History of Kashmir

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The history of Kashmir is intertwined with the history of the broader Indian subcontinent in South Asia with influences from the surrounding regions of Central, and East Asia. Historically, Kashmir referred to only the Kashmir Valley of the western Himalayas.[1] Today, it denotes a larger area that includes the Indian-administered union territories of Jammu and Kashmir (which consists of Jammu and the Kashmir Valley) and Ladakh, the Pakistan-administered territories of Azad Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan, and the Chinese-administered regions of Aksai Chin and the Trans-Karakoram Tract.

In the first half of the 1st millennium, the Kashmir region became an important centre of

Utpala and the Lohara
dynasties, ending in mid-14th century.

The spread of Islam in Kashmir began during the 13th century, accelerated under Muslim rule during the 14th and 15th centuries, and led to the eventual decline of the Kashmir Shaivism in Kashmir.

In 1339,

First Anglo-Sikh War, the Treaty of Lahore was signed and upon the purchase of the region from the British under the Treaty of Amritsar, the Raja of Jammu, Gulab Singh, became the new ruler of Kashmir. The rule of his descendants, under the paramountcy (or tutelage) of the British Crown, lasted until 1947, when the former princely state
became a disputed territory, now administered by three countries: India, Pakistan, and the People's Republic of China.

Etymology

According to

Hindu mythology, the lake was drained by the great rishi or sage, Kashyapa, son of Marichi, son of Brahma, by cutting the gap in the hills at Baramulla (Varaha-mula). When Kashmir had been drained, Kashyapa asked Brahmins to settle there. This is still the local tradition, and in the existing physical condition of the country, there is some ground for the story which has taken this form. The name of Kashyapa is by history and tradition connected with the draining of the lake, and the chief town or collection of dwellings in the valley was called Kashyapa-pura, which has been identified with Kaspapyros of Hecataeus (apud Stephanus of Byzantium) and Kaspatyros of Herodotus (3.102, 4.44).[3][4] Kashmir is also believed to be the country meant by Ptolemy's Kaspeiria.[5] Cashmere is an archaic spelling of Kashmir, and in some countries it is still spelled this way.[citation needed
]

Historiography

Nilamata Purana (complied c. 500–600 CE)[6] contains accounts of Kashmir's early history. However, being a Puranic source, it has been argued that it suffers from a degree of inconsistency and unreliability.[7][a] Kalhana's Rajatarangini (River of Kings), all the 8000 Sanskrit verses of which were completed by 1150 CE, chronicles the history of Kashmir's dynasties from earlier times to the 12th century.[8][9] It relies upon traditional sources like Nilmata Purana, inscriptions, coins, monuments, and Kalhana's personal observations borne out of political experiences of his family.[10][8] Towards the end of the work mythical explanations give way to rational and critical analyses of dramatic events between 11th and 12th centuries, for which Kalhana is often credited as "India's first historian".[7][8]

During the reign of Muslim kings in Kashmir, three supplements to Rajatarangini were written by

Abul Fazl.[12] Baharistan-i-Shahi and Haidar Mailk's Tarikh-i-Kashmir (completed in 1621 CE) are the most important texts on the history of Kashmir during the Sultanate period. Both the texts were written in Persian and used Rajatarangini and Persian histories as their sources.[13]

Early history

Further information:
Karkota Empire, and Rajatarangini
This general view of the unexcavated Buddhist stupa near Baramulla, with two figures standing on the summit, and another at the base with measuring scales, was taken by John Burke in 1868. The stupa, which was later excavated, dates to 500 CE.

Earliest

Vedic tribes expanded, the Uttara–Kurus settled in Kashmir.[17][18]

Mahayana Buddhism
in Kashmir.

In 326 BCE,

Battle of Hydaspes. After Porus lost the battle, Abhisares submitted to Alexander by sending him treasure and elephants.[20][21]

During the reign of

Ashvagosha, Nagarjuna and Vasumitra took part.[24] By the fourth century, Kashmir became a seat of learning for both Buddhism and Hinduism. Kashmiri Buddhist missionaries helped spread Buddhism to Tibet and China and from the fifth century CE, pilgrims from these countries started visiting Kashmir.[25] Kumārajīva (343–413 CE) was among the renowned Kashmiri scholars who traveled to China. He influenced the Chinese emperor Yao Xing and spearheaded translation of many Sanskrit works into Chinese at the Chang'an monastery.[26]

Portable shrine with image of the Buddha, Jammu and Kashmir, 7-8th century.

The

Yasodharman in Malwa. After the defeat, Mihirakula returned to Kashmir where he led a coup on the king. He then conquered of Gandhara where he committed many atrocities on Buddhists and destroyed their shrines. Influence of the Huns faded after Mihirakula's death.[28][29]

Hindu Dynasties

A succession of Hindu dynasties ruled over the region from the 7th-14th centuries.

Southern India.[33]

Karkota dynasty, Lalitaditya Muktapida
, in the 8th century CE. It is one of the largest temple complex on the Indian Subcontinent.

In the eighth century, the

Kalinga. Lalitaditya extended his influence of Malwa and Gujarat and defeated Arabs at Sindh.[35][36] After his demise, Kashmir's influence over other kingdoms declined and the dynasty ended in c. 855–856 CE.[34]

The Utpala dynasty founded by

Mongol chief, led a savage raid on Kashmir.[when?][40][41] His wife, Queen Kota Rani ruled until 1339. She is often credited for the construction of a canal, named "Kutte Kol" after her, diverting the waters of the Jhelum to prevent frequent flooding in Srinagar.[42]

During the 11th century, Mahmud of Ghazni made two attempts to conquer Kashmir. However, both his campaigns failed because he could not take by siege the fortress at Lohkot.[43]

Muslim rulers

Further information:
Chak Dynasty, and Durrani Empire
Gateway of enclosure of Zein-ul-ab-ud-din's Tomb, in Srinagar. 1868. John Burke. Oriental and India Office Collection. British Library.

Prelude and Kashmir Sultanate (1346–1580s)

Historian

his dynasty in Kashmir.[46]

In the 14th century,

Rajauri which paid tributes to Kashmir revolted against the Sultan Hajji Khan. However, they were subjugated by his son Hasan Khan who took over as ruler in 1472 CE.[51] By the mid 16th century, Hindu influence in the courts and role of the Hindu priests had declined as Muslim missionaries immigrated into Kashmir from Central Asia and Persia, and Persian replaced Sanskrit as the official language. Around the same period, the nobility of Chaks had become powerful enough to unseat the Shah Mir dynasty.[51]

Silver sasnu of the Kashmir Sultan Shams al-Din Shah II (ruled 1537–38). During the Sultanate period, the Kashmir sultans issued silver and copper coins. The silver coins were square and followed a weight standard unique to Kashmir of between 6 and 7 gm. This coin weighs 6.16 gm.

Suri kings led to a revolt which overthrew Dughlat's rule in Kashmir.[53][52]

Mughals (1580s–1750s)

Kashmir did not witness direct Mughal rule until the reign of Mughal emperor

Kabul Subah in 1586. Shah Jahan carved it out as a separate subah (imperial top-level province), with seat at Srinagar. During successive Mughal emperors many celebrated gardens, mosques and palaces were constructed. Religious intolerance and discriminatory taxation reappeared when Mughal emperor Aurangzeb ascended to the throne in 1658 CE. After his death, the influence of the Mughal Empire declined.[40][52]

gardens
all over the Kashmir valley

In 1700 CE, a servant of a wealthy Kashmir merchant brought Mo-i Muqqadas (the hair of the Prophet), a relic of

Nadir Shah's invasion of India in 1738 CE further weakened Mughal control over Kashmir.[54]

Durrani Empire (1752–1819)

Taking advantage of the declining Mughal Empire, the Afghan Durrani Empire under

Sukh Jiwan Mal, rebelled against the Durrani Empire before being defeated in 1762.[56][57] After Mal's defeat, the Durrani engaged in the oppression of the remaining Hindu population through forced conversions, killings, and forced labor.[57] Repression by the Durrani extended to all classes, regardless of religion, and a heavy tax burden was levied on the Kashmiri populace.[58]

A number of Afghan governors administered the region on behalf of the Durrani Empire. During the Durrani rule in Kashmir, income from the region constituted a large part of the Durrani Empire's revenue.[59] The empire controlled Kashmir until 1819, after which the region was annexed by the Sikh Empire.[60]

Sikh rule (1820–1846)

Sheikh Imam-ud-din, governor of Kashmir under the Sikhs, shown along with Ranjur Singh and Dewan Dina Nath. 1847. (James Duffield Harding)
A rare book on the period of Sikh-rule over Kashmir

After four centuries of

Kashmiri shawls became known worldwide, attracting many buyers especially in the west.[64]

Earlier, in 1780, after the death of Ranjit Deo, the kingdom of Jammu (to the south of the Kashmir valley) was also captured by the Sikhs and made a tributary.

Zorawar Singh, Gulab Singh soon captured for the Sikhs the lands of Ladakh and Baltistan.[61]

Princely State of Kashmir and Jammu (Dogra Rule, 1846–1947)

Main article: Kashmir
Portrait of Maharaja Gulab Singh in 1847, a year after signing the Treaty of Amritsar. (Artist: James Duffield Harding).
10th century Boniar temple in 1876, cleared during the Dogra rule. Best preserved Kashmir temple.

In 1845, the

Gilgit and Nagar to the kingdom.[68]

Princely State of Kashmir and Jammu
. The names of different regions, important cities, rivers and mountains are underlined in red.

The

Punch was Muslim, but of different ethnicity than the Kashmir valley.[69]

Despite being in a majority the Muslims were made to suffer severe oppression under Hindu rule in the form of high taxes, unpaid forced labor and discriminatory laws.[70] Many Kashmiri Muslims migrated from the Valley to Punjab due to famine and policies of Dogra rulers.[71] The Muslim peasantry was vast, impoverished and ruled by a Hindu elite.[72][73]  The Muslim peasants lacked education, awareness of rights and were chronically in debt to landlords and moneylenders,[72] and did not organize politically until the 1930s.[73]

1947

Further information:
Indo-Pakistani War of 1947

Ranbir Singh's grandson

North-West Frontier Province recruited by the Poonch rebels, invaded Kashmir, along with the Poonch rebels, allegedly incensed by the atrocities against fellow Muslims in Poonch and Jammu. The tribesmen engaged in looting and killing along the way.[79][80] The ostensible aim of the guerilla campaign was to frighten Hari Singh into submission. Instead the Maharaja appealed to the Government of India for assistance, and the Governor-General Lord Mountbatten[c] agreed on the condition that the ruler accede to India.[77] Once the Maharaja signed the Instrument of Accession, Indian soldiers entered Kashmir and drove the Pakistani-sponsored irregulars from all but a small section of the state. India accepted the accession, regarding it provisional[81] until such time as the will of the people can be ascertained. Kashmir leader Sheikh Abdullah endorsed the accession as ad hoc which would be ultimately decided by the people of the State. He was appointed the head of the emergency administration by the Maharaja.[82]
The Pakistani government immediately contested the accession, suggesting that it was fraudulent, that the Maharaja acted under duress and that he had no right to sign an agreement with India when the standstill agreement with Pakistan was still in force.

Post-1947

Further information: Timeline of the Kashmir conflict and History of Azad Kashmir

In early 1948, India sought a resolution of the

United Nations Commission for India and Pakistan (UNCIP), the UN Security Council passed Resolution 47 on 21 April 1948. The UN mission insisted that the opinion of people of J&K must be ascertained. The then Indian Prime Minister is reported to have himself urged U.N. to poll Kashmir and on the basis of results Kashmir's accession will be decided.[83] However, India insisted that no referendum could occur until all of the state had been cleared of irregulars.[77]

On 5 January 1949, UNCIP (United Nations Commission for India and Pakistan) resolution stated that the question of the accession of the State of Jammu and Kashmir to India or Pakistan will be decided through a free and impartial plebiscite.[84] As per the 1948[85] and 1949 UNCIP Resolutions, both countries accepted the principle, that Pakistan secures the withdrawal of Pakistani intruders followed by withdrawal of Pakistani and Indian forces, as a basis for the formulation of a Truce agreement whose details are to be arrived in future, followed by a plebiscite; However, both countries failed to arrive at a Truce agreement due to differences in interpretation of the procedure for and extent of demilitarisation one of them being whether the Azad Kashmiri army of Pakistan is to be disbanded during the truce stage or the plebiscite stage.[86]

In the last days of 1948, a ceasefire was agreed under UN auspices; however, since the

Gilgit–Baltistan and Azad Kashmir. According to Encyclopædia Britannica, "Although there was a clear Muslim majority in Kashmir before the 1947 partition and its economic, cultural, and geographic contiguity with the Muslim-majority area of the Punjab (in Pakistan) could be convincingly demonstrated, the political developments during and after the partition resulted in a division of the region. Pakistan was left with territory that, although basically Muslim in character, was thinly populated, relatively inaccessible, and economically underdeveloped. The largest Muslim group, situated in the Valley of Kashmir and estimated to number more than half the population of the entire region, lay in Indian-administered territory, with its former outlets via the Jhelum valley route blocked."[87]

1947 conflict

The UN Security Council on 20 January 1948 passed Resolution 39 establishing a special commission to investigate the conflict. Subsequent to the commission's recommendation the Security Council, ordered in its Resolution 47, passed on 21 April 1948 that the invading Pakistani army retreat from Jammu & Kashmir and that the accession of Kashmir to either India or Pakistan be determined in accordance with a plebiscite to be supervised by the UN. In a string of subsequent resolutions the Security Council took notice of the continuing failure by India to hold the plebiscite. However, no punitive action against India could be taken by the Security Council because its resolution, requiring India to hold a Plebiscite, was non-binding. Moreover, the Pakistani army never left the part of the Kashmir, they managed to keep occupied at the end of the 1947 war. They were required by the Security Council resolution 47 to remove all armed personnels from the Azad Kashmir before holding the plebiscite.[88]

The eastern region of the erstwhile princely state of Kashmir has also been beset with a boundary dispute. In the late 19th- and early 20th centuries, although some boundary agreements were signed between Great Britain, Afghanistan and Russia over the northern borders of Kashmir, China never accepted these agreements, and the official Chinese position did not change with the

communist revolution in 1949. By the mid-1950s the Chinese army had entered the north-east portion of Ladakh.:[87] "By 1956–57 they had completed a military road through the Aksai Chin area to provide better communication between Xinjiang and western Tibet. India's belated discovery of this road led to border clashes between the two countries that culminated in the Sino-Indian war of October 1962."[87] China has occupied Aksai Chin since 1962 and, in addition, an adjoining region, the Trans-Karakoram Tract
was ceded by Pakistan to China in 1965.

In 1949, the Indian government obliged Hari Singh to leave Jammu and Kashmir and yield the government to Sheikh Abdullah, the leader of a popular political party, the National Conference Party.[78] Since then, a bitter enmity has been developed between India and Pakistan and three wars have taken place between them over Kashmir. The growing dispute over Kashmir and the consistent failure of democracy[89] also led to the rise of Kashmir nationalism and militancy in the state.

In 1986, the

Mujahadeens from Afghanistan slowly infiltrated the region following the end of the Soviet–Afghan War the same year.[94] Pakistan provided arms and training to both indigenous and foreign militants in Kashmir, thus adding fuel to the smouldering fire of discontent in the valley.[95][96][97]

In August 2019, the Government of India repealed the special status accorded to Jammu and Kashmir under

Jammu and Kashmir Reorganisation Act, which contained provisions to dissolve the state and reorganise it into two union territories – Jammu and Kashmir in the west and Ladakh in the east.[98]
These changes came into effect from 31 October 2019.

Historical demographics of Kashmir

In the 1901 Census of the British Indian Empire, the population of the princely state of Kashmir was 2,905,578. Of these 2,154,695 were Muslims, 689,073 Hindus, 25,828 Sikhs, and 35,047 Buddhists. The Hindus were found mainly in Jammu, where they constituted a little less than 50% of the population.[99] In the Kashmir Valley, the Hindus represented "only 524 in every 10,000 of the population (i.e. 5.24%), and in the frontier wazarats of Ladhakh and Gilgit only 94 out of every 10,000 persons (0.94%)."[99] In the same Census of 1901, in the Kashmir Valley, the total population was recorded to be 1,157,394, of which the Muslim population was 1,083,766, or 93.6% of the population.[99] These percentages have remained fairly stable for the last 100 years.[100] In the 1941 Census of British India, Muslims accounted for 93.6% of the population of the Kashmir Valley and the Hindus constituted 4%.[100] In 2003, the percentage of Muslims in the Kashmir Valley was 95%[101] and those of Hindus 4%; the same year, in Jammu, the percentage of Hindus was 67% and those of Muslims 27%.[101]

Among the Muslims of the Kashmir province within the princely state, four divisions were recorded: "Shaikhs, Saiyids, Mughals, and Pathans. The Shaikhs, who are by far the most numerous, are the descendants of Hindus, but have retained none of the caste rules of their forefathers. They have clan names known as krams ..."

Pashtu."[102]
Among the main tribes of Muslims in the princely state are the Butts, Dar, Lone, Jat, Gujjar, Rajput, Sudhan and Khatri. A small number of Butts, Dar and Lone use the title Khawaja and the Khatri use the title Shaikh the Gujjar use the title of Chaudhary. All these tribes are indigenous of the princely state which converted to Islam from Hinduism during its arrival in region.

Among the Hindus of Jammu province, who numbered 626,177 (or 90.87% of the Hindu population of the princely state), the most important castes recorded in the census were "

Thakkars (93,000)."[99]

Gallery

  • Pot, excavated from Burzahom (c. 2700 BCE), depicts horned motifs, which suggest links with sites like Kot-Diji, in Sindh.
    Pot, excavated from Burzahom (c. 2700 BCE), depicts horned motifs, which suggest links with sites like Kot-Diji, in Sindh.
  • A Muslim shawl making family in Kashmir. 1867. Cashmere shawl manufactory, chromolith., William Simpson.
    A Muslim shawl making family in Kashmir. 1867. Cashmere shawl manufactory, chromolith., William Simpson.
  • Kashmiri home life c. 1890. Photographer unknown.
    Kashmiri home life c. 1890. Photographer unknown.
  • Muslim papier-mâché ornament painters in Kashmir. 1895. Photographer: unknown.
    Muslim papier-mâché ornament painters in Kashmir. 1895. Photographer: unknown.
  • Three Hindu priests writing religious texts. 1890s, Jammu and Kashmir, photographer: unknown.
    Three Hindu priests writing religious texts. 1890s, Jammu and Kashmir, photographer: unknown.
  • Full-length portrait of two Ladakhi men. 1895, Ladakh, unknown photographer.
    Full-length portrait of two Ladakhi men. 1895, Ladakh, unknown photographer.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Puranic genealogy are "incomplete and occasionally inaccurate". The chronology of events described in Puranas often do not tally with historical discoveries of modern era.
  2. Poonch and Rajouri districts. Historian P. N. K. Bamzai believes his domain included Kashmir.[19]
  3. ^ Viscount Louis Mountbatten, the last Viceroy of British India, stayed on in independent India from 1947 to 1948, serving as the first Governor-General of an independent India.

References

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  6. ^ Kenoyer & Heuston 2005, p. 28.
  7. ^ a b Sharma 2005, p. 74.
  8. ^ a b c Singh 2008, p. 13.
  9. ^ Sreedharan 2004, p. 330.
  10. ^ Sharma 2005, p. 73–4.
  11. ^ Sharma 2005, p. 75.
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  16. ^ Allchin & Allchin 1982, p. 113.
  17. ^ Rapson 1955, p. 118.
  18. ^ Sharma 1985, p. 44.
  19. ^ Bamzai 1994, p. 68.
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  22. ^ Sastri 1988, p. 219.
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  24. ^ Bamzai 1994, pp. 83–4.
  25. ^ Pal 1989, p. 51.
  26. ^ Singh 2008, pp. 522–3.
  27. ^ Singh 2008, p. 480.
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  80. ^ Pathan Tribal Invasion into Kashmir
  81. ^ Govt. of India, White Paper on Jammu & Kashmir , Delhi 1948, p.77
  82. ^ Sheikh Abdullah, Flames of the Chinar, New Delhi 1993, p.97
  83. ^ "NEHRU URGES U.N. TO POLL KASHMIR; Would Have Supervised Ballot to Decide Accession – Bomb Attack by India Reported". The New York Times. 3 November 1947. Retrieved 4 May 2010.
  84. ^ UNCIP Resolution, 5 January 1949.
  85. ^ UNCIP Resolution, 13 August 1948.
  86. ^ UNCIP Resolution, 30 March 1951.
  87. ^ a b c "Kashmir." (2007). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 27 March 2007, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
  88. ^ Resolution 47 (1948).
  89. ^ Elections in Kashmir
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  91. ^ "Hindu-Moslem riots reported in Kashmir, Calcutta". Associated Press. Retrieved 12 March 2022.
  92. ^ Puri 1993, p. 52.
  93. ^ 1989 Insurgency
  94. ^ BBC Timeline on Kashmir conflict.
  95. ^ Human Rights Watch Report, 1994
  96. ^ Pakistan admission over Kashmir
  97. ^ See Operation Tupac
  98. ^ "Jammu Kashmir Article 370: Govt revokes Article 370 from Jammu and Kashmir, bifurcates state into two Union Territories". The Times of India. Ist. 5 August 2019. Retrieved 5 August 2019.
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Bibliography

Primary sources

Historiography

External links
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