History of Kuwait
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Kuwait since 1961 | ||||||||||||
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Antiquity
Mesopotamia
Following the post-glacial flooding of the Persian Gulf basin, debris from the Tigris–Euphrates river formed a substantial delta, creating most of the land in present-day Kuwait and establishing the present coastlines.[7] One of the earliest evidence of human habitation in Kuwait dates back to 8000 BC where Mesolithic tools were found in Burgan.[8] During the Ubaid period (6500 BC), Kuwait was the central site of interaction between the peoples of Mesopotamia and Neolithic Eastern Arabia,[9][10][11][12][13] including Bahra 1 and site H3 in Subiya.[9][14][15][16] The Neolithic inhabitants of Kuwait were among the world's earliest maritime traders.[17] One of the world's earliest reed-boats was discovered at site H3 dating back to the Ubaid period.[18] Other Neolithic sites in Kuwait are located in Khiran and Sulaibikhat.[9]
In 4000 BC until 2000 BC, the
In the Mesopotamian epic poem
Dilmun, sometimes described as "the place where the sun rises" and "the Land of the Living", is the scene of some versions of the Sumerian creation myth, and the place where the deified Sumerian hero of the flood, Utnapishtim (Ziusudra), was taken by the gods to live forever. Thorkild Jacobsen's translation of the Eridu Genesis calls it "Mount Dilmun" which he locates as a "faraway, half-mythical place".[27] Dilmun is also described in the epic story of Enki and Ninhursag as the site at which the Creation occurred. The promise of Enki to Ninhursag, the Earth Mother:
For Dilmun, the land of my lady's heart, I will create long waterways, rivers and canals,
whereby water will flow to quench the thirst of all beings and bring abundance to all that lives.
The Sumerian goddess of air and wind Ninlil had her home in Dilmun. It is also featured in the Epic of Gilgamesh. However, in the early epic Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta, the main events, which center on Enmerkar's construction of the ziggurats in Uruk and Eridu, are described as taking place in a world "before Dilmun had yet been settled".
From about 1650 BC there is a further inscription on a seal found at Failaka and preserving a king's name. The short text readsː [La]'ù-la Panipa, daughter of Sumu-lěl, the servant of Inzak of Akarum. Sumu-lěl was evidently a third king of Dilmun belonging to about this period. Servant of Inzak of Akarum was the king's title in Dilmun. The names of these later rulers are Amoritic.[28]
Despite the scholarly consensus that ancient Dilmun encompasses three modern locations - the eastern littoral of Arabia from the vicinity of modern Kuwait to Bahrain; the island of Bahrain; the island of Failaka of Kuwait - few researchers have taken into account the radically different geography of the basin represented by the Persian Gulf before its reflooding as sea levels rose about 6000 BCE.
After the Dilmun civilization, Failaka was inhabited by the Kassites of Mesopotamia,[33] and was formally under the control of the Kassite dynasty of Babylon.[33] Studies indicate traces of human settlement can be found on Failaka dating back to as early as the end of the 3rd millennium BC, and extending until the 20th century AD.[30] Many of the artifacts found in Falaika are linked to Mesopotamian civilizations and seem to show that Failaka was gradually drawn toward the civilization based in Antioch.[34]
Under
Most of present-day Kuwait is still archaeologically unexplored.
After an apparent abandonment of about seven centuries, the bay of Kuwait was repopulated during the
According to
According to another account, having returned from
During
Remains of the settlement include a large
At the time of Alexander the Great, the mouth of the Euphrates River was located in northern Kuwait.[65][66] The Euphrates river flowed directly into the Persian Gulf via Khor Subiya which was a river channel at the time.[65][66] Failaka was located 15 kilometers from the mouth of the Euphrates river.[65][66] By the first century BC, the Khor Subiya river channel dried out completely.[65][66]
During the
In 127 BC, Kuwait was part of the Parthian Empire and the kingdom of Characene was established around Teredon in present-day Kuwait.[67][68][69] Characene was centered in the region encompassing southern Mesopotamia,[70] Characene coins were discovered in Akkaz, Umm an Namil, and Failaka.[71][72] A busy Parthian era Characene commercial station existed in Kuwait.[62]
The earliest recorded mention of Kuwait was in 150 AD in the geographical treatise Geography by Greek scholar Ptolemy.[73] Ptolemy mentioned the Bay of Kuwait as Hieros Kolpos (Sacer Sinus in the Latin versions).[73]
In 224 AD, Kuwait became part of the
Late Sassanian settlements were discovered in Failaka.[77][78]
Akkaz was a
In Bubiyan, there is archaeological evidence of Sassanian periods of human presence as evidenced by the recent discovery of torpedo-jar pottery sherds on several prominent beach ridges.[82]
In 636 AD, the Battle of Chains between the Sassanid Empire and Rashidun Caliphate was fought in Kuwait near Kazma.[83][84] At the time, Kuwait was under the control of the Sassanid Empire.[85] The Battle of Chains was the first battle of the Rashidun Caliphate in which the Muslim army sought to extend its frontiers.
As a result of Rashidun victory in 636 AD, the bay of Kuwait was home to the city of
Kazma was mainly a stop for caravans coming from
Early to late Islamic settlements were discovered in Subiya, Akkaz, Kharaib al-Dasht, Umm al-Aish, Al-Rawdatain, Al Qusur, Umm an Namil, Miskan, and Kuwait's side of Wadi al-Batin.[8][97][85][98][99]
There is archaeological evidence of early Islamic periods of human presence in Bubiyan.[82]
Pre-oil history
In 1521, Kuwait was under
The man chosen was a Sabah, Sabah I bin Jaber. Sabah diplomacy may have also been important with neighbouring clans, especially as Bani Khalid power declined. This selection is usually dated to 1752.[109]
Early growth (1760–1899)
Economy
In the latter half of the eighteenth century, Kuwait gradually became a principal commercial center for the transit of goods between
Between the years 1775 and 1779, the Indian trade routes with Baghdad, Aleppo, Smyrna and Constantinople were diverted to Kuwait.[113][115] The East India Company was diverted to Kuwait in 1792.[116] The East India Company secured the sea routes between Kuwait, India and the east coasts of Africa.[116] After the Persians withdrew from Basra in 1779, Kuwait continued to attract trade away from Basra.[117] The flight of many of Basra's leading merchants to Kuwait continued to play a significant role in Basra's commercial stagnation well into the 1850s.[117]
Regional geopolitical turbulence helped foster economic prosperity in Kuwait in the second half of the 18th century.
In 1776, Sabah I died and was succeeded by his youngest son,
Kuwait was the center of boat building in the Persian Gulf region.[121] Kuwaiti ship vessels were renowned throughout the Indian Ocean.[122][123] Its sailors developed a positive reputation in the Persian Gulf.[111][124][125] In the 19th century, Kuwait became significant in the horse trade,[126] horses were regularly shipped by the way of sailing boats from Kuwait.[126] In the mid 19th century, it was estimated that Kuwait was exporting an average of 800 horses to India annually.[118]
Assassination of Muhammad Bin Sabah
In the 1870s, Ottoman officials were reasserting their presence in the Persian Gulf, with a military intervention in 1871—which was not effectively pursued—where family rivalries in Kuwait were breeding chaos.[127] The Ottomans were bankrupt and when the European banks took control of the Ottoman budget in 1881, additional income was required from Kuwait. Midhat Pasha, the governor of Iraq, demanded that Kuwait submit financially to Ottoman rule. The al-Sabah found diplomatic allies in the British Foreign Office. However, under Abdullah II Al-Sabah, Kuwait pursued a general pro-Ottoman foreign policy, formally taking the title of Ottoman provincial governor, this relationship with the Ottoman Empire did result in Ottoman interference with Kuwaiti laws and selection or rulers.[109]
In May 1896, Shaikh Muhammad Al-Sabah was assassinated by his half-brother, Mubarak, who, in early 1897, was recognized, by the Ottoman sultan, as the qaimmaqam (provincial sub-governor) of Kuwait.[127]
Mubarak the Great
Mubarak's seizure of the throne via murder left his brother's former allies as a threat to his rule, especially as his opponents gained the backing of the Ottomans.[109] In July, Mubarak invited the British to deploy gunboats along the Kuwaiti coast. Britain saw Mubarak's desire for an alliance as an opportunity to counteract German influence in the region and so agreed.[109] This led to what is known as the First Kuwaiti Crisis, in which the Ottomans demanded that the British stop interfering with their empire. In the end, the Ottoman Empire backed down, rather than go to war.
In January 1899, Mubarak signed an agreement with the British which pledged that Kuwait would never cede any territory nor receive agents or representatives of any foreign power without the British Government's consent. In essence, this policy gave Britain control of Kuwait's foreign policy.[109] The treaty also gave Britain responsibility for Kuwait's national security. In return, Britain agreed to grant an annual subsidy of 15,000 Indian rupees (£1,500) to the ruling family. In 1911, Mubarak raised taxes. Therefore, three wealthy business men Ibrahim Al-Mudhaf, Helal Al-Mutairi, and Shamlan Ali bin Saif Al-Roumi (brother of Hussain Ali bin Saif Al-Roumi), led a protest against Mubarak by making Bahrain their main trade point, which negatively affected the Kuwaiti economy. However, Mubarak went to Bahrain and apologized for raising taxes and the three business men returned to Kuwait. In 1915, Mubarak the Great died and was succeeded by his son Jaber II Al-Sabah, who reigned for just over one year until his death in early 1917. His brother Sheikh Salim Al-Mubarak Al-Sabah succeeded him.
During the reign of Mubarak, Kuwait was dubbed the "
In the first decades of the twentieth century, Kuwait had a well-established elite: wealthy trading families who were linked by marriage and shared economic interests.
Anglo-Ottoman convention (1913)
Informal negotiations began on 29 July 1911 in a British memorandum sent to the Ottoman Government. By this time, it seemed likely that the terminus for the German funded and engineered
In the Anglo-Ottoman Convention of 1913, the British concurred with the Ottoman Empire in defining Kuwait as an autonomous kaza of the Ottoman Empire and that the Shaikhs of Kuwait were not independent leaders, but rather qaimmaqams (provincial sub-governors) of the Ottoman government.
The convention ruled that Sheikh Mubarak had authority over an area extending out to a radius of 80 km, from the capital. This region was marked by a red circle and included the islands of
World War I disrupted elements of Kuwait's politics, society, economy and trans-regional networks.[134]
Mesopotamian Campaign (1914)
On 6 November 1914, British offensive action began with the naval bombardment of the old fort at
The same month, the ruler of Kuwait, Sheikh
Kuwait–Najd War (1919–21)
The Kuwait-Najd War erupted in the aftermath of World War I, when the Ottoman Empire was defeated and the British invalidated the Anglo-Ottoman Convention. The power vacuum, left by the fall of the Ottomans, sharpened the conflict between Kuwait and Najd (Ikhwan). The war resulted in sporadic border clashes throughout 1919–20.
However, Kuwait immensely declined in regional economic importance,[123] mainly due to various trade blockades and the world economic depression.[139] The Great Depression negatively impacted Kuwait's economy starting in the late 1920s.[140] International trading was one of Kuwait's main sources of income before oil.[140] Kuwaiti merchants were mostly intermediary merchants.[140] As a result of European decline of demand for goods from India and Africa, the economy of Kuwait suffered. The decline in international trade resulted in an increase in gold smuggling by Kuwaiti ships to India.[140] Some Kuwaiti merchant families became rich due to gold smuggling to India.[141]
Kuwait's pearling industry also collapsed as a result of the worldwide economic depression.
Battle of Jahra
The
A force of 4,000 Saudi Ikhwan, led by
Sheikh Khaz'al turns down the throne of Kuwait
When Percy Cox was informed of the border clashes in Kuwait, he sent a letter to Mohammerah Sheikh Khazʽal Ibn Jabir offering the Kuwaiti throne to either him or one of his heirs, knowing that Khaz'al would be a wiser ruler than the Al Sabah family. Khaz'al, who considered the Al Sabah as his own family, replied "Do you expect me to allow the stepping down of Al Mubarak from the throne of Kuwait? Do you think I can accept this?"[143] He then asked:
...even so, do you think that you have come to me with something new? Al Mubarak's position as ruler of Kuwait means that I am the true ruler of Kuwait. So there is no difference between myself and them, for they are like the dearest of my children and you are aware of this. Had someone else come to me with this offer, I would have complained about them to you. So how do you come to me with this offer when you are well aware that myself and Al Mubarak are one soul and one house, what affects them affects me, whether good or evil.[143]
Ibn Saud imposed a tight trade blockade against Kuwait from the years 1923 until 1937.[139][140] The goal of the Saudi economic and military attacks on Kuwait was to annex as much of Kuwait's territory as possible.[139]
The Uqair protocol
The British High Commissioner in Baghdad,
On 19 April, Sir Percy stated that the British government recognized the outer line of the convention as the border between Iraq and Kuwait. This decision limited Iraq's access to the Persian Gulf at 58 km of mostly marshy and swampy coastline. As this would make it difficult for Iraq to become a naval power (the territory did not include any deepwater harbours), the Iraqi King Faisal I (whom the British installed as a puppet king in Iraq) did not agree to the plan. However, as his country was under British mandate, he had little say in the matter. Iraq and Kuwait would formally ratify the border in August. The border was re-recognized in 1932.
Attempts by Faisal I to build an Iraqi railway to Kuwait and port facilities on the Gulf were rejected by Britain. These and other similar British colonial policies made Kuwait a focus of the Arab national movement in Iraq, and a symbol of Iraqi humiliation at the hands of the British.[145]
Kuwait's border was revisited by a memorandum sent by the British high commissioner for Iraq in 1923, which became the basis for Kuwait's northern border. In Iraq's 1932 application to the League of Nations it included information about its borders, including its border with Kuwait, where it accepted the boundary established in 1923.[146]
After the Uqair conference, Kuwait was still subjected to a Saudi economic blockade and intermittent Saudi raiding.[139] Some merchant families left Kuwait in the early 1930s due to the prevalence of economic hardship. At the time of the discovery of oil in 1937, most of Kuwait's inhabitants were impoverished. Merchants had the most economic power.[147] Al Sabah family rule remained limited until well into the 1930s because the merchants, owing to their financial power, were the primary sources of income in Kuwait.[147] The inauguration of the oil era freed the rulers from their financial dependency on merchant wealth.[148]
Before Mary Bruins Allison visited Kuwait in 1934, Kuwait had already lost its prominence in long-distance trade.[123] During World War I, the British Empire imposed a trade blockade against Kuwait because Kuwait's ruler supported the Ottoman Empire.[139][149][150] The British economic blockade heavily damaged Kuwait's economy.[150]
In 1937, Freya Stark wrote about the extent of poverty in Kuwait at the time:[140]
Poverty has settled in Kuwait more heavily since my last visit five years ago, both by sea, where the pearl trade continues to decline, and by land, where the blockade established by Saudi Arabia now harms the merchants.
Al Sabah became Kuwait's dynastic monarchy in 1938.[151] One tradition has it that political power went to the Sabahs as part of an explicit agreement; merchant families focused on the trade while the House of Sabah and other notable Kuwaiti families provided protection of city housed within Kuwait's wall.
1930–1939: Iraq–Kuwait Reunification Movement
Throughout the 1930s, Kuwaiti people opposed the British imposed separation of Kuwait from Iraq.[145]
In the 1930s, a popular movement emerged in Kuwait which called for the reunification of the country with Iraq.[145] This movement coalesced into the Free Kuwaiti Movement in 1938, which was established by Kuwaiti youths who were opposed to British influence in the region. The movement submitted a petition to the Iraqi government demanding that it support the reunification of Kuwait and Iraq.[145][152] Fearing that the movement would turn into an armed rebellion, the Al Sabah family agreed to the establishment of a legislative council to represent the Free Kuwaiti Movement and its political demands.[145] The council's first meeting in 1938 resulted in a unanimous resolution demanding the reunification of Kuwait and Iraq.[145]
In March 1939, an armed rebellion broke out in Kuwait by supporters of the movement, seeking to reunify Kuwait with Iraq by force.[145] Supported by the British, the Al Sabah family rapidly suppressed the rebellion, imprisoning numerous supporters of the movement.[145] King Ghazi of Iraq publicly demanded that the prisoners be released and the Al Sabah family end their repressive policies towards members of the Free Kuwaiti Movement.[145][152]
Modern era
Independence and early state-building (1946–89)
Between 1946 and 1982, Kuwait experienced a period of prosperity driven by oil and its liberal cultural atmosphere; this period is called the "golden era".[153][154][155][156] In 1946, crude oil was exported for the first time. In 1950, a major public-work programme allowed Kuwaitis to enjoy a modern standard of living. By 1952, the country became the largest oil exporter in the Persian Gulf. This massive growth attracted many foreign workers, especially from Palestine, Egypt, Iran, and India.
In June 1961, Kuwait became independent with the end of the
Although Kuwait formally gained independence in 1961, Iraq initially refused to recognize the country's independence by maintaining that Kuwait is part of Iraq, albeit Iraq later briefly backed down following a show of force by Britain and
On 6 February 1974,
In the 1960s and 1970s, Kuwait was the most developed country in the region.[164][165][166] Kuwait was first Middle East country to diversify its revenue away from oil exports,[167] establishing the Kuwait Investment Authority as the world's first sovereign wealth fund. From the 1970s onward, Kuwait scored highest of all Arab countries on the Human Development Index,[166] and Kuwait University, founded in 1966, attracted students from neighboring countries. Kuwait's theatre industry was renowned throughout the Arab world.[154][166]
At the time, Kuwait's press was described as one of the
Kuwaiti society embraced liberal and Western attitudes throughout the 1960s and 1970s.[173] Most Kuwaiti women did not wear the hijab in the 1960s and 1970s.[174][175] At Kuwait University, mini-skirts were more common than the hijab.[176]
Oil and the social structure of Kuwait were closely interlinked. According to an authoritative of the region such a structure resembled a form of "new slavery" with a "viciously reactionary character". 90 per cent of the capital generated from oil for investment abroad was concentrated in the hands of eighteen families. The manual as well as a significant section of the managerial workforce was predominantly foreign, mainly Palestinians who were denied Kuwaiti citizenship.[177] Major investment was made into developing new architectural projects reflecting a new liberal economy whilst advancing passive cooling and attempts at weaving in local styles and decoration.[178]
In August 1976, in reaction to heightened assembly opposition to his policies, the emir suspended four articles of the constitution concerned with political and civil rights (freedom of the press and dissolution of the legislature) and the assembly itself.[179] In 1980, however, the suspended articles of the constitution were reinstated along with the National Assembly.[179] In 1982 the government submitted sixteen constitutional amendments that, among other things, would have allowed the emir to declare martial law for an extended period and would have increased both the size of the legislature and the length of terms of office.[179] In May 1983, the proposals were formally dropped after several months of debate.[179] Nonetheless, the issue of constitutional revisions continued as a topic of discussion in both the National Assembly and the palace.[179]
In the early 1980s, Kuwait experienced a major
During the Iran–Iraq War, Kuwait ardently supported Iraq. As a result, there were various pro-Iran terror attacks across Kuwait, including the 1983 bombings, the attempted assassination of Emir Jaber in May 1985, the 1985 Kuwait City bombings, and the hijacking of several Kuwait Airways planes. Kuwait's economy and scientific research sector significantly suffered due to the pro-Iran terror attacks.[184]
In 1986, the constitution was again suspended, along with the National Assembly.[179] As with the previous suspension, popular opposition to this move emerged; indeed, the prodemocracy movement of 1989-90 took its name, the Constitutional Movement, from the demand for a return to constitutional life.[179]
After the Iran–Iraq War ended, Kuwait declined an Iraqi request to forgive its US$65 billion debt.[185] An economic rivalry between the two countries ensued after Kuwait increased its oil production by 40 percent.[186]
The Iraq–Kuwait dispute also involved historical claims to Kuwait's territory. Kuwait had been a part of the
In 1989, it appeared that Iraq–Kuwait relations, strong during the war, would be maintained. A pact of non-interference and non-aggression was signed between the countries, followed by a Kuwaiti-Iraqi deal for Iraq to supply Kuwait with water for drinking and irrigation, although a request for Kuwait to lease Iraq Umm Qasr was rejected.[187] GCC-backed development projects were hampered by Iraq's large debts, even with the demobilization of 200,000 soldiers. Iraq also looked to increase arms production so as to become an exporter, although the success of these projects was also restrained by Iraq's obligations; in Iraq, resentment to OPEC's controls mounted.[187]
Iraq's relations with its other Arab neighbors were degraded by mounting violence in Iraq against expatriate groups, who were well-employed during the war, by unemployed Iraqis, among them demobilized soldiers. These events drew little notice outside the Arab world because of fast-moving events directly related to the fall of Communism in Eastern Europe. However, the US did begin to condemn Iraq's human rights record, including the well-known use of torture.
Gulf War (1990–91)
Tensions increased further in summer 1990, after Iraq complained to
On the 25th, Saddam met with
So what can it mean when America says it will now protect its friends? It can only mean prejudice against Iraq. This stance plus maneuvers and statements which have been made has encouraged the UAE and Kuwait to disregard Iraqi rights ... If you use pressure, we will deploy pressure and force. We know that you can harm us although we do not threaten you. But we too can harm you. Everyone can cause harm according to their ability and their size. We cannot come all the way to you in the United States, but individual Arabs may reach you ... We do not place America among the enemies. We place it where we want our friends to be and we try to be friends. But repeated American statements last year made it apparent that America did not regard us as friends.[192]
Glaspie replied:
I know you need funds. We understand that and our opinion is that you should have the opportunity to rebuild your country. But we have no opinion on the Arab-Arab conflicts, like your border disagreement with Kuwait ... Frankly, we can only see that you have deployed massive troops in the south. Normally that would not be any of our business. But when this happens in the context of what you said on your national day, then when we read the details in the two letters of the Foreign Minister, then when we see the Iraqi point of view that the measures taken by the UAE and Kuwait is, in the final analysis, parallel to military aggression against Iraq, then it would be reasonable for me to be concerned.[192]
Saddam stated that he would attempt last-ditch negotiations with the Kuwaitis but Iraq "would not accept death".[192]
According to Glaspie's own account, she stated in reference to the precise border between Kuwait and Iraq. Glaspie similarly believed that war was not imminent.[191]
The
An Iraqi-backed Kuwaiti puppet leader named Alaa Hussein Ali was installed as head of the "Provisional Government of Free Kuwait." Iraq annexed Kuwait on 8 August. The war was traumatic to both countries.
Kuwaiti civilians founded a local armed resistance movement following the Iraqi occupation of Kuwait.[193][194][195] The Kuwaiti resistance's casualty rate far exceeded that of the coalition military forces and Western hostages.[196] The resistance predominantly consisted of ordinary citizens who lacked any form of training and supervision.[196]
The underground resistance was punished by summary executions and torture. Almost all Kuwaitis at the time lost some family member. In addition, half the population, including native and foreign-born fled Kuwait to escape persecution.[197]
George H. W. Bush condemned the invasion, and led efforts to drive out the Iraqi forces. Authorized by the United Nations Security Council, an American-led coalition of 34 nations fought the Gulf War to liberate Kuwait. Aerial bombardments began on 17 January 1991, and after several weeks a U.S.-led United Nations (UN) coalition began a ground assault on 23 February 1991 that achieved a complete removal of Iraqi forces from Kuwait in four days.
Controversies
Oil spill
On 23 January 1991, Iraq dumped 400 million US gallons (1,500,000 m3) of
The land based Kuwait oil spill surpassed the Lakeview Gusher, which spilled nine million barrels in 1910, as the largest oil spill in recorded history.
Kuwaiti oil fires
The Kuwaiti oil fires were caused by the
The resulting fires burned uncontrollably because of the dangers of sending in firefighting crews.
The Kuwaiti Oil Minister estimated between twenty-five and fifty million barrels of unburned oil from damaged facilities pooled to create approximately 300 oil lakes, that contaminated around 40 million tons of sand and earth. The mixture of desert sand, unignited oil spilled and soot generated by the burning oil wells formed layers of hard "tarcrete", which covered nearly five percent of Kuwait's land mass.[206][207][208]
Cleaning efforts were led by the Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research and the Arab Oil Co., who tested a number of technologies including the use of
Vegetation in most of the contaminated areas adjoining the oil lakes began recovering by the mid-1990s, but the dry climate has also partially solidified some of the lakes. Over time the oil has continued to sink into the sand, with potential consequences for Kuwait's small groundwater resources.[210][209]
Highway of Death
On the night of 26–27 February 1991, several Iraqi forces began leaving Kuwait on the main highway north of
Chuck Horner, Commander of US and allied air operations, has written:
[By February 26], the Iraqis totally lost heart and started to evacuate occupied Kuwait, but airpower halted the caravan of Iraqi Army and plunderers fleeing toward Basra. This event was later called by the media "The Highway of Death." There were certainly a lot of dead vehicles, but not so many dead Iraqis. They'd already learned to scamper off into the desert when our aircraft started to attack. Nevertheless, some people back home wrongly chose to believe we were cruelly and unusually punishing our already whipped foes.
...
By February 27, talk had turned toward terminating the hostilities. Kuwait was free. We were not interested in governing Iraq. So the question became "How do we stop the killing."[213]
Nayriah testimony
The
In her emotional testimony, Nayirah claimed that after the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait she had witnessed Iraqi soldiers take babies out of
Her story was initially corroborated by
Palestinian exodus from Kuwait
Significant demographic changes occurred in Kuwait as a result of the Gulf War. During the
Prior to the Gulf War, Palestinians numbered 400,000 of
Aftermath of Gulf War liberation (1992–2005)
Immediately after liberation in 1991, the United Nations, under
Criticism of the Al Sabah family in Kuwait became more pronounced following the country's return to sovereignty in 1991.[179] The Al Sabah family were criticized for their actions during the Iraqi occupation. They were the first to flee Kuwait during the invasion. In early 1992, many press restrictions were lifted in Kuwait.[179] After the October 1992 election, the National Assembly exercised a constitutional right to review all emiri decrees promulgated while the assembly was in dissolution.[179] It has been suggested that the United States significantly pressured Kuwait to implement a more "democratic" political system as a condition for the country's liberation in 1991.
The United Nations Security Council has passed nearly 60 resolutions on Iraq and Kuwait since Iraq's invasion of Kuwait in 1990. The most relevant to this issue is Resolution 678, passed on 29 November 1990. It authorizes "member states co-operating with the Government of Kuwait ... to use all necessary means" to (1) implement Security Council Resolution 660 and other resolutions calling for the end of Iraq's occupation of Kuwait and withdrawal of Iraqi forces from Kuwaiti territory and (2) "restore international peace and security in the area". Resolution 678 has not been rescinded or nullified by succeeding resolutions and Iraq was not alleged after 1991 to invade Kuwait or to threaten to do so.
In March 2003, Kuwait became the springboard for the US-led
Political crisis and economic turmoil (2006–present)
From 2006 onwards, Kuwait has suffered from chronic political deadlocks and longstanding periods of cabinet reshuffles and dissolutions.[230] This has significantly hampered investment and economic reforms in Kuwait, making the country's economy much more dependent on oil.[230]
On 15 January 2006, Emir Sheikh Jaber Al-Ahmed died and his crown prince, Sheikh Saad Al-Abdullah of the Salem branch was named Emir.[231] On 23 January 2006, the assembly unanimously voted in favor of Sheikh Saad Al-Abdullah abdicating in favor of Sheikh Sabah Al-Ahmed, citing his illness with a form of dementia.[232] Instead of naming a successor from the Salem branch as per convention, Sheikh Sabah Al-Ahmed named his half-brother Sheikh Nawaf Al-Ahmed as crown prince and his nephew Sheikh Nasser Al-Mohammed as prime minister.[232]
In August 2011, supporters of Sheikh
In December 2013, allies of Sheikh Ahmad Al-Fahad claimed to possess tapes purportedly showing that Sheikh Nasser Al-Mohammed Al-Sabah and Jassem Al-Kharafi were discussing plans to topple the Kuwaiti government.[235][234] Sheikh Ahmad Al-Fahad appeared on local channel Al-Watan TV describing his claims.[236]
In March 2014,
In April 2014, the Kuwaiti government imposed a total media blackout to ban any reporting or discussion on the issue.[247] In March 2015, Kuwait's public prosecutor dropped all investigations into the alleged coup plot and Sheikh Ahmad Al-Fahad read a public apology on Kuwait state television renouncing the coup allegations.[248] Since then, "numerous associates of his have been targeted and detained by the Kuwaiti authorities on various charges,"[234] most notably members of the so-called "Fintas Group" that had allegedly been the original circulators of the fake coup video.[234][249]
On 26 June 2015, a
In December 2015, Sheikh Ahmad Al-Fahad was convicted of "disrespect to the public prosecutor and attributing a remark to the country's ruler without a special permission from the emir's court," issuing a suspended six-month prison sentence and a fine of 1,000 Kuwaiti Dinar. In January 2016, the Kuwaiti appeals court overturned the prior ruling and cleared Sheikh Ahmad Al-Fahad of all charges.[252]
In November 2018, Sheikh Ahmad Al-Fahad, along with four other defendants, were charged in Switzerland with forgery related to the fake coup video.[253] Shortly thereafter, Sheikh Ahmad Al-Fahad temporarily stepped aside from his role at the International Olympic Committee, pending an ethics committee hearing into the allegations.[254][255]
In June 2019, government official Fahad Al Rajaan and his spouse were given life sentences in absentia by the Kuwait criminal court; personal property was confiscated, and they were ordered to repay $82 million, as well as being fined "twice that amount.[256]
In November 2019, former deputy prime minister and minister of interior Sheikh Khaled Al Jarrah Al Sabah was dismissed from office after minister of defense Sheikh Nasser Sabah Al Ahmed Al Sabah filed a complaint with the Kuwaiti Attorney General alleging embezzlement of 240 million Kuwaiti dinars ($794.5 million) of Kuwait government funds had taken place during Khaled's tenure as minister of defense.[257]
The COVID-19 pandemic has exacerbated Kuwait's economic crisis.[258] Kuwait's economy faced a budget deficit of $46 billion in 2020.[259][260][230] Kuwait was downgraded by S&P Global Ratings two times in less than two years because of declining oil revenue and delayed fiscal reforms.[261][262]
In July 2020, the US Department of Justice filed an asset forfeiture claim against The Mountain Beverly Hills and other real property in the United States, alleging a group of three Kuwaiti officials, including Sheikh Khaled Al Jarrah, set up unauthorized accounts in the name of the country's Military Attache Office in London, known as the 'Army Fund.' They allegedly funded the accounts with over $100m of Kuwaiti public money and used it for their own purposes.[263]
In September 2020, Kuwait's Crown Prince Sheikh Nawaf Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah became the 16th Emir of Kuwait and the successor to Emir Sheikh Sabah Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah, who died at the age of 91.[264] In October 2020, Sheikh Mishal Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah was appointed as the Crown Prince.[265]
Since January 2021, Kuwait has been experiencing its worst political crisis in many decades.[266][267] Kuwait is also facing a looming debt crisis according to various media sources.[268][269][259][230] Kuwait is widely considered the region's most oil-dependent country with the least amount of economic diversification.[230][262] According to the World Economic Forum, Kuwait is the least economically developed Gulf country.[270] Kuwait has the weakest infrastructure in the entire GCC region.[270][230]
In March 2021, the Kuwaiti ministerial court ordered the detention of Sheikh Khaled Al Jarrah, who was then arrested and imprisoned.[271]
On April 13, 2021, a Kuwaiti court ordered the detention of former prime minister Sheikh Jaber Al-Mubarak Al-Hamad Al-Sabah on corruption charges related to the 'Army Fund.'[272] He is the first former Kuwaiti prime minister to face pre-trial detention over graft charges.[273] The crimes allegedly took place during Jaber Al-Sabah's 2001–11 term as defense minister.[272]
In August 2021, Sheikh Ahmed Al-Fahad attended court in Switzerland alongside three of the other four defendants.[274][275] In September 2021, the Swiss court convicted Sheikh Ahmed Al-Fahad of forgery along with the four other defendants.[276][277] He denied wrongdoing and plans to appeal.[277] On 16 December, 2023 Sheikh Mishal Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah appointed as 17th Emir of Kuwait after the death of Nawaf Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah.[278]
See also
References
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A magazine, Al Arabi, was published in 1958 in Kuwait. It was the most popular magazine in the Arab world. It came out it in all the Arabic countries, and about a quarter million copies were published every month.
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The Kuwaiti press has always enjoyed a level of freedom unparalleled in any other Arab country.
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In the 1960s and most of the '70s, men and women at Kuwait University dined and danced together, and miniskirts were more common than hijab head coverings, professors and alumni say.
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During autumn 1990 more than half of the Palestinians in Kuwait fled as a result of fear or persecution.
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But in September and October 1990, large numbers of Palestinians began to leave. In addition to the fear of arrest, and their mistreatment at roadblocks by Iraqis, food shortages were becoming serious and medical care difficult. Kuwaitis and Palestinians alike were penniless. They were forced to sell their cars and electrical appliances at improvised markets to anyone who had cash, even to Iraqi civilians coming from Iraq to buy on the cheap. Thus by December 1990, Kuwait's Palestinian population had dwindled from a pre-invasion strength of 350,000 to approximately 150,000.
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Regulations on residence were considerably tightened and the general environment of insecurity triggered a continuous Palestinian exodus.
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There was a great exodus of Palestinians from Kuwait during July and August, partly attributable to fear of abusive actions by the Kuwaiti security forces, but also brought about by economic necessity.
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Bibliography
- Anscombe, Frederick F. (1997). The Ottoman Gulf: The Creation of Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and Qatar. New York City: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-10839-3. Retrieved 23 September 2010.
- Black, Jeremy; Green, Anthony (1992), Gods, Demons and Symbols of Ancient Mesopotamia: An Illustrated Dictionary, The British Museum * Press, ISBN 0714117056
- Clancy, Tom; Horner, Chuck (1999). Every Man a Tiger: The Gulf War Air Campaign. Putnam. ISBN 978-0-399-14493-6.
- Slot, B. J. (2005). Mubarak Al-Sabah: Founder of Modern Kuwait 1896–1915. London: Arabian Publishing. ISBN 978-0-9544792-4-4.
Further reading
- Al-Hijji, Yacoub Yusuf (2010). Kuwait and the sea: a brief social and economic history. London: Arabian Publishing. ISBN 978-0-9558894-4-8.
- Abu-Hakima, Ahmad Mustafa (1965). Ahmad Mustafa Abu-Hakima (ed.). History of eastern Arabia, 1750–1800: the rise and development of Bahrain and Kuwait. Khayats. ISBN 9780866854733.