History of Jainism
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The two main sects of Jainism, the
Origins
The origins of Jainism are obscure.[1][2] The Jains claim their religion to be eternal, and consider Rishabhanatha the founder in the present time-cycle, who lived for 8,400,000 purva years.[3] Rishabhanatha is the first tirthankar among the 24 Tirthankaras.[4][3]
Different scholars have had different views on the origin.
Jainism is considered an independent, pre-Buddhist religion that began c. 700 BCE, although its origins are disputed. Some scholars claim Jainism has its roots in the Indus Valley Civilization, reflecting native spirituality prior to the Indo-Aryan migration into India.
Various seals from Indus Valley Civilizations bear resemblance to Rishabha, the first Jain as the visual representation of Vishnu. Many relics depict Jain symbols, including standing nude male figures, images with serpent-heads, and the bull symbol of Vrshabadeva. .[5][6][7] It is speculated by some scholars that Jain traditions might be going back even beyond the Indus valley civilization, and that Vardhamana rather than being a “founder” per se was, rather, simply a leader and reviver of much older tradition.[8][a][10]
According to a 1925 proposal of
Tirthankaras and lineage
Jain texts and tradition believe in 24 Tirthankaras. They are depicted as five to one hundred times taller than average human beings and to have lived for thousands of years in Jain tradition.[22][21][23] Historians only consider the last two generally based on historical figures of the 1st millennium BCE.[24][11][25] Buddhist sources don't mention Mahavira as a founder of new tradition, but as part of an ascetic Nirgranthas (without knot) tradition. This has led scholars to conclude that Mahavira was not the founder, but a reformer of a tradition just like his predecessor, Parsvanatha.[26]
Mahavira
During the 6th century BCE,
Mahavira left his home at the age of 30 and meditated for 12 years and until he became a ' jina' aka the conqueror
Parshvanatha
There is reasonable historical evidence that the 23rd Tirthankara, Parshvanatha, the predecessor of Mahavira, lived somewhere in the 9th–7th century BCE.[17][29][30][31]
Rishabhanatha
The Vedas mention the name Rishabha.
Lineage
After the nirvana of Parshvanatha, his disciple Subhadatta became the head of the monks. Subhadatta was succeeded by Haridatta, Aryasamudra, Prabha and lastly Kesi.[38] Uttaradhyayana, a Svetambara text have records of a dialogue between Mahavira's disciple and Kesi; Kesi along with his community accepted Mahavira as a tirthankara and merged with him as a result.[39]
The Tirthankaras are believed in the Jain tradition to have attained omniscience, known as
Schism
The two main sects of Jainism, the
However, according to Digambaras, during
Vallabhi council was formed at 454 CE.[51] At this council, Svetambara accepted their texts as the scriptures of Jainism. The Digambara sect completely rejects these scriptures as not being authentic. This 5th century event solidified the schism between these major traditions within Jainism.[43][44]
Early Jain images from Mathura depict Digambara iconography until late fifth century A.D. where Svetambara iconography starts appearing.[52]
Ajivika
Jainism is related to an extinct Indian religious tradition named Ājīvika. The latter is mentioned in ancient texts of Buddhism and Jainism, and it is attributed to
The Jain Bhagavati Sutra refers to the Ajivika founder as Gosala Mankhaliputta ("son of Mankhali"). The text depicts Gosala as having been a disciple of Mahavira's for a period of six years, after which the two fell out and parted ways.[53] Śvetāmbara text Bhagavati Sutra mentions a debate, disagreement and then "coming to blows" between factions led by Mahavira and by Gosala.[53] Jainism also flourished under the Nanda Empire (424–321 BCE).[54] Both Ajivika and Jainism championed asceticism. This is an earliest documented schism between Mahavira and a likely disciple of his.[55]
The earliest archeological evidence is in the form of a naked headless torso discovered in 1937 near Patna (Bihar), which is called the "Lohanipur Torso". This has been dated by modern scholarship to about 2nd-century BCE. It is a highly polished stone artwork of precise human form, but it is unclear if it belongs to Jainism, Ajivikas or some other Indian religious ascetic tradition.[56][note 2] While it is not Buddhist, and is naked like the Jinas, it may also not be a Jain statue because it lacks the Jain iconography, and because similar high-quality Jain artworks are missing for many centuries. Further, Jain artworks that have been found from the same period in north India show quite different forms and symbols. It may belong to Ajivikas or another ancient Indian naked ascetic tradition, but ruling out that it may indeed reflect Jainism arts in 2nd-century BCE is also not possible.[56][58] Ancient naked terracotta statues discovered in the 1970s near Ayodhya are similar to the Lohanipur Torso, but terracotta arts are also missing in Jaina tradition and the Ayodhya terracotta statues too lack Jain iconography.[56][58]
Political history
Information regarding the political history of Jainism is certain. Jains consider the kings Bimbisara, also known as Shrenik popularly (c. 558–491 BCE), Ajatashatru (c. 492–460 BCE), Ashoka and Udayin (c. 460-440 BCE) of the Haryanka dynasty as patrons of Jainism.[54]
Mauryan Empire
Ashoka (273–232 BCE), the grandson of Chandragupta followed and was inspired by Jain ideologies. There is a reference to Jains in the edicts of Ashoka where the duties of dhammamahatma (law-authorities) are dealt with.[59] The inscription reads:[59]
Piyadasi, who is loved by the gods spoke thus: My supervisors of law are dealing with many connected with mercy, also with those which concern the ascetics and those which concern the householders. They deal with the religious brotherhoods as well. I have made arrangements so that they will deal with the matter of Sangha (of the Niganthas (Jainas)); similarly, I have made arrangements so they will deal with the Brahmans and also with the
Ajivikas; I have also made arrangements that they deal with languids (Buddhists); I have made arrangements so that they will deal with (all) the religious brotherhoods.
Ashoka's grandson Samprati (c. 224–215 BCE), is said to have also promoted Jainism along with a Jain monk named Suhasti according to the tradition. He lived in a place called Ujjain.[60] It is believed that he erected many Jain temples, and the temples whose origins are forgotten were often ascribed to him in later times.[60]
Mahameghavahana dynasty
Emperor Kharavela of Mahameghavahana dynasty, was religiously tolerant, while being a patron of Jainism. Inscriptions found in Udayagiri mentions that he erected a statue of the Rishabhanatha, the first Tirthankara and made cave-dwellings for monks.[61] In first century CE, Acharya Bhutabali lead a group of Jain monks to the caves surrounding Madurai for spreading Jainism.[62]
According to the Ashokavadana, a non-Buddhist in
Indo-Scythians
According to a chronicle of von Glasenapp,
According to another Jain legend, the King
Interaction with other religions
Jainism co-existed with Buddhism and Hinduism in ancient and medieval India. Many of its historic temples were built near Buddhist and Hindu temples in the 1st millennium CE.[71]
Buddhism
Buddhist scriptures record that during Prince Siddhartha's ascetic life (before he attained enlightenment and became Buddha) he undertook many fasts, penances, and austerities, mentioned in the Jain tradition. In
Thus far, Sariputta, did I go in my penance? I went without clothes. I licked my food from my hands. I took no food that was brought or meant especially for me. I accepted no invitation to a meal.
The Buddha tried ascetic methods found in Jainism, abandoned that path and taught the Middle Way instead.[76] Many suttas of Buddhism got stated about the Nigantha Nataputta. The Samaññaphala Sutta (D i.47), for example, states:
Nigantha Nataputta answered The King question with fourfold restraint. "When this was said, Nigantha Nataputta said to me, 'Great king, there is the case where the Nigantha — the knotless one — is restrained with the fourfold restraint. And how is the Nigantha restrained with the fourfold restraint? There is the case where the Nigantha is obstructed by all waters, conjoined with all waters, cleansed with all waters, suffused with all waters. This is how the Nigantha is restrained with the fourfold restraint. When the Nigantha — a knotless one — is restrained with such a fourfold restraint, he is said to be a Knotless One (Nigantha), a son of Nata (Nataputta), with his self perfected, his self controlled, his self established.'"Thus, when asked about a fruit of the contemplative life, visible here and now, Nigantha Nataputta answered with fourfold restraint."[77]
The Buddha disagreed with the Mahavira's concept of soul or self (jiva). Similarly, he found the Jain theory of karma and rebirths incompatible and inflexible with his own ideas for these.[78]
Beyond the times of the Mahavira and the Buddha, the two ascetic Sramana religions competed for followers, as well merchant trade networks that sustained them.[79][80] Their mutual interaction, along with those of Hindu traditions have been significant, and in some cases the titles of the Buddhist and Jaina texts are the same or similar but present different doctrines.[81] Jainism had a tradition of itinerant mendicants with less emphasis on a monastery style living for monks. Buddhism, in contrast, emphasized sangha or monasteries. According to Akira Hirakawa, the monasteries were easier targets for destruction and elimination, and Buddhism almost vanished from the Indian subcontinent after the Muslim invasions. In contrast, the roaming mendicants and the Jain tradition survived during this period of religious violence and turmoil.[79]
Hinduism
According to Jain texts, some of the Hindu gods are blood relatives of legendary tirthankara. Neminatha, the 22nd tirthankara for example is a cousin of Krishna in Jain Puranas and other texts.
Shaivism
Shaivite poets like
According to a Shaivite legend, an alleged massacre of 8,000 Jain monks happened in the 7th century. This was claimed for the first time in an 11th-century
Lingayatism
According to British era scholar von Glasenapp, during the 11th century,
According to
The
Tirthankaras in Hindu temples
The Jain and Hindu communities have often been very close and mutually accepting. Some Hindu temples have included a Jain Tirthankara within its premises in a place of honour.[103][104] Similarly numerous temple complexes feature both Hindu and Jain monuments, with Badami cave temples and Khajuraho among some of the most well known.[105][106]
Islam
The Muslim who conquered parts of Northern India, like
Jainism faced persecution during and after the
Jain scholars of the Mughal era debated religious ideas with Muslim scholars.[111] Hiravijaya, in chapters thirteen and fourteen of Hirasaubhagya for example, presents the interaction and views of the two religions. The text mentions him stating to a Muslim sheikh, that "a creator god (called khuda) is impossible, one who presides over others, allots reward and punishment", instead it is karma that determines man's ultimate destiny. He asserts that the two religions are different, Islam involves violence, while Jainism is based on compassion.[111] Jain scholars were supportive of Akbar and Jain texts praise his religious tolerance.[111]
According to Paul Dundas, in and after the 12th century, Muslim destruction caused Jain scholars to revisit their theory of Ahimsa (non-violence). For example, Jinadatta Suri in the 12th century, wrote during a time of widespread destruction of Jain temples and blocking of Jaina pilgrimage by Muslim armies, that "anybody engaged in a religious activity who was forced to fight and kill somebody" in self-defense would not lose merit.[112] After the 12th century, the temples, pilgrimage and naked ascetic digambara tradition of Jainism suffered persecution during the Muslim rule, with the exception of Akbar whose religious tolerance and support for Jainism led to a temporary ban on animal killing during the Jain religious festival of Paryusan.[113]
Christianity
British era Christian invaders wrote about Jainism, but typically stereotyping it as "a coldly austere religion of pure asceticism, with no 'heart', preoccupied only with not harming microorganisms". The discussion emphasized the ascetic extremes, rather than the values. They criticized the Jain theories on non-violence stating that this value is essentially equal to "doing nothing", because it entails not "hurting" other beings, but does not demand the "positive ethic of helping someone suffering".[114] According to Jeffrey Long, these missionary writings were a distortion of Jain theology because Jainism does teach, value and has a historic record of charity, and compassion is an essential value in Jainism for spiritual development.[114]
Some Christian writers critiqued Jainism for its cosmology, with extraordinary time scales and cyclic time periods. However, Long states, the genesis theories in Christianity and other religions suffer from equivalent issues and they present the world to have been created few thousand years ago, in a short period of time.[115] Similarly, historic Christian writers critiqued the lack of "saving grace" in Jainism. For example, Sinclair Stevenson wrote in 1915 that the "heart of Jainism was empty because it lacked the saving grace of Jesus".[116]
British rule
The British colonial rule era, according to von Glasenapp in 1925, allowed Jains to pursue their religion without persecutions they had faced before.[117] Further, the British government promoted trade, which allowed members of the Jain community to pursue their traditional economic activity. According to von Glasenapp, Jain businessmen and Jainism thrived during this period, and they used their financial success during the British Raj to rebuild Jain temples. For example, the Dharmanatha temple was built in Ahmedabad (Gujarat) in 1848.[117] The British census reported a drop in Jain population between 1891 and 1921, from 1.417 million to 1.179 million. This may be from the Jain conversions to Hinduism and causes such as famines and epidemics.[117][118][119]
M. Whitney Kelting in 2001 states, in contrast, that in Gujarat and Maharashtra, British merchants actually took over the trades that Jains traditionally engaged in. This was in part responsible for major Jain community migrations during the British colonial era.[118]
The British colonial government in India, as well as Indian princely states, passed laws that made monks roaming naked in streets a crime, one that led to arrest. This law particularly impacted the Digambara tradition monks.[120] The Akhil Bharatiya Jaina Samaj opposed this law, and argued that it interfered with the religious rights of Jains. Acharya Shantisagar entered Bombay (now Mumbai) in 1927, but was forced to cover his body. He then led an India-wide tour as the naked monk with his followers, to various Digambara sacred sites, and he was welcomed by kings of the Maharashtra provinces.[120] Shantisagar fasted to oppose the restrictions imposed on Digambara monks by British Raj and prompted their discontinuance.[121] The colonial-era laws that banned naked monks were abolished after India gained independence.[122]
Literature
It is unclear when Jain scriptures were written down, with oldest surviving Jain manuscripts dated to the 11th-century CE.
In course of time, the canons of Svetambara were also progressively lost.[126] About 980 to 993 years after the death of Mahavira, a council was held at Vallabhi in Gujarat. This was headed by Devardhi Ksamashramana.[126][127] It was found that the 12th Anga, the Ditthivaya, was lost too. The other Angas were written down.[126] This is a traditional account of schism.[128] According to Svetambara, there were eight schisms (Nihvana).[129]
According to Digambara tradition,
Umaswati's Tattvartha Sutras are accepted as authoritative texts by all Jain traditions.[132][133] Kundakunda's mystical texts are revered in the Digambara tradition.[134] A text on differences between Digambara and Svetambara sects of Jainism was composed by Hemraj Pande in 1652 named Chaurasi Bol.[135]
See also
Notes
- ^ For example: ऋषभं मा समानानां सपत्नानां विषासहिम् । हन्तारं शत्रूणां कृधि विराजं गोपतिं गवाम् ॥१॥ – Rigveda 10.166.1[34] Other examples of Rishabha appearing in the Vedic literature include verses 6.16.47 of Rigveda, 9.4.14-15 of Atharvaveda, 3.7.5.13 and 4.7.10.1 of Taittiriya Brahmana, etc.[35]
- ^ A Svetambara text refers to Hindu ascetics where both its monks and nuns chose nudity as a part of their monastic lifestyle.[57]
References
Citations
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- ^ Sangave 2001, p. 20-11.
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- ISBN 81-208-1376-6
- Oliver Freiberger (2006). Asceticism and Its Critics: Historical Accounts and Comparative Perspectives. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-1997-1901-3.
- Thapar, Romila (1961), Aśoka and the Decline of the Mauryas, Oxford University Press
- S2CID 36798109
- Vyas, Dr. R. T., ed. (1995), Studies in Jaina Art and Iconography and Allied Subjects, The Director, Oriental Institute, on behalf of the Registrar, M.S. University of Baroda, Vadodara, ISBN 81-7017-316-7
- ISBN 81-208-0265-9
- ISBN 978-81-208-0739-6
Further reading
- ISBN 978-93-325-6996-6
External links
- Jain, Kailasha Chandra. "Jainism Literature Center – Antiquity of Jainism".