish were said to break strongly for Hillary Clinton, whose victories in Irish-heavy Boston suburbs may have helped her narrowly carry the state over Bernie Sanders.[63] A 2016 March survey by Irish Central [64] showed that 45% of Irish Americans nationwide supported Trump, although the majority of those in Massachusetts supported Hillary Clinton. The presence of supporters of Trump among Irish and Italian communities which had once themselves been marginalized immigrants generated controversy, with Irish American and Italian American politicians and journalists admonishing their co-ethnics against "myopia" and "amnesia".[65] An October poll by Buzzfeed showed that Irish respondents nationwide split nearly evenly between Trump (40%) and Clinton (39%), with large numbers either undecided or supporting other candidates (21%), and that the Irish were more supportive of Clinton than other West European-descended Americans including fellow Catholic Italian Americans.[66] In early November 2016, six days before the election, another poll by IrishCentral showed Clinton ahead at 52% among Irish Americans, while Trump was at 40% and the third party candidates together had 8%; Irish respondents in Massachusetts similarly favored Clinton by majority.[67] In the official 2016 election results, Irish-heavy Boston suburbs including on the South Shore witnessed swings to the left (Scituate: +19.5% D, Cohasset: +32.8% D, Milton: +26.6% D, etc.) even as the country as a whole moved right. This caused many of the most heavily Irish-descended communities in the country, such as Scituate, to flip from split or Republican-voting to Democrat-voting by significant margins (Scituate: +18% D, Hull: +21% D, Cohasset: +24% D, Milton: +41% D). Despite voting against Trump, many of these same communities had some of the highest levels of opposition to the legalization of marijuana, a typically socially conservative position.
The Catholic Church no longer has as much influence as it once did over Irish Americans in Boston.[68] Boston has not entirely lost its regional Irish identity: the city remains a popular destination for Irish immigrants, students, and businesses. South Boston still holds an annual St. Patrick's Day parade, Boston College offers an Irish Studies program, and organizations such as the Irish Cultural Centre help to maintain a connection with Ireland.[69] In 2013, Boston elected a first-generation Irish-American mayor, Marty Walsh.
Culture
Religion
The vast majority of the Irish immigrants who arrived in Boston in the 19th century were Roman Catholic. The Catholic Church with its tradition of
The first New England native to be ordained to the Catholic priesthood was
In 2002, Irish-American and other Catholics were shaken by the
Media
The Pilot, founded in 1829, is the official newspaper of the Archdiocese of Boston. The paper was founded by Bishop Benedict Joseph Fenwick, the second bishop of Boston, at a time of increased Irish immigration to the United States. It featured a "missing friends" section and kept immigrants apprised of news from Ireland.[76] Early editors included Patrick Donahoe and John Boyle O'Reilly.
The Boston Irish Reporter, founded in 1990, is an Irish-American monthly newspaper owned and operated by Boston Neighborhood News, Inc., of Dorchester.[77]
Arts and entertainment
In the mid-20th century, when Roxbury was still an Irish neighborhood, thousands of Bostonians regularly flocked to dance halls in then-Dudley Square (now Nubian Square)—the Dudley Street Opera House, Hibernian Hall, the Intercolonial, the Rose Croix, and Winslow Hall—to socialize and enjoy traditional Irish music.[78] The dance halls have closed, but the influence of Irish music in Boston has continued. Accordionist Joe Derrane was inducted into the Comhaltas Ceoltóirí Éireann Hall of Fame in 1998 for his contribution to Irish traditional music. A number of Celtic punk bands, such as Dropkick Murphys, originated in Boston. BCMFest, Boston's annual week-long Celtic Music Festival, features local musicians of Irish, Scottish, and other Celtic traditions,[79] and many Boston pubs, such as the Black Rose on State Street, regularly feature live Irish music.[80] Boston hosted the 43rd World Irish Dancing Championships in 2013.[81]
Rugby is popular with the Irish community in Boston. The
Discrimination and stereotyping
Irish immigrants to the U.S. in the 19th century faced a combination of anti-immigrant, anti-Catholic, and specifically
In cases of simple anti-Catholic bigotry, other ethnic groups were also affected: for example, the nuns who lived in the Ursuline convent in Charlestown, which was burned down by
In 1837, the same year as the
The Irish who arrived during the famine years were among the poorest and least welcome immigrants in Boston. In 1850, a group of African Americans living on Elm Street signed a petition to keep the Irish out of their neighborhood.[89] Advertisements for domestic servants sometimes stipulated "a Protestant woman", implying that an Irish Protestant would be acceptable; others specifically warned, "no Irish need apply".[90]
After the Civil War, Irish Bostonians found that the prejudice against them had lessened somewhat. The Massachusetts legislature repealed the law requiring a two-year waiting period before new citizens could vote, and passed a bill effectively declaring that Catholic students could no longer be compelled to read from the King James Bible. Soon afterwards, city officials announced that patients at Boston City Hospital could be attended by the clergy of their choice. By that time, however, the damage had been done; according to historian Thomas H. O'Connor, the bitter hostilities of the 19th century had created divisions that lasted well into the 20th.[91]
Demographics
People of
Notable Irish Americans from Boston
- Ben Affleck (b. 1972), actor, filmmaker
- Casey Affleck (b. 1975), actor and director
- Fred Allen (1894–1956), comedian
- Marcella Boveri (1863–1950), biologist; first woman to graduate from MIT
- Jacob Bannon (b. 1976), musician and graphic artist
- Whitey Bulger (1929-2018), organized crime boss
- Mary Beth Cahill (b. 1954), political consultant
- Andrew Carney (1794–1864), entrepreneur, philanthropist
- Ken Casey of Dropkick Murphys (b. 1969), musician
- Thomas Cass (1821–1862), Civil War colonel
- Molly Childers (1875–1964), writer, Irish nationalist
- Lenny Clarke (b. 1953), comedian
- John F. Collins (1919–1995), 41st mayor
- Patrick Collins (1844–1905), 32nd mayor
- Hal Connolly (1931–2010), Olympic athlete
- James Brendan Connolly (1868–1957), first modern Olympic champion
- John Singleton Copley (1738–1815), portraitist
- James Michael Curley (1874–1958), 35th mayor; served four terms
- Jane Curtin (b. 1946), actress and comedian
- Richard Cushing (1895–1970), Archbishop of Boston, Cardinal
- Daley and Halligan, defendants in controversial 1806 murder case
- Joe Derrane (1930–2016), Irish accordionist
- Patrick Donahoe (1811–1901), publisher
- Brian J. Donnelly (b. 1946), Congressman, U.S. Ambassador
- Julia Duff (1859–1932), educator and community leader
- Chris Evans (b. 1981), actor
- John F. Fitzgerald (1863–1950), 33rd mayor; mentor of John F. Kennedy
- John Bernard Fitzpatrick (1812–1866), first Irish bishop of Boston
- Thomas Flatley (1931–2008), real estate developer, philanthropist
- Raymond Flynn (b. 1939), 43rd mayor; ambassador to the Holy See
- Margaret Foley (1875–1957), suffragist
- Patrick Gilmore (1829–1892), composer and bandmaster
- Ann Glover (?–1688), last person to be hanged as a witch in Boston
- Paul Guilfoyle (b. 1949), actor
- Louise Imogen Guiney (1861–1920), poet and essayist
- Patrick Robert Guiney (1835–1877), Civil War hero
- Louise Day Hicks (1916–2003), politician, opponent of busing
- John B. Hynes(1897–1970), 40th mayor
- The Kennedy family
- Edward Lawrence Logan (1875–1939), judge, general, politician
- Denis Leary (b. 1957), actor, comedian
- Dennis Lehane (b. 1965), author
- Martin Lomasney (1859–1933), political boss
- Stephen F. Lynch(b. 1955), U.S. Congressman
- Michael Patrick MacDonald (b. 1966), author and activist
- Frederick Mansfield (1877–1958), 38th mayor
- Edward Markey(1946-present), U.S. Senator from Massachusetts
- John McCarthy (1927–2011), artificial intelligence pioneer
- William J. McCarthy (1919–1998), labor leader
- John W. McCormack(1891–1980), politician, speaker of the House
- George F. McGinnis(1826–1910), Civil War general
- John J. McGinty III (1940–2014), Medal of Honor recipient
- Mary McGrory (1918–2004), Pulitzer Prize-winning journalist
- Joe Moakley (1927–2001), politician; led the Moakley Commission
- Barbara Mullen (1914–1979), actress
- Brian Noonan, Stanley Cup-winning hockey player
- Conan O'Brien (b. 1963), television host
- Hugh O'Brien (1827–1895), 27th mayor; first Irish mayor of Boston
- Sister Mary Anthony O'Connell (1814–1897), Civil War nurse
- William Henry O'Connell (1859–1944), Archbishop of Boston, Cardinal
- Julia O'Connor (1890–1972), labor leader
- Thomas H. O'Connor (1923–2012), "the dean of Boston historians"
- Mike O'Malley (b. 1966), actor
- Tip O'Neill (1912–1994), politician, speaker of the House
- John Boyle O'Reilly (1844–1890), poet, newspaper editor
- Mary Kenney O'Sullivan (1864–1943), labor leader
- Kathleen O'Toole (b. 1954), Boston's first female police commissioner
- Amy Poehler (b. 1971), actress and comedian
- John E. Powers (1910–1998), Massachusetts senate president
- John Slattery (b. 1962), actor
- Anne Sullivan (1866–1936), teacher of Helen Keller
- James Sullivan (1744–1808), Massachusetts governor
- John L. Sullivan (1858–1918), heavyweight boxing champion
- Frances Sweeney (1908–1944), newspaper editor and activist
- Maura Tierney (b. 1965), actress
- Daniel J. Tobin (1875–1955), labor leader
- Maurice J. Tobin (1901–1953), 39th mayor; 56th Governor of Massachusetts, U.S. Secretary of Labor
- Patsy Touhey (1865–1923), uilleann piper
- Donnie Wahlberg (b. 1969), actor and singer
- Mark Wahlberg (b. 1971), actor
- David I. Walsh (1872–1947) Massachusetts governor, U.S. senator
- Marian Walsh (b. ?), politician and educator
- Marty Walsh (b. 1967), 45th mayor, U.S. Secretary of Labor
- Kevin White(1929–2012), 42nd mayor; served four terms
- John Joseph Williams (1822–1907), Boston's first Catholic archbishop
See also
References
Citations
- ^ Cullen (1889), p. 23.
- ^ "Catholics in a Puritan Atlantic:The liminality of empire’s edge".
- ^ O'Connor (1995), p. 3-5
- ^ Cullen (1889), p. 24.
- ^ Byrne (2008) p. 551.
- ^ Quinlin (2013), pp. 7-8.
- ^ O'Brien (1919), pp. 210, 224.
- ^ O'Connor (1995), pp. 12-13.
- ^ O'Connor (1995), pp. 43-45.
- ^ O'Connor (1995), pp. 48-49.
- ^ Stevens, Peter F. (March 1, 2013). "For many famine Irish, Deer Island proved their only glimpse of America". The Boston Irish Reporter.
- ^ Ryan (1979), pp. 2-3.
- ^ a b "Irish Potato Famine: Gone to America". The History Place.
- ^ Byrne (2008) p. 552.
- ^ O'Connor (1995), p. 37.
- ^ Stevens, Peter F. (April 29, 2015). "One of God's Best Noblemen". Dorchester Reporter.
- ^ Ryan (1979), p. 165.
- ^ "Thomas F. Ring Papers". ArchiveGrid.
- ^ Cullen (1889), pp. 403-404.
- ^ Cullen (1889), pp. 408-409, 413, 419.
- ^ "Boston Irish Famine Memorial". Boston.com. Retrieved 2008-10-31.
- ^ Cullen (1889), pp. 74-75.
- ^ O'Connor (1995), p. 76.
- ^ O'Connor (1995), pp. 77, 80.
- ^ "Erin go Barney". The Boston Globe. March 15, 2011.
- ^ "St. Gregory's 150th is full of meaning beyond the church itself". The Dorchester Reporter. October 4, 2012.
- ^ "A Resume of Intolerant Movements". The Jewish Veteran. 7–9: 92. 1940.
- ^ O'Connor (1995), p. 80.
- ^ Ryan (1979), p. 59.
- ^ Brian Kelly, "Ambiguous Loyalties: The Boston Irish, Slavery, and the Civil War." Historical Journal of Massachusetts 24.2 (1996): 165+, quoting p 168. online
- ISBN 978-1555534615.
- ISBN 978-1555534615.
- ^ Kelly, p 191.
- ^ Byrne (2008), p. 552.
- ^ O'Connor (1995), p. 290.
- ^ O'Connor (1995), pp. 119, 121-122, 141.
- ^ O'Connor (1995), pp. 153, 156.
- ^ Ryan (1979), pp. 60-65.
- ^ Whyte (1939), p. 631.
- ^ O'Connor (1995), pp. 223-224; Ryan (1979), p. 80.
- ^ "Back Bay West". Boston Women's Heritage Trail.
- ^ O'Connor (1995), p. 192.
- ^ Ryan (1979), pp. 169-171; Whyte (1939) pp. 626, 629
- ^ O'Connor (1995), pp. 179-195, 204-205
- ^ Langone (1994), p. 8.
- ^ James M. O'Toole. "Review" in The New England Quarterly 66#3 (1993) pp. 500-502
- ^ Kenneth T. Jackson, "Curley, James Michael," in John A. Garraty, ed., Encyclopedia of American Biography (1974) pp 246-247.
- ^ Norwood (2003), p. 233; O'Connor (1995), p. 204.
- ^ Goldstein, Jenny (2001). "Transcending Boundaries: Boston's Catholics and Jews, 1929–1965". Boston College Center for Christian-Jewish Learning.
- ^ Currier (1944), p. 427.
- ^ Stack, quoted in O'Connor (1981), p. 650.
- ^ Morton D. Winsberg, "The Suburbanization of the Irish in Boston, Chicago and New-York." Eire-Ireland 21.3 (1986): 90-104.
- ^ O'Connor (1995), pp. 212, 216, 226-227.
- ^ "The IRA and Sinn Fein: America and the Conflict". PBS.
- ^ O'Connor (1995), p. 293.
- ^ "'It Was Like A War Zone': Busing in Boston". WBUR News. September 4, 2014.
- ^ MacDonald, Michael Patrick (2014). "Whitey Bulger, Boston Busing, and Southie's Lost Generation". Schuster Institute for Investigative Journalism at Brandeis University.
- ^ Meagher (2007), pp. 638-639.
- ^ Greenhouse, Linda (June 20, 1995). "High Court Lets Parade in Boston Bar Homosexuals". New York Times.
- ^ Peter, Jennifer (October 5, 2004). "Move Over, Irish; Italians Now Rule Boston". Free Republic. Associated Press.
- ^ "Scott Brown Woos South Boston". The Boston Globe. April 18, 2012.
- ^ Meagher (2007), p. 632.
- ^ Carswell, Simon (10 March 2016). "US election: Did the Irish swing Massachusetts for Hillary Clinton". The Irish Times. Retrieved 7 March 2017.
- ^ Egan, Casey (17 March 2016). "In a poll of Irish readers, Donald Trump has the edge on Hillary Clinton". Irish Central. Retrieved 7 March 2017.
- ^ "Historical Myopia: As a majority of Irish Americans reportedly embrace Trump, lessons hard-learned by our immigrant ancestors are evaporating". The Boston Irish Reporter. September 6, 2016.
- ^ Aldhous, Peter; Singer-Vine, Jeremy (9 October 2017). "Which White People Support Trump?". Buzzfeed. Retrieved 7 March 2017.
- ^ "Clinton would win Irish American vote in 2016 election, our poll results show". Irish Central. 2 November 2016. Retrieved 7 March 2017.
- ^ O'Connor (1995), p. 298.
- ^ Byrne (2008), p. 107.
- ^ Ryan (1979) pp. 4-13.
- ^ Ryan (1979), p. 77.
- ^ "Archdiocese of Boston". Catholic Hierarchy.
- ^ "Boston". Catholic Encyclopedia.
- ^ "Abuse in the Catholic Church". Archived from the original on May 18, 2008. Retrieved March 21, 2009.
- ^ "Challenging the Church". PBS. Archived from the original on June 1, 2002.
- ^ Byrne (2008), p. 106.
- ^ "About the Boston Irish Reporter". The Boston Irish Reporter.
- ^ Gedutis (2005), p. 11.
- ^ "Boston's Celtic Music Festival". BCMFest.
- ^ "Boston's Best Bets for Irish Music". CBS Boston. March 15, 2012.
- ^ "World Irish Dancing Championship in Boston". The Boston Globe. April 1, 2013.
- ^ "This faux-trailer for Seth Meyers's Boston Accent movie is literally the most Boston thing ever". Boston.com.
- ^ "Podcast: Documentary on Newstalk: Clear The Floor". Newstalk.
- ^ "What's in a Name?". Boston Celtics. August 24, 2012.
- ^ O'Connor (1995), pp. xv, 16, 94.
- ^ Cushing, Richard (October 19, 1958). "150 Years of the Boston Archdiocese". The Boston Globe.
- ^ "The Daley & Halligan Bicentennial Commemoration". Historic Northampton.
- ^ O'Connor (1995), pp. 49-52.
- ^ Ryan (1979), p. 150.
- ^ See "No Irish Need Apply" in James Patrick Byrne, Philip Coleman, and Jason Francis King, eds. Ireland and the Americas: Culture, Politics, and History: a Multidisciplinary Encyclopedia. Vol. 3 (ABC-CLIO, 2008) pp 680-83.
- ^ O'Connor (1995), pp. 93-94.
- ^ "American FactFinder". United States Census. Archived from the original on 2020-02-13. Retrieved 2015-09-16.
- ^ "Just How Irish is Boston?". The Boston Globe. March 17, 2016.
- ^ "The most Irish town in America is named using US census data". Irish Central. July 22, 2016.
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