History of Ivory Coast
History of Ivory Coast |
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Africa portal |
Human arrival in
Prehistory and early history
Little is known about the original inhabitants of
The Sudanic empires also became centers of Islamic learning.
Ghana was the earliest of the Sudan empires; it flourished in present-day eastern Mauritania from the fourth to the 13th century.[3] At the peak of its power in the 11th century, its realms extended from the Atlantic Ocean to Timbuctu.[3] After the decline of Ghana Empire, the Mali Empire grew into a powerful Muslim state, reaching its peak in the early 14th century.[3] The territory of the Mali Empire in Ivory Coast was limited to the northwest corner around Odienné.[3]
The Songhai Empire flourished there between the 14th and 16th centuries.[3] Songhai was weakened by internal discord, leading to factional warfare.[3] This discord spurred the migrations of peoples southward toward the forest belt.[3]
The dense rainforest in the south created barriers to large-scale political organizations like those in the north.[3] In the south, people lived in villages or village clusters whose contacts with the outside world came through long-distance traders.[5] These villagers subsisted on agriculture and hunting.[5]
Pre-European era
Five important states flourished in Ivory Coast in the pre-European era.
In the mid-18th century in east-central Ivory Coast, other Akan groups fleeing the Ashanti Empire established a
In the early 18th century, the
Trade with Europe and the Americas
Because of its location between Europe and the imagined treasures of the
Ivory Coast, like the rest of West Africa, was subject to these influences but the absence of sheltered harbors along its coastline prevented Europeans from establishing permanent trading posts.[6] Thus, seaborne trade was irregular and played only a minor role in the penetration and eventual conquest of Ivory Coast by Europeans.[7] The slave trade, in particular, had little effect on the peoples of Ivory Coast.[7] A profitable trade in ivory existed in the 17th century and gave the area its name.[7] However, the resulting decline in elephant population ended the ivory trade by the beginning of the 18th century.[7]
The earliest recorded French voyage to West Africa was in 1483.
In the 18th century, Ivory Coast was invaded by two related
Activity along the coast stimulated European interest in the interior, especially along Senegal and
The defeat of France in the
In 1885, France and Germany brought the European powers with interests in Africa together at the Berlin Conference. The conference helped rationalize what became known as the European scramble for Africa.[10] Prince Otto von Bismarck also wanted a greater role in Africa for Germany, which he thought he could achieve in part by fostering competition between France and Britain.[10] The agreement signed by all conference participants in 1885 stipulated that on the African coastline, only European annexations or spheres of influence that involved effective occupation by Europeans would be recognized.[10] Another agreement in 1890 extended this rule to the interior of Africa and resulted in a rush for territory by France, Britain, Portugal, and Belgium.[10]
Establishment of French rule
Throughout the process of partition, the Africans were little concerned with the occasional European who came wandering by.[11] Many local rulers of small, isolated communities did not understand or, more often, were misled by the French about the significance of treaties that compromised their authority.[11] However, other local leaders thought that the French could solve economic problems or become allies in the event of a dispute with belligerent neighbors.[11] In the end, the loss of sovereignty by the local rulers was often the result of their inability to counter French deception and military force, rather than a result of support for French encroachment.[11]
French colonial era
Colony of Côte d'Ivoire | |||||||||
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1893–1960 | |||||||||
Flag | |||||||||
French colony | |||||||||
President of France | |||||||||
• 1893–1894 | Sadi Carnot | ||||||||
• 1959–1960 | Charles de Gaulle | ||||||||
Colonial governor | |||||||||
• 1893–1895 | Louis-Gustave Binger (first) | ||||||||
• 1960 | Yves Guéna (last) | ||||||||
Historical era | Second World War, Decolonisation of Africa, Cold War | ||||||||
• Côte d'Ivoire officially becomes a French colony | 10 March 1893 | ||||||||
• Accession to French West Africa | 1904 | ||||||||
• Ivory Coast becomes an autonomous republic within the French Community | December 1958 | ||||||||
• Independence from France | 7 August 1960 | ||||||||
Currency | French West African franc (1903–1945); West African CFA franc (1945–1960) (XOF) | ||||||||
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Côte d'Ivoire officially became a
In 1900, France imposed a
From 1904 to 1958, Ivory Coast was a constituent unit of the
In 1908,
Assimilation was practiced in Ivory Coast to the extent that a small number of Westernised Ivorians were granted the right to apply for French citizenship after 1930.[17] However, most Ivorians were classified as French subjects with no political rights under the principle of association.[17][14] Moreover, they were drafted for work in mines, on plantations, as porters, and on public projects as part of their tax responsibility.[14] They were also expected to serve in the military and were subject to the indigénat, a separate system of laws for Africans.[14]
In World War II, the
Until 1958, governors appointed in Paris administered the colony of Ivory Coast, using a system of direct, centralized administration that left little room for Ivorian participation in policymaking.[17] The French colonial administration also adopted divide-and-rule policies, applying ideas of assimilation only to the educated elite.[17] The French were interested in ensuring that the small but influential elite was sufficiently satisfied with the status quo to refrain from any anti-French sentiment.[17] Although strongly opposed to the practices of association, educated Ivorians believed that they would achieve equality with their French peers through assimilation rather than through complete independence from France, a change that would eliminate the enormous economic advantages of remaining a French possession.[17] After postwar reforms, the Ivorian leaders realized that assimilation implied the superiority of the French over the Ivorians and that discrimination and inequality would end only with independence.[17]
Independence
As early as 1944, Charles de Gaulle proposed to change France's politics and take "the road of a new era."[19] In 1946, the French Empire was converted into the French Union which was superseded by the French Community in 1958.[19] In December 1958, Ivory Coast became an autonomous republic within the French Community as a result of a referendum on 7 August that brought community status to all members of the old Federation of French West Africa (except Guinea, which had voted against the association). On 11 July 1960, France agreed to Ivory Coast becoming fully independent.[19][20] Ivory Coast became independent on 7 August 1960, and permitted its community members to lapse. It established the commercial city Abidjan as its capital.
Ivory Coast's contemporary political history is closely associated with the career of
Houphouët-Boigny first came to political prominence in 1944 as the founder of the
In May 1959, Houphouët-Boigny reinforced his position as a dominant figure in West Africa by leading Ivory Coast,
Houphouët-Boigny was considerably more conservative than most African leaders of the post-colonial period, maintaining close ties to the West and rejecting the leftist and anti-western stance of many leaders at the time. This contributed to the country's economic and political stability. The first multiparty presidential elections were held in October 1990 and Houphouët-Boigny won convincingly. He died on 7 December 1993.
After Houphouët-Boigny
Houphouët-Boigny was succeeded by his deputy Henri Konan Bédié, President of the Parliament. Konan Bédié was 24 December 1999, during the 1999 Ivorian coup d'état by General Robert Guéï, a former army commander who was dismissed by Bédié. This was the first coup d'état in the history of Ivory Coast. An economic downturn followed and the junta promised to return the country to democratic rule in 2000.
Guéï allowed elections to be held the following year. When he lost the election to Laurent Gbagbo, Gué at first refused to accept his defeat. However, street protests forced him to step down, and Gbagbo became president on 26 October 2000.
First Civil War
On 19 September 2002, a rebellion in the north and the west of Ivory Coast flared up and the country was divided into three parts. Mass murders occurred, notably in Abidjan from 25 to 27 March, when government forces killed more than 200 protesters, and on 20 and 21 June in Bouaké and Korhogo, where purges led to the execution of more than 100 people. In 2002, France sent troops to Ivory Coast as peacekeepers. A reconciliation process under international auspices started in 2003. In February 2004, the United Nations established the United Nations Operation in Côte d'Ivoire (UNOCI)
Disarmament was supposed to take place on 15 October 2004, but was a failure. Tensions between Ivory Coast and France increased on 6 November 2004, after Ivorian air strikes killed 9 French peacekeepers and an aid worker.[21] In response, French forces attacked the airport at Yamoussoukro, destroying all airplanes in the Ivorian Air Force. Violent protests erupted in both Abidjan and Yamoussoukro and were marked by violence between Ivorians and French peacekeepers.[22] Thousands of foreigners, especially French nationals, evacuated the two cities. Most of the fighting ended by late 2004, with the country, split between a rebel-held north under the leadership of Guillaume Soro and a government-held south under the leadership of Laurent Gbagbo.
Under this system, the quality of life dropped overall, with an increase in debt and civil unrest. To answer these problems, the concept of "ivoirité" was born, a racist term targeted denying political and economic rights to the Northern immigrants. In March 2007 the two sides signed an agreement to hold fresh elections. However, the elections were delayed until 2010, five years after Gbagbo's term of office expired.
Second Civil War
After northern candidate
International organizations reported numerous instances of human rights violations by both sides, particularly in Duékoué. The United Nations and French forces took military action to protect their forces and civilians. Ouattara's forces arrested Gbagbo at his residence on 11 April 2011.[23]
After the 2011 Civil War
Alassane Ouattara has ruled Ivory Coast since 2010, when he unseated his predecessor Laurent Gbagbo. Ouattara was re-elected in 2015 presidential election.[24] In November 2020, he won a third term in the 2020 presidential election. His opponents boycotted the election, arguing that a third term was illegal.[25] Ivory Coast's Constitutional Council formally ratified Ouattara's re-election to a third term in November 2020.[26]
See also
- History of Africa
- History of West Africa
- List of heads of government of Ivory Coast
- List of heads of state of Ivory Coast
- Politics of Ivory Coast
- Abidjan history and timeline
References
- (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.
- OCLC 5727980
- ^ OCLC 5727980
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- ^ OCLC 44238009. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.).
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: CS1 maint: postscript (link - ^ OCLC 44238009. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.).
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: CS1 maint: postscript (link - ^ OCLC 44238009. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.)
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: CS1 maint: postscript (link - OCLC 44238009. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.).
{{cite encyclopedia}}
: CS1 maint: postscript (link - OCLC 44238009. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.).
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: CS1 maint: postscript (link - ^ OCLC 44238009. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.)
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: CS1 maint: postscript (link - ^ OCLC 44238009. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.).
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: CS1 maint: postscript (link - ^ a b c "What Changed the Ivory Coast from an Example of Economic Development Into a Bloodbath". Docslib. Retrieved 3 April 2022.
- ^ OCLC 44238009. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.).
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- ^ "Slave Emancipation and the Expansion of Islam, 1905–1914 Archived 2013-05-02 at the Wayback Machine". p. 11.
- ^ OCLC 44238009. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.).
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: CS1 maint: postscript (link - ^ "France: The "Loi-Cadre" of June 23, 1956 | Internet History Sourcebooks". Fordham University. Retrieved 3 July 2023.
- ^ a b c "1960: The year of independence". France 24. 14 February 2010. Retrieved 20 September 2019.
- ^ "4 African States Attain Freedom; France Gives Independence to Ivory Coast, Niger, Dahomey, and Volta". New York Times. 12 July 1960.
- ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 20 September 2019.
- ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 20 September 2019.
- TheGuardian.com. 11 April 2011.
- ^ "Ivory Coast's Ouattara re-elected by a landslide". Al Jazeera. 28 October 2015. Retrieved 9 December 2022.
- ^ "Ivory Coast election: Alassane Ouattara wins amid boycott". BBC News. 3 November 2020.
- ^ "Ivory Coast Constitutional Council confirms Ouattara re-election". Al Jazeera. 9 November 2022. Retrieved 9 December 2022.
Further reading
- Chafer, Tony. The End of Empire in French West Africa: France's Successful Decolonization. Berg (2002). ISBN 1-85973-557-6