History of Lisbon
The history of Lisbon, the capital city of
During the
In 711, Muslims, who were mostly
Lisbon flourished in the 15th and 16th centuries as the centre of a vast
The 1755 Lisbon earthquake, in combination with subsequent fires and a tsunami, almost totally destroyed Lisbon and adjoining areas. Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, 1st Marquis of Pombal, took the lead in ordering the rebuilding of the city, and was responsible for the creation of the elegant financial and commercial district of the Baixa Pombalina (Pombaline Lower Town).
During the
The right-wing
Portugal joined the
Prehistory to the Neolithic period
There are traces of human occupation for many thousands of years in the area of what is now Lisbon. Its terrain was made attractive by the advantages of dwelling near the River Tagus and its estuary. The first human inhabitants were probably the Neanderthals, who gradually became extinct about 30,000 years ago[4] when modern humans entered the Iberian Peninsula.[5] During the Neolithic period, the region was inhabited by an unknown people who lived in farming communities near the coast. Some of the megalithic burial chambers in the region around Lisbon appear to have been built by Mesolithic pastoral-hunting peoples.[6] They built religious monuments called megaliths, dolmens and menhirs that still survive in the periphery of the city.[7] Permanent settlements are not shown in the archaeological record until c. 2500 BC.
Antiquity
Writers in the
The
Although the first fortifications on Lisbon's
The Phoenicians are known to have traded with the resident Oestrimni[26] and related tribes. The harbour of the Mar da Palha (Sea of Straw), a large basin in the estuary of the River Tagus near the river's mouth, is the best natural port on the Atlantic coast of Portugal,[27] stretching 23 km at its widest point. This would have made it an ideal location for a settlement to unload and reprovision Phoenician ships sailing on trade voyages. Legend tells that they sailed to Cornwall in Britain and the legendary Tin Islands, or Cassiterides, to buy tin from the natives, but this is unsubstantiated.[28][29][30][31]
The Phoenicians established a trading post at the site, supposedly called Alis Ubbo, meaning "Pleasant Haven" or "Safe Harbour" in the Phoenician language.[32] It may have been an outpost of the Tyrian colony at Gadir (Cádiz).[33] The indigenous settlement extended from the highest hill in the vicinity, where the Castle and Cathedral now stand, to the Tagus.
For centuries, the Phoenicians had cultivated relationships with the indigenous peoples on the Atlantic coast of Iberia. From what was a simple outpost for trade with northern Europe, the Tagus settlement became an important centre of commercial trade where they exchanged their manufactured products for valuable metals,
A multitude of Lusitanian deities, including
Olisipo: Roman Lisbon
The suffix "-ippo" (-ipo), present in "
Recent archaeological finds show that Lisbon grew around a pre-Roman settlement on the hill of the Castelo de São Jorge, as its ancient name, Olissipo, indicates.
Following the defeat of the Carthaginians in eastern Hispania, the pacification of the West was led by
Earthquakes were documented in 60 BC, several from 47 to 44 BC, several in 33 AD and a strong quake in 382 AD, but the exact amount of damage to the city is unknown.[65] The town was located between the Castle Hill and the Baixa,[66] but most riparian areas were at the time still submerged by the Tagus. Olissipo in Roman times was an important commercial centre,[67] providing a link between the northern countries and the Mediterranean Sea. Its main products were garum, a fish sauce considered a luxury,[68] salt and the Lusitanian horses renowned in antiquity.[69][70]
Invasions and the Germanic tribes
After the disintegration of the Roman empire and the subsequent feudalisation of society, the first waves of invaders, including Alans, Germanic tribes, Huns, and others, swept into the peninsula. Initially accepted as settlers in lands depopulated by the terrible epidemics (probably measles and smallpox) that killed much of the population, their incursions soon gave way to military expeditions with the sole object of plunder and conquest.
In the early 5th century the Vandals took Olissipo, followed by the Alans. In 419 Olissipo was plundered and burnt by the Visigothic king Walia, who founded the Visigothic kingdom in Spain.[71] Remismund conquered Lisbon in 468 with the help of a Hispano-Roman called Lusidius,[72] and finally in 469 it was integrated into the Suevi kingdom whose capital city was Braga. After the invasion, the Visigoths set up their court in Toledo and following several wars during the 6th century, conquered the Suevi, thus unifying the Iberian Peninsula, including the city they called Ulixbona.[73] During this tumultuous time, Lisbon lost its political links with Constantinople, but not its commercial connections. Merchant Greeks, Syrians, Jews, and others from the East formed communities[74] that exchanged local products with the Byzantine Empire, Asia and India.
Middle Ages
Al-Us̲h̲būna: Muslim Lisbon
After three centuries of looting by invaders and the devastation of its economy, Ulixbona was reduced to little more than a village by the beginning of the 8th century. In 711, taking advantage of a civil war in the Visigothic Kingdom, the Arabs, led by Tariq ibn Ziyad, invaded the Iberian Peninsula with their Moorish troops. Ulixbona, like the rest of the western peninsula, was conquered by the troops of Abdelaziz ibn Musa, a son of Tariq, who took the city in 714.[75]
Lisbon, known to the Arabs as "al-Us̲h̲būna" or al-ʾIšbūnah الأشبونة,[76] again became a major commercial and administrative centre for the territory along the Tagus, collecting its raw products and exchanging them for goods from the Arabic Mediterranean, particularly Morocco, Tunisia, Egypt, Syria and Iraq. According to contemporary accounts, the city was one of the largest cities in Europe at the time, several times larger than Paris and London, which then had only 5,000–10,000 inhabitants each.[77]
Most of the
Christian rites and customs of the Visigoths, was usually ostracised by Roman Catholics.The Jewish community, which had existed since the city's earliest days, grew more influential as Jews established themselves as merchants[79] and gained the financial advantage of living in the city's rising commercial hub. Besides salt, fish and horses, they traded spices from the Levant, medicinal herbs, dried fruit, honey and furs. The Saqaliba (Arabic:Saqāliba), slaves from Eastern Europe who served as mercenaries, joined the population and also acquired a prominent position in society. The Slavic slave Sabur al-Saqlabi ((Sabur the Slav)) became, during what was later known as the régulo eslavo,[80] ruler of the Taifa of Badajoz.[81] He was the son of Sabur al-Jatib, a Slav who had been in the service of al-Hakam II. His sons Abd al-Aziz ibn Sabur and Abd al-Malik ibn Sabur ruled successively as emirs of the Taifa of Lisbon.
Al-Us̲h̲būna was renovated and rebuilt in the customary pattern of the Middle Eastern city:[82] high walls (muralhas) surrounding the main buildings, which were a large mosque, a castle at the top of the hill (which in modified form became the Castelo de São Jorge), a medina or urban centre, and an alcácer, or fortress-palace for the governor.[83] The Alfama neighbourhood grew next to the original urban core. The citadel of al-Madan, now the city of Almada, was built on the south bank of the Tagus to protect the port.
The Arabs and Berbers introduced new methods of irrigated agriculture that were much more productive than the old Roman system of irrigation.[55][84] The waters of the Tagus and its tributaries were used to irrigate the land in summer, producing several crops a year of vegetables including lettuce and annual crops of oranges.
Lisbon became part of the
With the beginning of the Reconquista, the opulent al-Us̲h̲būna became a target of raids by the Christians, who plundered the city first in 796 and on other occasions in the following years, led by King Alfonso II of Asturias, but the border between Muslim and Christian Iberia remained north of the Douro. In 844 several dozen Viking boats sailed into the Sea of Straw.[85] After a siege of 13 days, the Scandinavians conquered the city and the surrounding territory, but eventually retreated in the face of continued resistance by the townspeople led by their governor, Wahb Allah ibn Hazm.[86][87][88]
At the beginning of the 10th century, various Islamic sects rose in al-Us̲h̲būna and converted the Hispano-Roman population. These sects were a form of political organization in revolt against the hierarchical system of the Muslim conquerors which institutionalised obstacles to their social mobility. The elite descendants of Muhammad ranked first, then full-blooded Arabs, then Berbers or Moors, and lastly the Arabised Muslims and Hispano-Romans. Several Hispano-Roman leaders emerged, including Ali ibn Ashra and others, who claimed to be prophets or descendants of `Alī ibn Abī Ṭālib, regarded by Shias as the first Imam. With their allies in other cities they started civil wars against the Sunni Arab troops. The Mozarabs and the Jews were treated even worse, sometimes suffering outright persecution.
The king of Asturias, Ordonho I, took the city in 851, as did Alfonso VI of León in 1093 when al-Mutawakkil of Badajoz surrendered al-Us̲h̲būna, S̲h̲antarīn (Santarém), and S̲h̲intra (Sintra) to Alfonso in 1093,[89][90] but it was soon retaken by the Amoravids in 1094.[91] An unsuccessful new attack by the Vikings followed in 966.
With the fragmentation of the
Conquest of al-Us̲h̲būna
Internal dissensions eventually divided the loyalties of the kingdoms in al-Andalus of the 11th century; the collapse of the Caliphate of Córdoba in 1031 led to a period of smaller successor states (taifas),[96] while the Kingdom of León lying directly to the north was ceded the county of Portugal. The history of the county is traditionally dated from the reconquest in 868 by Vímara Peres of the city of Portucale (Porto), which was the port of Cale, the present Gaia. Although the county had its seat at Guimarães, the economic strength that enabled its autonomy was based in Portucale. The isolated Atlantic province, recently centred in Coimbra, separated from the Kingdom of León to become the independent Kingdom of Portugal in 1139. It was eventually attached to Lisbon, thus integrating the territories adjoining the entire length of the Tagus.
Famed for its opulence, al-Us̲h̲būna's capture would bring the kingdom great prestige. Afonso I and his Christian forces first attempted to conquer the city in 1137 but failed to breach the city walls. In 1140 crusaders passing through Portugal launched another unsuccessful attack. According to the Anglo-Norman chronicler, in June and July 1147 a more numerous force of crusaders, consisting of 164 boatloads of English,
Legend has it that after many previous attempts, the Portuguese knight
Afonso I officially took possession of the city on 1 November, when the Great Mosque in the Moorish
and granted lands and titles to many of the most prominent crusaders in the region.Medieval Christian Lisbon
After conquering the city, Afonso I received information that the relics of Saint Vincent of Saragossa were buried in the Algarve. He made his way southward to reclaim the martyr's remains. but when he arrived at the village it had been totally destroyed and there was no sign of the burial site. A flock of crows was seen flying over the place when the remains were finally found in 1176, and according to legend, two crows accompanied the boat that was carrying them all the way to Lisbon. In commemoration of this story, the crow was chosen to adorn the city's coat of arms as a symbol of its faithful guardians;[111] but the fearless birds are no longer found in the area.
Three years later, in 1150, Afonso I built a cathedral on the site of the Great Mosque, now the Sé.[112][113] The original Christian edifice built on the site had been converted into a mosque by the Moors, but when Afonso took the city, the building was already decrepit. He had the structure rebuilt and enlarged under the name of the first cathedral of Lisbon, Santa María, and all the privileges of Mérida, the ancient ecclesiastical capital of the former Roman province of Lusitania, passed to the new diocese.[114]
Afonso I granted Lisbon a
An indirect effect of this economic dynamism was that Lisbon's trade contributed to the ruin of the south German merchants, who engaged in the same commerce by using a more costly land route between the ports of Italy and those of the Netherlands and the Hansa[119] that was only viable when Muslim pirates and their ships controlled southern Spain and the Strait of Gibraltar. As the Holy Roman Empire lost influence over its kingdoms, duchies and city-state constituents,[120] the German merchants, hitherto the masters of European trade, were forced to seek new markets in the East.
With the new prosperity and increased security of Lisbon after the final conquest of the
Just as there were Portuguese communities in the cities of northern Europe, there were colonies of merchants from the rest of Europe in Lisbon,[123][124] then one of the most important cities in international trade.[125] Not counting the Jewish population (already established as a Portuguese minority), the Genoese were the most numerous expatriate community, followed by those of the Venetians and other Italians, and the Dutch and English. These merchants brought new cartographic and navigational techniques to Portugal, as well as an understanding of financial and banking practices and of the mercantilism system, not to mention the knowledge gained through their contacts with Byzantine and Muslim middlemen of the origins of imported Asian luxury goods such as silks and spices.
Political tensions with Castile were counterbalanced by an alliance made in 1308 by King Denis between Portugal and England,
On the lower end of the social scale in Lisbon were all types of labourers and street merchants, as well as fishermen and farmers of vegetable gardens. In this era the streets were occupied by tradesmen who had organised artisans' guilds directed by masters of their respective trades. These included: Rua do Ouro (Goldsmiths' Street), Rua da Prata (Silversmiths' Street), Rua dos Fanqueiros (Drapers' Street), Rua dos Sapateiros (Cobblers' Street), Rua dos Retroseiros (Mercers' Street) and Rua dos Correeiros (Saddlers' Street).
Minorities in the city included
The Moorish quarter was the corresponding ghetto for Muslims, containing the Great Mosque situated on the Rua do Capelão (Chaplains Street). However, they were not as prosperous nor as educated as the Jews, since the Muslim elites had fled to North Africa, while the Jews, who were literate speakers of Portuguese, had no other homeland. Most Muslims were workers in low-skilled, low-wage jobs and many were slaves of Christians. They had to display identifying symbols on their robes and pay extra taxes, and suffered the violence of the crowds. The deprecatory term saloio (countryman) came from a special levy, the salaio, that the Muslims who cultivated gardens within the city limits had to pay. Likewise, the term alfacinha (little head of lettuce) came from the cultivation by the Moors of lettuce plants,[133] then little consumed in the north.
The city's prosperity was interrupted in 1290 by the first major earthquake in its recorded history, with many buildings collapsing and thousands of people dying. Earthquakes were recorded in 1318, 1321, 1334, and 1337; the temblor of 1344 leveled part of the Cathedral and the Moorish palace, or Alcáçova, and later quakes occurred in 1346, 1356 (destroying another portion of the cathedral), 1366, 1395 and 1404, all probably resulting from displacements in the same geological fault. Famine in 1333 and the first appearance of the Black Death in 1348 killed half the population; new outbreaks of lower mortality occurred in each succeeding decade. The aftermath of these disasters, in Lisbon as well as in the rest of Europe, led to a series of religious, social, and economic upheavals, destroying the vibrant European civilization of the Middle Ages and the spirit of universal Christianity symbolised by the soaring Gothic architecture of its cathedrals. Yet it also paved the way for the emergence of a new civilization with the coming of the age of discovery and the rise of a revitalised spirit of scientific inquiry.
Revolution: the 1383–1385 crisis and its aftermath
A new chapter in the history of Lisbon was written with the social revolution of the
The war fought in 1383–1385 was at bottom a war between the conservative land-owning medieval aristocracy (very similar to and allied with their Galician and Castilian counterparts)
The new bourgeois nobles built their palaces and stately homes in the Santos neighbourhood; other important buildings included the university, which had returned to Lisbon in the Alfama; the
Portuguese foreign policy promoted the interests of Lisbon: trade and cooperation agreements were signed with the commercial city-states of Venice (accord of 1392), Genoa (1398),
Lisbon, mistress of the seas
The prosperity of Lisbon was threatened when the
Prince Henry, based in the city of
After Henry's death, by which time the sea route was already open, the expansion of the African trade led to the rise of a
Meanwhile, there were new attempts by the remaining feudal nobles of northern Portugal to retake control of the kingdom, frustrated as they were by the growing prosperity of Lisbon's merchants in contrast to their own loss of income. Their purpose was to seek further conquest in North Africa, which offered the prospect of more and relatively easy victories. Such a campaign would be favorable to the interests of the feudal nobles, who stood to gain lands and tenants in Morocco by waging war,
As the islands of Madeira and the Azores were colonised, the Crown encouraged production of commercial products for export to Lisbon, primarily
The best markets and most valuable products were to be found, however, in India and the East. The war between the Ottoman Empire and Venice resulted in greatly increased prices for black pepper, other spices, and silks brought by the Venetians to Italy from the Ottoman-controlled Egypt, which received Arabian boats sailing from India at its ports on the Red Sea (and thence to Lisbon and the rest of Europe). To circumvent the "Turkish problem", a voyage of discovery to be captained by Vasco da Gama was organised, again on the initiative of the Lisbon merchants, but this time with royal funding; his boats arrived in India in 1498.[153][154]
Before the end of the 16th century, the Portuguese merchant fleets had reached China (where they founded the commercial colony of
As the Portuguese merchant fleets established the ports of call of the Eastern trade route and made commercial agreements with their rulers, Lisbon gained access to the sources of products it exclusively sold to the rest of Europe for many years: in addition to African products including pepper, cinnamon, ginger, nutmeg, herbs, and cotton fabrics, as well as diamonds from
As Lisbon became the prime market for luxury goods to satisfy the tastes of the elite classes all across Europe:
To organise private trade and manage the collection of taxes, the great Portuguese trading houses of the capital were founded in the late 15th-century: the Casa da Mina ( House of Mina), the Casa dos Escravos (House of Slaves), the Casa da Guiné (
The 16th century in Lisbon was the cultural golden age for Portuguese science and
The Jewish population, as always, included some of the poor, as well as scholars, merchants, and financiers who were among the most educated and wealthy citizens in the city. A commentary on the
As a result of the dissension aroused by this catastrophe, King Manuel was persuaded by the territorial nobles to introduce the Inquisition (which did not become formally active until 1536)[182] during the reign of his son and successor, King John III, and legal restrictions were imposed on all descendants of New Christians (similar to those the Old Christians had imposed on the Jews), to prevent them from threatening senior government posts held by the Old Christian aristocracy. The first auto-da-fé was held at the Palace Square in 1540.[183][184] Besides the Inquisition, other social problems arose; in 1569 the great Plague of Lisbon killed 50,000 people.[185]
The inquisition put to death many of the New Christians, and expropriated the property and wealth of many others. The riches of even some Old Christian merchants were expropriated after false anonymous complaints were made that the inquisitors accepted as valid, since the property of the condemned reverted to themselves. On the other hand, few merchants would not have had some New Christian ancestry, as marriages between the children of Christian and Jewish partners in the major firms were commonplace. The Inquisition thus became an instrument of social control in the hands of the Old Christians against almost all the Lisbon merchants, and finally restored their long lost supremacy.
In this climate of intolerance and persecution, the expansion of the economy enabled by the genius of the traders was undone by the large landowners (whose collectible rents were much less than the receipts of the merchants), and the prosperity of Lisbon was destroyed. The former climate of liberalism conducive to trade disappeared and was replaced by Catholic fanaticism and a rigid conservatism. The noble elites persecuted those who were alleged to be not of "pure blood" and truly Old Christian. Many of the merchants fled to England or the Netherlands, bringing their naval and cartographic knowledge with them as they settled in those places. Lisbon was taken by the feudal mentality of the great nobles, and the Portuguese merchants, with no security or social support and unable to obtain credit during the persecutions of the Inquisition, could not compete with the English and Dutch merchants (many of them of Portuguese origin) who subsequently took over the markets of India, the East Indies and China.
The young king
Philippine dynasty
The
When King
In 1580, Philip started a series of construction works and renovations throughout Portugal, seeking to rehabilitate the kingdom after the War of the Portuguese Succession. During his three-year stay in Lisbon, from 1580 to 1583, Philip considered making the city the imperial capital of his trans-European monarchy and empire.[196] To better suit the city for his extravagant court, he ordered the remodeling and expansion of Ribeira Palace, under the supervision of Filippo Terzi[197] of Bologna, the Master of the Royal Works. The king decided to modernise the palace, stripping it of its early renaissance Manueline style and converting it into a monumental Mannerist complex. The highlight of the Philippine renovations was the reconstruction and enlargement of the Torre do Rei (Tower of the King), which transformed the three-story Manueline tower that housed the Casa da Índia[198] into a five-story Mannerist tower, complete with an observatory and one of the largest royal libraries in all of Europe.
Philip also ordered the reconstruction of the
Philip attempted to reconcile the interests of the Portuguese nobility in acquiring more territory in Europe with those of the clergy in halting the spread of Protestantism, as well as those of the bourgeoisie in eliminating mercantile competition and privateering by the English and Dutch. All the boats capable of military action in Lisbon, Seville and Barcelona were gathered in an armada sent against England in 1588[202] with the express purpose of escorting an army from Flanders[203] to invade the island nation across the Channel.[204] The strategic aim was to overthrow Queen Elizabeth I and the Tudor establishment of Protestantism in England.[205] Philip sent the large mercenary infantry regiments (terços) of the Army of Flanders, commanded by the Duke of Parma, to the coast of Flanders in preparations for the invasion.[206] A combination of severe storms in the North Atlantic, the faster and more maneouverable ships of the English navy, and the superior seamanship of the English admirals resulted in the destruction of the Spanish fleet and put an end to these plans.[207]
From the Portuguese succession crisis in 1580 to the beginning of the reign of the monarchs of the
Throughout the 17th century, the increasing predations and surrounding of Portuguese trading posts in the East by the Dutch, English and French,[210] and their rapidly growing intrusion into the Atlantic slave trade,[211] undermined Portugal's near monopoly on the lucrative oceanic spice and slave trades.[212] This sent the Portuguese spice trade into a long decline.[213] The diversion of wealth from Portugal by the Habsburg monarchy to help support the Catholic side of the Thirty Years' War also strained the union, although Portugal did benefit from Spanish military power in retaining Brazil and in disrupting Dutch trade. Over time, Portugal became economically dependent on its colonies, first India and then Brazil.
As the Dutch and English made encroachments on the overseas trade, they were unable to seize the Spanish territorial empires of Mexico and Peru, so they concentrated on taking the Portuguese trading posts, ports and coastal colonies that provided the goods trafficked in Lisbon. The northeastern ports of Brazil,[214] the Cape of Good Hope, other ports in East Africa, Ceylon, Malacca and the Moluccas Islands were taken, as well as the island of Formosa (Taiwan) and the trade concession in Japan.[215]
Lisbon, with its merchants persecuted by the Inquisition (which expropriated the property of
With the rise of bureaucratic government ("government by paper") in the administration of the empire during the Philippine age,[220] the Spanish inevitably found deficiencies in Portuguese administration both in Portugal and its overseas colonies, to the point that a new code of Portuguese law, the Ordenações Filipinas (Philippine Decrees), was promulgated in 1603.[221] The city's mercantile operations and Its potential as a centre of maritime trade were described by the Portuguese cartographer, Pedro Teixeira Albernaz,[222] who conducted a survey in 1622 of all the coasts of the Iberian peninsula at the order of Philip III. The results were published at Madrid in 1634.[223][224]
Portugal was brought low during the final years of the reign of Philip III, as the Spanish officials often flagrantly violated the conditions granted by Philip I, which were the original contract and unalterable constitution of Portugal while it was subject to the monarchs of Castile.[225] Lisbon, the once great cosmopolitan city, was reduced to the rank of a provincial city with no influence among the higher Spanish nobility who governed from Madrid,[226] their conservative and fundamentalist Catholic capital. Lisbon lost much of its population and its importance to the world economy as its mercantile activity shrank. With economic decline, unemployment and crime increased greatly, adding to the misery of the common people. The Spanish authorities were obliged to introduce a kind of auxiliary police force, the Quadrilheiros, whose members patrolled the streets to control street crime, fights, sorcery and gaming.[227]
Half a century of continual war and more than a century of depredations by privateers and pirates weighed heavily on the administration and defence of the Portuguese empire,[228] spread as it was across Asia, Africa and America, and exhausted the Portuguese treasury.[229] In 1640, Count-Duke de Olivares, royal favourite of Philip IV and prime minister of Spain, imprudently chose to levy a special tax upon Portugal in violation of its constitution, at the very time when the Catalans, a merchant people like those of Lisbon, and also oppressed by Castilian taxes, were on the verge of armed rebellion. Then the prime minister of Portugal, Miguel de Vasconcelos, on the advice of the Spanish nobility, and with the complicity of the Portuguese feudal nobles, announced the Spanish minister's intention of abolishing the Portuguese Cortes, and of making the country a mere province of Castile[230] with its own representatives in the Castilian Cortes.[231] This provocation was the last straw for those Portuguese who desired the restoration of Portugal's independence.
Portuguese Restoration War
During the so-called 'Philippine dominion', royal power in Portugal was administered mostly by viceroys and governors; this period ended in 1640[232] when the Portuguese Restoration War was initiated against Spain, and Portugal regained its independence (the Restauração) under the Braganza (Bragança) dynasty.[233]
The merchants of Lisbon allied themselves with the lower and the middle Portuguese nobility and entreated the Duke of Braganza to accept the throne. According to some historians he was really as indifferent as he seemed and it was the ambition of his wife and of his allies that made him king.[234][235] Some of them assert as well that the duke was hesitant because he, like the rest of the high nobility, benefited by Madrid's rule, but that the prospect of becoming king finally persuaded him. In any event, on 1 December 1640, the conspirators assailed the royal palace and the citadel of Lisbon, and meeting little resistance, acclaimed the duke as the new King of Portugal, John IV (João IV).
Brazilian gold
Post-Restoration Lisbon was increasingly dominated by
The financial plight of the country was finally relieved, not by the successful prosecution of state-issued directives, but by the colonial government's exploitation of the deposits of gold discovered 1693–1695 in what is now the state of Minas Gerais (General Mines) in Brazil.[238][239][240][241] The Portuguese state charged a tax of one-fifth of the gold extracted from the mines, known as the royal fifth (quinto del rey), which began arriving in Lisbon in 1699; revenues rose quickly, peaking at more than 3 tonnes annually in the early 1750s,[242] representing almost the entire budget of the state. With the large income generated by this surge in gold production, opulent buildings were commissioned by the clergy and the aristocracy of Lisbon. These were built in the new Baroque architectural style of the Counter-Reformation; among them were several palaces and the Church of Santa Engrácia (Igreja de Santa Engrácia), which in the 20th century was converted into the National Pantheon (Panteão Nacional).
In contrast to the luxurious lifestyle of the elite classes, the common people generally lived under wretched conditions,[243] even though demand for manual labour to construct new buildings increased as the population grew.[244] The first descriptions of Lisbon as a dirty and degraded city were written in this period, just two centuries after its having been among the most prosperous and cosmopolitan in Europe.[245][246]
The late 17th-century discoveries of gold and diamond deposits in Brazil were the most important such finds ever made in the colonial New World. Between 1700 and 1800 a thousand metric tonnes of gold were recorded as received by the Portuguese treasury, and another thousand tonnes may have evaded the royal fifth. Around 2.4 million carats of diamonds were extracted from the alluvial sources in Minas Gerais, while an unknown amount was smuggled out. These riches had a great economic impact there and in the mother country, encouraging large numbers of Portuguese to emigrate to the colony and giving it a more European character. Many of the settlers found their way to the gold-bearing region in the Atlantic Forest {Mata Atlântica}, where they could become prosperous enough to buy African slaves.[247]
Increasing demand from Brazil benefited the merchants of Lisbon, who supplied the colonials with cloth and metal wares, as well as luxury items including spices, porcelain, silks, and velvets from Europe and Asia.[248] Competition with British-financed merchants, who had direct access to sources for the precious metals mined in Brazil, caused the Lisbon merchants to enter the more open market of Luanda where they purchased captive Africans. They sold these slaves in exchange for gold at Rio de Janeiro, the port city that grew on the Atlantic coast to satisfy the demand for import goods created by the mining activities of Minas Gerais. To secure a larger portion of the lucrative Brazilian gold market, the Rio merchants worked out a strategy of obtaining slaves from traders in Angola.[249]
Earthquake of 1755 and Pombaline era
A new era began in Lisbon on 1 November 1755,
In 1756, the French philosopher and voice of the enlightenment,
Military engineers and surveyors under the supervision of chief engineer General Manuel da Maia (1672–1768), Colonel Carlos Mardel (1695–1763), and Captain Eugénio dos Santos (1711–1760) were ordered by the Marquis of Pombal to draw up plans for the rebuilding of the city, to inventory property claims, and to ensure that debris was removed safely and the bodies of the dead were disposed of in a sanitary manner.[266][267] The Águas Livres Aqueduct (Aquaducto das Águas Livres), built by order of John V and put into service in 1748, was so well constructed that it was unharmed by the earthquake of 1755;[268][269] it had 127 masonry arches,[270][271][272] the highest of which is in the stretch crossing the Alcântara valley, and is 65 metres (213 ft) high.[273]
As part of the reconstruction of downtown Lisbon, a new naval arsenal was erected by order of Pombal[274] at the same site on the banks of the Tagus, west of the royal palace, where many of the ships of the Portuguese age of exploration were built, among them the naus and galleons that had opened the trade route to India.[275] It was a vast building containing naval magazines and offices of different departments of the naval service. Renamed the Arsenal Real da Marinha (Royal Navy Shipyard),[276] the official maritime works of the Ribeira das Naus continued operating there as in the expansive days of Manuel I, who had ordered the construction of new shipyards (tercenas) on the site of the medieval shipyards.
The 1st Marquis of Pombal, who had been born into the lower-ranking nobility, became effectively prime minister to Joseph I,[277] after brief careers in the Portuguese army and the diplomatic service[278] He famously responded to the king's query regarding what he should do about the devastation caused by the earthquake: "Bury the dead. Feed the living. Rebuild the city."[278] This was a succinct expression of Pombal's approach to the recovery of the city's economy and social structure.
The marquis, after he had ordered a review of the actual situation through an unprecedented population survey, refused the counsel of some of his advisers who wished to move the capital to another city, and initiated reconstruction in Lisbon according to new theories of urban planning. The royal income from Brazil paid for almost the entire reconstruction project,
.
Most of the reconstruction was carried out, however, in the old city centre with a new layout approved by the marquis and designed by Eugenio dos Santos and Carlos Mardel,[282] for the Baixa, the neighbourhood hardest hit by the earthquake. Their plan fit the pragmatic spirit of the age of Enlightenment, with the narrow old streets being replaced by wide straight avenues arranged orthogonally. These not only allowed proper ventilation and lighting of the streets, but also allowed for better security, including police patrols and access to buildings in case of fire, as well as measures to prevent the spread of fire to neighbouring structures. The buildings had to conform to regulations based on a consistent policy, with the architectural team defining which façade designs were allowed, and the rules of construction for all buildings. They aimed to reorganise the social structure of the city, with a new emphasis on mercantile business, and developed a set of rules for the construction of housing better able to survive a powerful earthquake.
The critical architectural innovation designed for this purpose consisted of a wooden skeleton called the gaiola pombalina (Pombal Cage), a flexible rectangular frame with diagonal braces[283] enabling structures to withstand the overload and stress of an earthquake without coming apart.[284] This wooden frame was erected atop walls with barrel vault arches on a masonry foundation,[285] giving solidity and weight to the first floor of the buildings, intended for occupation by shops, offices and warehouses. All new structures in the downtown area were erected on pine log pilings driven into the sandy soil of the Baixa, to ensure the effective support of their weight.[286] They were arranged according to their importance in a horizontal hierarchy based on proximity to the street[287] (the uppermost storey would be reserved for poorer families with few possessions, usually having lower ceilings, communal balconies, smaller windows and smaller rooms). All the buildings had masonry firewalls separating them from each other.[288] The standardization of façades, windows, doors, simple geometric patterns in the hallway tiles, etc.[289] permitted accelerated progress of the works through the mass production of these elements on site.
The entire area was laid out along neo-Classical lines with classical proportions
A new market was designed, although it was ultimately never built, at the north end, parallel to Rossio, at the square originally called Praça Nova (New Square), and today known as the Praça da Figueira. Despite their fervent desire to complete the project, rebuilding Lisbon took much longer than Pombal and his staff expected, its reconstruction not being completed until 1806. This was due largely to the lack of capital among the bourgeoisie of a city in crisis. With ruthless efficiency Pombal limited the power of the Church, expelled the Jesuits from Portuguese territories[293][294] and brutally suppressed the power of the conservative territorial aristocracy.[295] This led to a series of conspiracies and counter-conspiracies, culminating with the torture and public execution in 1759 of members of the Távora family[296][297] and its closest relatives, who were implicated in a plot to assassinate the king, dispatch Pombal and put the conservative Duke of Aveiro on the throne.[298] Some historians argue that this charge is unsupportable, that it was a hoax perpetrated by Pombal himself to limit the growing powers of the old aristocratic families.[299]
By the 1770s Pombal had effectively neutralised the Inquisition,[300][301] consequently the new Christians, still the majority of the educated and liberal middle class of the city and the country, were freed from their legal restrictions and finally allowed access to the high government positions previously the exclusive monopoly of the 'pureblood' aristocracy.[302] Industry was supported in a somewhat dirigiste, but vigorous, manner, several royal factories being established in Lisbon and other cities that thrived. After the Pombaline period there were twenty new plants for every one that had previously existed. The various state-imposed taxes and duties, which had proven burdensome to trade, were abolished in 1755.[303] Throughout the implementation of these initiatives by the Junta do Comércio, Pombal relied on donations and loans made by the merchants and industrialists of Lisbon.[304]
Signs of a recovering economy emerged slowly under the Portuguese economic renewal policy. The city grew gradually to 250,000 inhabitants who settled in all geographical directions, occupying the new neighbourhoods of Estrela and Rato, while its new industrial centre concentrated around the recent water supply brought by the aqueduct to the water tower of Alcântara.[305] Many factories arose in the area, including the royal ceramic factory and the silk factory of Amoreiras, where mulberry trees were grown to provide leaves to feed the larvae of the silkworms used by the local silk factories.[306][307] The Prime Minister tried continually to stimulate the rise of middle class,[308] which he saw as essential to the country's development and progress. The first cafes owned by Italians were founded in the city around this time: some survive today such as Martinho da Arcada (1782) in the Palace Square[309][310] and the Nicola in Rossio Square,[311] whose Liberal owner, among others, illuminated the façade after each Progressive political victory. The richest burghers acquired the habit of holding social soirées, with the unprecedented participation of women, while among the conservative nobility women held their traditional place and did not participate. In this manner a self-conscious bourgeois middle class rose again from the people of Lisbon, composed of both New Christians and Old Christians; these were the source of the national Liberal and Republican political movements, their presence manifested by the publication of several new newspapers in the capital.
Pombal was forced to resign after the death of King Joseph and the ascension to the throne of his daughter, the very religious Maria I, whose great contribution to the nation's cultural patrimony was the building of the
Civil war: liberals and conservatives
In the last quarter of the 18th century, the American Revolution, begun in 1776, galvanised liberal ideas of government throughout Europe.
When Junot entered Lisbon on 30 November 1807, the Portuguese royal family, aristocracy and high clergy had already set sail for Brazil the previous day.
The lack of any movement by General Junot to enact reforms and the violent behavior of the French soldiers finally compelled the Junta Provisional do Supremo Governo do Reino (Provisional Board of the Supreme Government of the Kingdom) to seek the aid of England,[334] which sent an expeditionary force led by Wellesley and William Beresford.[335] The French were outnumbered, and Junot was forced to retreat in late 1808 following a withdrawal agreement with the British, who simultaneously entered the town and set up their headquarters in Arroios.[336] The British received control of Lisbon's and Portugal's governments from Prince Regent John, who now resided in Rio de Janeiro, and administered them as virtual colonies of Great Britain. Lisbon suffered economically with the opening of the ports of Brazil to England.[337] Following the French withdrawal, the Portuguese populace was free to avenge itself on their francophile compatriots for the brutality and depredations of the French.[338]
Meanwhile, to control access to the capital, Wellington's chief engineer, Richard Fletcher, built the defensive lines known as the Lines of Torres Vedras across the peninsula on which Lisbon sits, using Portuguese workmen.[339][340] Bounded by the Atlantic Ocean on one side and the Tagus on the other, the city was reachable only by a narrow stretch of land blocked by a range of hills stretching from Sintra to Torre Vedras,[341] which since Roman times had marked the bounds of Lisbon's territory. Conceived by Fletcher and a Portuguese major, Neves Costa,[342] the Lines proved impregnable to the French invasion force (Armée de Portugal) commanded by Marshal André Masséna, who withdrew in defeat in March 1811,[343] after which the British and some Portuguese troops under General Wellington left Portugal to launch another offensive against the French army in Spain. This offensive culminated with a victory at Vittoria, effectively ending French control of Spain.[344] Napoleon was finally defeated 18 June 1815 at Waterloo by a coalition of Britain, Prussia, Austria and Russia.[345]
Beresford was made a Lieutenant-General in the British army and given command of the Portuguese army in 1809, with the rank of Marshal to bolster his authority over the Portuguese generals. He remained in the country long after the French withdrew in 1811, and, although he took his orders from King John, acted as a virtual dictator, becoming increasingly despotic after 1815, when Brazil was declared a kingdom.[346]
A conspiracy against John and the Regency Council, organised by General Gomes Freire de Andrade, leader of the Portuguese partisans of France (Partido Francês), was discovered at Lisbon in May 1817; on the orders of Marshal Beresford, the principals were promptly arrested and tried. The object of the conspirators was to overthrow the British, to put Beresford to death, and to set up a revolutionary government. Gomes Freire, formerly commander of the Portuguese Legion in Napoleon's army, was sentenced to death with eleven of his accomplices, and on 18 October 1817 they were executed. He and seven others were hanged, their bodies burnt, and their ashes thrown into the Tagus.[347][348][349][350]
The bourgeoisie of Lisbon chafed under the British occupation; in 1820 the Liberals of Porto rebelled and took control of the city, followed by a coup d'état in Lisbon and the expulsion of the British governors.[351] The Cortes were then convoked by the Liberals, one of them enacting the Constitution of 1822 (actually written in 1820),"[352] a charter of human rights that ended the privileges of the clergy and the nobility.
The years of political struggle between the conservative authoritarian absolutists and the progressive constitutionalist Liberals
The period of Liberal government (1820–1842) was marked by wars and guerrilla actions, but even so, many reforms and public works projects were introduced. The long-planned project to provide lighting in the city was finally implemented; and introduced in many private homes of the bourgeoisie between the years 1823 and 1837. Initially, lamps were lit by olive oil, and later fish oil, then were replaced by gas lamps in 1848.[357] A new network of roads was constructed; and a line of steamships went into service linking Lisbon to Porto by sea. Plans were made to launch the construction of railways, but the war with the Conservatives made this impossible, and the first railroad line in Portugal, the Caminhos de Ferro Portugueses, between Lisbon and Carregado, would not open until 1856.[358]
This period was marked by a partial loss of Lisbon's economic vitality when Brazil became independent and its gold and other products no longer flowed into the capital.[359] During the Cabralismo, the period from 1842 to 1846 when António Bernardo da Costa Cabral dominated Portuguese politics,[360] noble titles were assigned to many of the more important bourgeoisie, as a compromise with the Conservative Party that had some success.[361] With the loss of earnings from Brazil, dependence on the state became attractive for the leisure class, who feared competition from the neo-aristocrats and supported traditionally rigid social divisions. It was at this time that titles of 'Baron' and 'Viscount' multiplied among the landed property owners,[362] many of them hereditary, but many others being limited to the life of the beneficiary receiving rents from the state or engaged in the corrupt politics of the time. The territorial aristocracy acquired the habit of spending the winters in Lisbon, staying in their manor houses (solars) only in summer. However, it was the common people who suffered most from the wars and the loss of Brazil, as the city's economy stagnated and it lost its international influence, going from the fifth most populous city in Europe[363] to the tenth and continuing downward.[364] Employment opportunities became more precarious and poverty again increased.
Lisbon between Europe and Africa
Following the end of the wars and conflicts between absolutist conservatives and liberals, Lisbon was in a declining economic situation,[365] having lost the gold and commodities monopoly of Brazil, the source of most of its wealth since the end of the 16th century.[366] The northern European nations had prospered through industrialisation, and become rich through trade in the Americas (Great Britain would dominate the Brazilian market) and Asia.[367] Portugal's downturn seemed irreversible.
Unable to decisively defeat the Liberals, and frightened by the economic downturn that conservative policies had led Portugal into since the 16th century, in contrast to the success of liberal England, France and the Netherlands, the absolutists who dominated the country and the capital partially relented. Limited reforms would be allowed in exchange for defending the conservative and religious values of a mostly rural population, with political power remaining in the hands of the large landowners. Elections would be held, but only those qualified by ownership of substantial property would be allowed to vote. The patronage of the state would be shared with the neo-aristocrats and titles granted to the large bourgeoisie and capitalists.[368] The ruling classes would retain their privileges and subsidies from the state, and industrialisation would be limited to their interests.
In this period Lisbon was a poor and dirty city compared to the cities of northern Europe.
A railway line connecting Lisbon to Porto and intervening cities was constructed, with two new train stations: Santa Apolónia and Rossio.[378] Electric lighting was introduced as a public utility in 1878, replacing gas lighting.[379] The first master plans of urban development were drawn up.in response to the need to reverse the city's reputation as a dirty, backward capital that shocked visitors from northern Europe. Its inhabitants were encouraged to use the decorative ceramic tiles called azulejos on the exteriors of their houses[380][381] and to paint the facades pink, according to municipal guidelines (the numerous buildings with decorated tiles of this period dominate the city centre today).[382] The first plumbing systems were installed and sewage and water treatment plants built in response to the cholera epidemics that killed thousands.[383][384] Using the labour of the impoverished working class, it was now possible to pave both the new and the old streets (as well as Rossio Square)[385] as had been done on a smaller scale in the 16th century, with the centuries-old traditional technique, known as calçada, of laying cobblestones.[386] Other important innovations were the American street cars (passenger vehicles on rails pulled by horses),[387] introduced in 1873; they were replaced in 1901 by electric trams,[388] which still exist today, and the funiculars and cable cars that were installed on several of the ciiy's hills after 1880.[389]
The cultural and commercial centre of the city moved to the Chiado. With the old streets of the Baixa already occupied, the owners of new stores and clubs established their businesses in the newly annexed hillside neighbourhood, which was rapidly developed. Clubs founded there included institutions like the Grémio Literário (Literary Guild), founded by the writers Almeida Garrett and Alexandre Herculano[390] and described in the famous stories of Eca de Queiroz.[391] Its elegant salons were frequented by Garrett and Herculano, as well as Ramalho Ortigão, Guerra Junqueiro, and Pedro de Oliveira Martins, among others. Clothing stores carried the latest Paris fashions and other luxury products, and department stores were built[392][393] and set up in the style of Harrods of London or the Galeries Lafayette in Paris, as well as new Luso-Italian cafes like Tavares and Cafe Chiado.
Buildings rose and roads were constructed in the new neighbourhoods north of Lisbon, works initiated by the city council with the support of the bourgeoisie. In 1878 the public promenade was demolished; it was replaced in 1886 by the Avenida da Liberdade (Liberty Avenue), designed by Ressano Garcia to be the central urban axis of the city, connecting the Baixa with the newly developed areas of the city and extending into agricultural land in anticipation of further urban expansion. At the head of the avenue was constructed
In the cultural realm, this was the period when bullfighting and fado became popular entertainments, soon joined by the popular theatre and theatrical revues (imported from Paris)[396] which, along with classical comedies and dramas, competed with the new theatres of the capital. A typically Portuguese entertainment of the time was the oratory, a competition in which actors corrupted the old art of António Vieira, vying for prizes in the performance of florid and usually superficial arguments in song. The first large public gardens were created around this time, imitating Hyde Park in London and the gardens of German cities; the first was the Jardim da Estrela (located opposite the Basilica da Estrela), where the Lisbon bourgeois resorted on the weekends.[364]
Socially, the upper classes of Lisbon were now a mix of conservative nobles who were forced to accept, albeit reluctantly, some liberal ideas, and the newly entitled bourgeois who held many conservative ideas. They were joined by the Brazilians, many of them formerly poor and uneducated immigrants who had immigrated to Brazil and grown rich, then returned to the city, eager to find acceptance in higher social circles. Lisbon was the industrial centre of the country, despite its industrialisation being minimal compared to that of England or Germany. The poorer strata of Lisbon society grew exponentially with the arrival of the first workers to man the new factories.[397] They often lived in miserable slums, amidst raging epidemics of cholera and other diseases, working all day just to have enough to eat.[398]
Prior liberal governments had betrayed the middle class, whose taxes paid for the luxuries of the leisure classes, but they, receiving nothing in return, were invigorated by a new, more radical liberal movement, which threatened not only the old landowners but also the new capitalist barons and viscounts who depended on the largesse of the state.
An alliance between the most educated workers and the middle class was borne of the new radical liberalism, better known as Republicanism because of its opposition to the alliance of former liberals who now depended on the monarchist state (the newly entitled bourgeois) and the conservative monarchists of the old aristocracy, as well as large capitalists, landowners and dependents of the royal court.
1910 Revolution
With the emergence of a compromise government between the more right wing Liberals and the more moderate conservatives,[399] as manifested in the constitutional monarchy, the lack of development and further notable reforms in the country led the more left wing Liberal party, made up mostly of middle class partisans, to reformulate its policy objectives. Thus was born a Republican Party that advocated radical liberal reforms such as universal suffrage, the end of the privileges of the Catholic Church and rents given to the nobles, and above all, the overthrow of a political elite discredited by its corruption and incompetence. The country went into debt and was increasingly dependent on the northern provinces of the country. The humiliation of submitting to the ultimatum of 11 January 1890 issued by Great Britain, an allied nation, was undoubtedly a cathartic episode.[400][401] Britain demanded that Portugal surrender what are now Zambia and Zimbabwe and abandon its plans to acquire lands in this part of Africa that it needed to connect Angola and Mozambique.[402][403][404][405][406]
The conditions that made possible the Republican rise to power were above all economic. In the last quarter of the 19th century, a slow but vigorous industrialisation began in Portugal, concentrated in Lisbon and Porto.
The first trade unions were organised at this time, many of which were affiliated with anarchists. Instead of joining the new Marxist party as elsewhere in Europe, other workers gathered around the middle and professional classes of the Republican Party, and supported their candidates in the elections of 1899 and 1900.[379][414] As a result, the party, very weak in the north of the country, with the exception of Porto, gained increasing influence in the capital. Despite championing property rights and the free market, the Republicans promised to improve working conditions and pass social measures. However, the upper classes still lived in a society apart, unable to respond to the new political environment except with repression. The result was increasingly violent actions among the populace.
Facing republican dissent, Prime Minister
The writer and politician Teófilo Braga was acclaimed President of the Provisional Government of the Portuguese Republic and led the government until approval of the Constitution in 1911, which marked the beginning of the First Republic.[420] The old Republican Party would not survive the creation of the Republic, factions quickly developing between groups within the party to form new organizations. Liberal measures were enacted in 1911 with the passage of the "Separation Act", or Lei de Separação da Igreja do Estado (Law on the Separation of Church and State),[421] including the right to divorce and the right to strike, as well as social support for workers implemented by creation of the welfare state (Estado Providência). Subsequently, the tax structure was modified from a model based on contributions from workers and the middle classes to one that taxed the rich more heavily. The privileges of the nobility and the Church were rescinded, while religious orders were again expelled and some of their property seized by the state.[422]
First Republic
On 5 October 1910, Portugal became a republic, ending a monarchy that had endured since the 12th century. The period of the First Portuguese Republic (1910–1926) was marked by strife and political violence in Lisbon: under a little less than 16 years of republican government, there would be 45 changes of government.[423][424] Although the political environment was tense across Europe, with terrorist attacks and riots in even the most developed countries, the situation was more critical in Portugal, with economic and financial havoc. This was a time of upheavals, locally and nationally.[425] The old Republican Party would not survive the creation of the Republic; factions quickly developed between groups within the party and formed new organizations. There was a succession of general strikes (now legal), demonstrations, gunfire exchanges, and even bombings in the streets of Lisbon; the Republican political class was divided on how to handle the situation. In 1912 the monarchists exploited discontent with liberal laws imposed by the Republicans in the north, and launched a coup that failed.[426] In 1916, after Portugal interned German ships in Lisbon, Germany declared war on Portugal.[427]
In 1918 the Spanish flu descended on the city, killing many thousands and worsening the situation of the workers, who then revolted several times.[428] Sidónio Pais, the military leader and politician was murdered in central Lisbon on 14 December 1918.[429]
As the city's population grew during this period, it continued to expand northward into the broad expanse above Pombal Square and Parque Eduardo VII known as “Avenidas Novas",[430][431] which became the heart of the fashionable part of Lisbon, where the nouveau riche upper middle class built its grand new residences. This growth was part of the vision of engineer Frederico Ressano Garcia,[432][433] with wide streets having tree-lined walkways in the middle, although the street grid was laid out unevenly as the area developed. The façades of the multi-story mansard-roofed buildings were topped by sculptures and painted in the traditional residential colors of the city: yellow, pink and light blue, presenting a characteristic appearance that remains its most visible face. Nearly all of them were built by speculators and small contractors, mostly originating from the city of Tomar, and known colloquially as patos bravos (wild ducks).[434][435][436] Some of the new buildings were constructed in haste with little concern for safety, leading to several landslides and fatal accidents in the following years.
The First Republic ended in 1926,[427] well into the 20th century, when the anti-democratic conservative right (still led for the most part by the descendants of the old nobility in northern Portugal and the Catholic Church) finally took power after two attempts in 1925, leading eventually to the development of a new ideology and authoritarian government under the leadership of António de Oliveira Salazar.[437][438] This was the beginning of the Estado Novo, centred in Lisbon.[439]
Second Republic, or New State
The New State (Estado Novo) was the
In the 1930s, Duarte Pacheco (1900–1943), first as Public Works minister and later as Mayor of Lisbon, was responsible for a redefinition of the city's urban area by an innovative concerted action of legislation, architecture and urbanisation. In 1933, Pacheco invited the French urban architect, Alfred Agache (1875–1959), to draw up an urbanization plan from Terreiro do Paço to Cascais. 24 July 1933 issue of the newspaper, Diário de Lisboa, announced: “We Will Modernise the Capital! The French architect Agache came to Lisbon to study the construction of a highway from Lisbon to Cascais". This was to be a panoramic coastal road designed to accentuate the Portuguese capital's spectacular location, emphasising its proximity to the sea and associated entertainment and touristic activities, as well as sunbathing areas and thermal spas of cosmopolitan character. Lisbon would be connected to "The Costa do Sol", a tourist resort with the Palace Hotel and the International Casino, where facilities for golf, horse-riding and horse racing, polo, auto racing, fencing, pigeon shooting and beach sports were available.[445][446]
In 1938, Duarte Pacheco was appointed mayor of the Lisbon City Council. Under his administration, significant changes were made in town planning policies, including new ordinances to facilitate land appropriation. Pacheco invited Étienne de Groër to work on a master plan for Lisbon between 1938 and 1948. It was de Groër who planned the renovation of the Baixa and whose actions resulted in: the building of the University Campus of the Instituto Superior Técnico (IST) by the architect Porfírio Pardal Monteiro (1897–1957), the design of an integrated development of the city, the finalisation of the Bairro do Arco do Cego (the precursor of social housing in Lisbon), the widening of the Alameda D. Afonso Henriques, completion of the Luminosa fountain, the building of the National Institute of Statistics, the villas of the Avenida México and finally the steering of new development in the city to the north.[447]
In 1940 Lisbon hosted The Portuguese World Exhibition (Exposição do Mundo Português). The double centenary, celebrated with the Exposição do Mundo Português (Portuguese World Exhibition) held between June and December 1940, was the first major cultural event of the Estado Novo (New State) dictatorship and marked the high-point of its "nationalist-imperialist" propaganda. Staged to commemorate the foundation of the nation in 1140 and the regaining of its independence from Spain in 1640, the Exhibition became a vehicle for the diffusion and legitimisation of the dictatorship's ideology and values in which the idea of the nation was (re)constructed through a series of carefully planned images, myths and symbols. The World Exhibition of Lisbon attracted over 3 million visitors. The site of the trade fair was located between the northern bank of the river Tagus and the Jeronimos Monastery. Today this area covers the Belem Cultural Centre and the gardens directly in front of the Jeronimos Monastery. The marina of Lisbon was constructed expressly for the fair.
Despite the preparations for the 1940 Portuguese World Exhibition, Lisbon was the stage of an unusual movement: as the crossroads of the circulation of refugees from World War II, Lisbon was an important meeting place for spies from both sides, given the neutral character of the country. "In 1940 Lisbon, happiness was staged so that God could believe it still existed," wrote the French writer Antoine de Saint-Exupéry. During World War II, Saint-Exupery escaped from France to Portugal and ended up in Lisbon, waiting for a visa to go to America. He was not the only one; the Portuguese capital became a symbol of hope for many refugees. Even Ilsa and Rick, the star-crossed lovers in the film Casablanca, sought a ticket to that "great embarkation point." Thousands had flooded the city, trying to obtain the documents necessary to escape to the United States or Palestine. On 26 June the main HIAS-HICEM (Jewish relief organization) European Office was authorised by the Portuguese Government to be transferred from Paris to Lisbon.[448][449]
In 1956, the Portuguese Ambassador to the United Kingdom,
On 6 August 1966, a suspension bridge connecting Lisbon to the municipality of Almada on the left (south) bank of the Tejo river was inaugurated. [451] Because it is a suspension bridge and has similar colouring, it is often compared to the Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco, United States. The bridge also allowed Lisbon inhabitants direct egress to escape the hassle and the heat of Lisbon on a hot summer day and enjoy the beaches of Costa da Caparica, a continuous 30 km stretch of golden sands, a suitable alternative to the Cascais/Estoril coast.
Urban renewal projects initiated by the Estado Novo razed much of the Mouraria neighbourhood in the 1930s through the 1970s, thus eradicating a considerable amount of the last physical remnants of Moorish Lisbon, the loss of which has become a subject of lament in Lisbon fado.[452] In the later years of the Estado Novo's rule, the city had a population boom, driven by economic development and industrial progress.[453] During the 1950s and especially the 1960s, there was a large-scale rural exodus from the provinces to the capital. Surrounding areas were filled with peasants uprooted from farms and dwelling in squalid neighbourhoods. The largest and best known of these was the Brandoa.[454] From the 1960s onward, government policy was influenced by the technocratic faction[455] in the regime which advocated modernisation projects including expansion of the educational system and industrialisation, leading to a fast-growing national economy with increases in general standards of living and quality of life in the city.[456][457] Although it is generally agreed that the republic accomplished several notable social and economic achievements, including major improvements in public health and education levels in the period between the end of the Second World War and the 1974 revolution,[458] the Estado Novo was finally deposed by the Carnation Revolution (Revolução dos Cravos), launched in Lisbon with a military coup on 25 April 1974. The movement was joined by a popular campaign of civil resistance, leading to the fall of the Estado Novo, the restoration of democracy, and the withdrawal of Portugal from its African colonies and East Timor. The strain of waging the Portuguese Colonial War had overextended and weakened the Portuguese dictatorship, leading to the overthrow of Caetano's regime. Younger military officers, disillusioned by a far-off and taxing war,[459] began to side with the pro-independence resistance against Portugal and eventually led the military coup in Lisbon, ending a dictatorship that had been in power since 1933.[460][461]
Third Republic
The Carnation revolution of 1974, effectively a bloodless left-wing military coup, installed the Third Republic, and broad democratic reforms were implemented in the country's government. With Portugal's admission to the European Union in 1986, plans to rehouse the huge population living in deprived areas of the city emerged. There are now fewer slums in the capital and its environs, although there are serious problems in those that remain. But even these, such as Mouraria, have seen changes.[462] In 1988, a fire near the historical centre of Chiado greatly disrupted normal life in the area for about 10 years. Another boost to Lisbon's international standing was Expo 98 which opened up a new space in the capital, the Parque das Nações (Park of Nations).[463]
with a total length of 17.2 kilometres (10.7 mi), had begun in February 1995, and it opened to traffic on 29 March 1998, just in time for the fair. The Exposition's theme was 'The Oceans, a Heritage for the Future';[466] around 11 million visitors[467] attended in 132 days, with 155 countries and organizations represented. Expo '98 shut down on 30 September 1998, and the site remained closed until February 1999, when it reopened as Parque das Nações (Park of the Nations), a free-access park, keeping the gardens, Oceanarium (Europe's then largest aquarium), observation tower, funicular, and the Virtual Reality pavilion. The area thrives today, attracting 18 million tourists a year to its gardens, museums, commercial areas and modern buildings. It has also become a permanent residential area for up to 25,000 people and one of Lisbon's premier business centres, with many multinational corporations having their headquarters in its main avenue.The city has also hosted meetings of the Ibero-American Summit as well as of the Portuguese-speaking African countries, or PALOP, (Países Africanos de Língua Oficial Portuguesa). The real impetus to Lisbon's modernization came when Portugal joined the European Union (EU).[468] The city received significant funds for land redevelopment and urban renewal, and was chosen the European Capital of Culture in 1994. The Lisbon Strategy was an agreement between the EU nations based on measures to improve the European economy, signed in the city in March 2000.[469][470] Sessions of the European Council were held in Lisbon in which the ministerial meetings and the agreements to be worked out between members of the European Community, known as the Bologna Process,[471] were approved, having been first proposed in the Italian city.
21st century
Reforms made by local government in the first years of the 21st century established the administrative region of the Lisbon metropolitan area.
Between 1999 and 2001, Lisbon hosted various world sport championships including the 1999 World Junior Basketball Championship, the 2000 Bowling World Championship, the 2000 Masters Cup in Tennis, the 2001 Cycling World Championships, the 2001 Fencing World Championship, and the 2001 Indoor Athletics World Championships.[474]
The city acquired the Museu do Design e da Moda (Museum of Design and Fashion) in 2002. This small museum, located in the architecturally distinctive former Banco Nacional Ultramarino building, features displays of fashion and industrial design, grouped by decade. These consist of about a thousand objects of furniture and utilitarian design, as well as 1200 pieces of haute couture representing remarkable moments in high fashion of the 20th and 21st centuries.[475]
On 3 November 2005, Lisbon hosted the
The
Immigrants who came to Lisbon in the early years of the 21st century from the Portuguese-speaking African countries (PALOP), especially Angola and Guinea, now constitute a large proportion of the city's immigrant population. The majority of them arrived before the economic crisis of 2008 to fill the demand for workers in the service sector and in the construction of large public works projects.[477]
As in the past, Lisbon has a network of outdoor vegetable gardens (hortas) providing fresh produce to residents of many of the traditional neighbourhoods in the city, although today they are officially sanctioned and regulated.[478][479] Fado was often performed in the hortas of Mouraria and the Alfama during the 19th and early 20th centuries.[480]
The Treaty of Lisbon, signed in December 2007,[481] was the premier European Union event held in Portugal. The document was designed to improve the functioning of the Union by amending the Treaty on European Union as well as the treaty establishing the European Community. The most important reforms introduced were mitigating the chances of deadlock in the Council of the European Union, increasing the legislative and budgetary powers of the European Parliament, reducing the number of members of the European Commission, abandoning the three pillars of the European Union, and creating the positions of President of the European Council and High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy to provide greater consistency and continuity to EU policies.
The NATO Lisbon Summit of 2010 (19–20 November) convened to cement NATO'S new "Strategic Concept", a plan aiming to implement better coordination between the military and civilian organisations and to address the economic concerns of member states, as well as new threats such as cyberattacks.[482] These
Historical population
Demographic evolution of Lisbon | |||||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
43 | 900 | 1552 | 1598 | 1720 | 1755 | 1756 | 1801 | 1849 | 1900 | 1930 | 1960 | 1981 | 1991 | 2001 | 2011 | ||||
30,000 | 100,000 | 200,000 | 150,000 | 185,000 | 180,000 | 165,000 | 203,999 | 174,668 | 350,919 | 591,939 | 801,155 | 807,937 | 663,394 | 564,657 | 545,245 |
See also
Notes
- This article incorporates text from a publication Spain and Portugal, 1908, pp. 508–511, edited by Henry Smith Williams, now in the public domain. The original text has been edited.
- This article incorporates information translated from the equivalent article on the Portuguese Wikipedia.
- ISBN 978-0-935161-90-8.
- ISBN 978-1-56656-440-3.
- ISBN 978-1-4262-1024-2.
- ISBN 978-1-134-09517-9.
- ISBN 9788886712484. Retrieved 24 August 2014.
- ISBN 978-0-393-07978-4.
- ^ Rodrigo Banha da Silva (September 2013). "A ocupação da idade do bronze final da Praça da Figueira (Lisboa): novos e velhos dados sobre os antecedentes da cidade de Lisboa" (PDF). Cira Arqueologia. Cira Arqueologia II (in Portuguese) (2, Tejo, palco de interação entre Indígenas e Fenícios). Museu da Rede Portuguesa de Museus. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 June 2014. Retrieved 21 June 2014.
- ^ ISBN 978-90-04-22524-4.
- ISBN 978-0-226-03739-4.
- ISBN 978-972-42-0586-1.
- ^ Octávio da Veiga Ferreira; Seomara da Veiga Ferreira (1969). A vida dos lusitanos no tempo de Viriato. Polis. p. 121.
- ISBN 978-1-57506-056-9.
- ^ Archaeólogo português. Museu Ethnologico do Dr. Leite de Vasconcellos. 2005. p. 40.
- ISBN 978-1-4620-6088-7.
- ISBN 90-04-04179-6.
- ^ Pedro Bosch Gimpera (1932). Etnología de la Península Ibérica. Editorial Alpha. p. 480.
- ISBN 978-1-58112-890-1.
- ISBN 978-84-370-5508-4.
- ISBN 978-84-88236-11-1.
- ISBN 978-1-85109-268-0.
- ISBN 978-94-011-5382-9.
- ISBN 978-0-520-24725-3.
- doi:10.7916/D80G3SCF. Retrieved 19 August 2014.
- ISBN 978-0-214-65309-4.
- S2CID 130964094. Archived from the original(PDF) on 13 October 2016.
- ISBN 978-0-8027-1393-3.
- ^ Portugal. Administração-Geral do Porto de Lisboa (1914). Port of Lisbon. A Editora limitada. p. 3.
- ISBN 978-1-317-87164-4.
The tradition of Phoenician or Carthaginian trade with Britain is deeply rooted in secondary writing on the subject, but the merest glance at the ancient sources is enough to reveal that this is myth, arising perhaps out of the smokescreen in which the Phoenician captains enshrouded lucrative operations in any part of their world.
- ^ Pilkington 2013, p. 89. "The only other evidence for tin trading in the 9th–7th centuries BC is a small set of Phoenician settlements along the Atlantic coast of Iberia. None of these settlements was permanently inhabited and no settlement yields a necropolis. If tin was so central to the economic health of Phoenician colonies in the western Mediterranean, then Phoenician colonies should concentrate in the areas with access to this resource. However, Phoenicians never settled these areas permanently and peacefully abandoned most of their trading stations in modern Portugal during the mid-6th century BC."
- ISBN 978-0-904357-81-3.
Two myths concerning British prehistory tenaciously maintain their hold on the popular imagination. The first is that the Druids built Stonehenge. The second is that the Phoenicians came to Cornwall for tin, which they supplied to all the ancient civilizations of the Mediterranean and the Near East. The story is so firmly embedded in the south-west that it is commonly set down as a general introductory remark to prove the antiquity of Cornish mining in otherwise authoritative books dealing with recent aspects of Cornish economic history.
- ISBN 978-84-15563-28-0.
- ^ Various, compiled (1780). An Universal History, From the Earliest Accounts to the Present Time. p. 345.
- ^ Pilkington 2013, p. 160. "In modern Portugal, by 700, the Phoenicians had developed some form of seasonal presence at Setubal, Almaraz, Lisbon, and Santarem. Expansion continued throughout the 7th century with foundations at Abul, Santa Olaia, and Cerro de Rocha. It must be noted that none of the sites in Portugal have yet to produce a necropolis, a fact which suggests some dependence on larger colonies in the southern Iberian Peninsula."
- ISBN 978-1-84217-177-6.
TheTagus may have attracted the Phoenicians because of its alluvial gold resources mentioned by Pliny (NH IV. 115): however, it was also important because, as the largest river in the Peninsula, it provided access deep into the interior of Iberia and acted as a channel whereby the tin, silver and copper of Extremadura could all easily reach the coast. Judging by the close parallels between the Phoenician pottery found in Lisbon and Almaraz, and that produced by the colonial sites in Andalusia, as well as by the proliferation of orientalizing luxury goods found in the areas alongside the Tagus (around Cáceres and Toledo), the river was an important route for Phoenician trade.
- ISSN 1989-9351. Retrieved 20 August 2014.
- ISBN 978-84-00-08346-5.
- ^ José Mattoso, ed. (1992), História de Portugal. Primeiro Volume: Antes de Portugal (in Portuguese), vol. 1, Círculo de Leitores
- ISBN 90-04-11604-4.
- ISBN 978-90-04-12204-8.
In the rest of Iberia, Greek activity was mainly commercial, not calling for the establishment of permanent settlements: at most there might have been coastal towns in which stable Greek communities could have existed, although only at certain periods. Thus, instead of talking about 'colonisation', current research favours the more neutral term 'presence'.
- ^ Occasional Papers – Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland. 1970. p. 38.
- ISSN 1540-4889.
- ^ Jules Toutain (1920). Les cultes païens dans l'Empire romain. Editions Ernest Leroux. p. 161.
- ISBN 9780598906014.
- ^ Pausanias (1824). The Description of Greece. R. Priestley. p. 267.
- ^ Revista lusitana: arquivo de estudos filológicos e etnológicos relativos a Portugal. Imprensa Nacional. 1895. p. 314.
- ^ Marcelino Menéndez y Pelayo; José Ibáñez Martín; Miguel Artigas; Enriques Sánchez Reyes; Luis María González Palencia; Ángel González Palencia (1946). Edición nacional de las obras completas de Menéndez Pelayo, con un prólogo del Excmo. Sr. D. José Ibáñez Martín: Historia de los heterodoxos españoles (Nueva ed. con notas inéditas). Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas. p. 280.
- ISSN 1578-5386. Retrieved 19 August 2014.
- ^ Mariano Torres Ortiz (2005). "¿Una colonización tartésica en el interfluvio Tajo-Sado durante la Primera Edad del hierro?" (PDF). Revista Portuguesa de Arqueologia. (in Portuguese). 8 (2): 194. Retrieved 19 August 2014.
- ISBN 978-0-85224-207-0.
- ^ Egidio Forcellini; Bailey (1828). Totius Latinitatis Lexicon. sumptibus Baldwin et Cradock. p. 1086.
- ^ Pomponius Mela; Gronovius; Schott; Núñez de Guzmán (1748). Pomponii Melae De situ orbis libri III cum notis integris Hermolai Barbari, Petri Joannis Olivarii, Fredenandi Nonii Pintiani, Petri Ciacconii, Andreae Schotti, Isaaci Vossii et Jacobi Gronovii, accedunt Petri Joannis Nunnesii Epistola de patria Pomponii Melae et adnotata... Et J. Perizonii Adnotata... curante A. Gronovio. apud Samuelem Luchtmans et Fil., Academiae typographos. p. 246.
- ISBN 978-972-9170-75-1.
...que o nome Lisboa derivaria de um acusativo grego da 3° declinação,Olisipona.", p. 19, (...the name Lisbon derives from the third declension of the Greek accusative singular, Olisipona.)
- ^ Smith, William (1854), Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography, illustrated by numerous engravings on wood, London, England: Walton and Maberly
- ^ Bartrolí 2013, p. 13
- ^ ISBN 978-1-4406-3743-8.
- ^ Julio Nombela y Campos (1911). Labor Intelectual: Cultura portuguesa. Casa Editorial de "La Ultíma Moda". p. 81.
- ISBN 978-1-139-45616-6.
- ISBN 978-1-895176-41-4.
- ISBN 978-0-8061-3004-0.
- ISBN 978-0-19-534235-2.
- ^ ISSN 0213-2052. Retrieved 25 August 2014.
- ISBN 978-0-231-03159-2.
- ^ J. Alarcão (1976). Richard Stillwell (ed.). Olisipo (Lisbon) Estremadura, Portugal., The Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites. William L. MacDonald, Marian Holland McAllister. Princeton University Press.
- ISBN 978-1-84511-403-9.
- ISBN 978-0-7923-2316-7.
- ISBN 978-1-317-88514-6.
- ISBN 978-84-86839-93-2.
- ISBN 978-84-475-2624-6.
- ISBN 978-0-8264-2105-0.
- ^ Joaquim Antonio de Macedo (1874). A Guide to Lisbon and Its Environs, Including Cintra and Mafra ... Simpkin, Marshall. p. 254.
- Frederick Charles Danvers (1894). A.D. 1481–1571. W.H. Allen & Company, limited. p. 8.
- ^ Jorge C. Arias (2007). "Identity and Interaction: the Suevi and the Hispano-Romans" (PDF). University of Virginia. p. 23. Archived from the original on 25 October 2007. Retrieved 24 August 2014.
- ^ Westdeutsche zeitschrift für geschichte und kunst. F. Lintz. 1904. p. 317.
- ISBN 90-04-11206-5.
- ISBN 978-0-8160-7229-3.
- ^ VALLVÉ BERMEJO, Joaquín; Emilio García Gómez (1989). Nuevas ideas sobre la conquista árabe de España: toponimia y onomástica : discurso leído en el acto de su recepción pública. Real Academia de la Historia. p. 188. GGKEY:WJYGZ815TEG.
- ^ Paulo Cuiça (2 May 2013). "O Porto de Lisboa, até ao Século XIV". O Porto de Lisboa da Pré-história às Tercenas de D. Dinis (2011–1203). Universidade Autónoma de Lisboa: 21.
- ^ Joseph Hell; Walter Otto. The Religion of Islam. Motilal Banarsidass Publisher. p. 429. GGKEY:QGD60T4R882.
- ^ Jack 2007, p. 14
- ISBN 978-84-7100-432-1.
- ISBN 978-0-520-24840-3.
- ISBN 978-88-8492-464-3.
- ISBN 978-85-314-0707-9.
- ^ Syed M. Imamuddin (1981). Muslim Spain: 0711-1492 A.D. Brill Archive. p. 86. GGKEY:XW6HET8PB00.
- ISBN 978-0-19-280134-0.
- ISBN 978-84-7813-270-6.
- ISBN 9789722317191.
- ISBN 90-04-09599-3.
- ^ Marques 1972, p. 34
- ^ Bernard F. Reilly (1988). "Chapter 12: The Search for a Successor (1092–1096)". The Kingdom of León-Castilla Under King Alfonso VI: 1065–1109. Princeton University Press. p. 3.
- ISBN 978-1-108-01390-1.
- ISBN 978-0-374-71205-1.
- ISBN 978-93-82573-47-0.
- ISBN 978-92-3-104153-2.
- ^ Syed Ameer Ali (1900). A Short History of the Saracens: Being a Concise Account of the Rise and Decline of the Saracenic Power, and of the Economic, Social and Intellectual Development of the Arab Nation from the Earliest Times to the Destruction of Bagdad, and the Expulsion of the Moors from Spain. Macmillan. p. 534.
- ISBN 978-1-78049-249-0.
- ISBN 978-0-19-533403-6.
- ISBN 978-1-84383-830-2.
- ISBN 978-0-7190-4751-0.
- ISBN 978-0-300-16836-5.
- ^ Harold Victor Livermore (1966). A New History of Portugal: H. V. Livermore. CUP Archive. p. 57. GGKEY:RFTURZQG9XA.
- ^ Richard I (King of England.) (1864). W. Stubbs (ed.). Chronicles and memorials of the reign of Richard i., ed. by W. Stubbs (in Latin). Vol. 1. London: Longman, Green, Longman, Roberts, and Green. p. clxxvi.
- Internet Medieval Sourcebook. Fordham University. Archivedfrom the original on 14 August 2014.
- ISBN 978-0-521-88939-1.
- ISBN 978-0-415-17415-2.
- ISBN 0-8014-8656-4.
- ^ Sociedade de Geografia de Lisboa (1904). Boletim da Sociedade de geographia de Lisboa. pp. 1–433.
- ^ Great Britain House of Commons (1851). Accounts and papers. p. 129.
- ISBN 978-85-7430-228-7.
- ISBN 978-972-8704-70-4.
- ^ Purcell, Mary (1960). Saint Anthony and His Times. Garden City, New York: Hanover House. pp. 44–45.
- ^ "LeguayMarques1993" p. 174
- ISBN 978-84-7283-300-5.
- ^ A. Cunnick Inchbold ("Mrs. Stanley Inchbold.") (1907). Lisbon & Cintra: with some account of other cities and historical sites in Portugal. Chatto & Windus. p. 22.
- ISBN 978-1-134-80692-8.
- ^ Edward McMurdo (1889). The History of Portugal: From the Commencement of the Monarchy to the Reign of Alfonso III. S. Low, Marston, Searle, & Rivington. p. 130.
- ^ Martin Malcolm Elbl (1985). The Portuguese Caravel and European Shipbuilding: Phases of Development and Diversity. UC Biblioteca Geral 1. pp. 543–544. GGKEY:PBC3SCAZ2NF.
- ISBN 0-8032-5049-5.
- ^ Helen Zimmern (1889). The Hansa towns. G. P. Putnam's Sons. p. 175.
- ^ William Oliver Stevens; Allan Ferguson Westcott (1920). A history of sea power. G. H. Doran company. p. 132.
- ^ Harry S. Ashmore (1961). Encyclopædia Britannica: a new survey of universal knowledge. Encyclopædia Britannica. p. 198.
- ISBN 978-0-415-93918-8.
- ISBN 978-0-19-803911-2.
- ISBN 978-0-300-03882-8.
- ISBN 978-0-19-958200-6.
- ^ Diffie 1960, p. 47
- ISBN 978-989-615-056-3.
- ^ Eduardo Freire de Oliveira (1882). Elementos para a história do municipio de Lisboa. Typographia Universal. p. 100.
- ^ Livermore, H. V. (1984). The Festivities of December 1552 in Lisbon, Revista da Universidade de Coimbra. UC Biblioteca Geral 1. p. 327. GGKEY:AUTHFP4NYX7.
- ISBN 978-0-02-865929-9.
- ISBN 978-0-299-14233-9.
- ^ "Abrabanel, Abravanel". Jewishvirtuallibrary.org. Retrieved 22 October 2012.
- ^ Augusto Vieira Silva (1927). A velha Lisboa. Diario de Noticias. pp. xxviii.
- ISBN 978-1-134-25958-8.
- ISBN 978-1-136-59673-5.
- ISBN 978-0-313-31676-0.
- ISBN 978-971-23-1472-8.
- ISBN 978-0-8166-1218-5.
- ISBN 978-1-86189-701-5.
- ISBN 978-0-8014-6871-1.
- ^ Centro de Estudos de História Eclesiástica. Lusitania Sacra – 1a Série – Tomo 4 (1959). CEHR-UCP. p. 97. GGKEY:71H20DT1ZJF.
- ISBN 978-0-19-533403-6.
- ISBN 978-1-136-77162-0.
- ^ Baltazar Mexia de Matos Caeiro (1989). Os conventos de Lisboa. Distri Editora. p. 106.
- ^ Júlio Dantas (1966). Lisboa dos nossos avós. Gráfica Santelmo. p. 153.
- ISBN 978-0-521-39741-4.
- ISBN 978-0-8018-5955-7.
- ISBN 978-0-226-56161-5.
- ISBN 978-1-135-75917-9.
- ^ Marques1972, vol. 2, From Empire to Corporate State, p. 122
- ^ ISBN 978-0-521-83175-8.
- ISBN 978-1-139-49129-7.
- ISBN 978-0-8108-7075-8.
- ISBN 978-81-903887-8-8.
- ISBN 978-0-521-62935-5.
- ISBN 978-1-57181-153-0.
- ISBN 978-81-321-0484-1.
- ISBN 978-0-7126-6687-9.
- ISBN 978-0-8018-8754-3.
- ISBN 978-0-19-280265-1.
- ^ Illustrated Encyclopaedia of World History. Mittal Publications. p. 3528. GGKEY:LTTGZ3RB54N.
- ISBN 978-1-136-59427-4.
- ISBN 978-1-107-65571-3.
- ISBN 978-1-86189-498-4.
- ISBN 978-1-4200-3924-5.
- ISBN 978-1-85566-267-4.
- ISBN 978-1-4767-3745-4.
- ISBN 978-0-19-539536-5.
- ^ James Cavanah Murphy (1798). A General View of the State of Portugal: Containing a Topographical Description Thereof in which are Included an Account of the Physical and Moral State of the Kingdom ... Compiled from the Best Portuguese Writers and from Notices Obtained in the Country. p. 32.
- ISBN 978-972-792-141-6.
- ISBN 978-0-85771-884-6.
- ISBN 978-972-8932-07-7.
- ISBN 978-1-137-08787-4.
- ^ Edward Wigglesworth; Thomas Gamaliel Bradford (1840). Encyclopædia Americana: a popular dictionary of arts, sciences, literature, history, politics, and biography, brought down to the present time; including a copious collection of original articles in American biography; on the basis of the seventh edition of the German Conversations-Lexicon. Thomas, Cowperthwait, & co. p. 9.
- ISBN 978-0-14-009808-2.
- ISBN 978-90-04-20276-4.
- ISBN 978-1-56171-081-2.
- ISBN 978-0-520-21822-2.
- ^ François Soyer (2007). "The Massacre of the New Christians of Lisbon in 1506: A New Eyewitness Account". Cadernos de Estudos Sefarditas. 1 (7): 225–229.
- ^ Soyer 2007, p. 287
- ISBN 978-989-622-665-7.
- ISBN 978-0-300-15620-1.
- ISBN 90-04-12080-7.
- ISBN 978-90-04-17040-7.
- ISBN 90-5183-923-5.
- ^ John Emerich Edward Dalberg Acton Baron Acton; Ernest Alfred Benians (1918). The Cambridge Modern History. The University Press. p. 499.
- ISBN 9780140204643.
- ISBN 978-0-88162-364-2.
- ISBN 978-84-9761-560-0.
- ISBN 978-81-7099-046-8.
- ISBN 978-1-78284-091-6.
- ISBN 978-0-300-16001-7.
- ^ The American Neptune. Peabody Museum of Salem. 2000. p. 13.
- ISBN 978-1-4039-8065-6.
- ISBN 978-0-520-02195-2.
- ISBN 978-1-4411-5002-8.
- ISBN 978-0-7546-6109-2.
- ISBN 978-2-909961-40-8.
- ISBN 978-0-8191-4739-4.
- ISBN 9780789204813.
- ISBN 978-1-4481-2950-8.
- ^ John Knox Laughton (1894). Defeat of the Spanish Armada. Navy Records Society. p. 376.
- ISBN 978-1-84176-192-3.
- ISBN 978-0-300-10698-5.
- ISBN 0-691-03651-9.
- ISBN 978-0-19-159174-7.
- ISBN 978-1-101-14734-4.
- ISBN 978-0-521-28542-1.
- ISBN 978-0-85199-605-9.
- ISBN 978-1-109-06209-0.
- ISBN 978-1-4165-8842-9.
- ISBN 978-0-7656-3757-4.
- ISBN 978-1-57958-388-0.
- ISBN 978-0-521-34925-3.
- ^ Russell-Wood 1998, p. 138
- ISBN 978-0-8263-2813-7.
- ISBN 978-1-118-23293-4.
- ISBN 978-0-8143-3401-0.
- ^ Boyajian 2007, pp. 14–15
- ISBN 978-0-14-192557-8.
- ISBN 978-1-4443-5753-0.
- ^ Alegria, Maria Fernanda; Daveau, Suzanne; Garcia, João Carlos; Relaño, Francesc (2007). Woodward, David (ed.). "Portuguese Cartography in the European Renaissance: State Contexts of Portuguese Mapping" (PDF). 3 (Part 1): 1044.
{{cite journal}}
: Cite journal requires|journal=
(help) - ISBN 978-84-89569-86-7.
- ^ Iconografía de una ciudad atlántica Memoria e identidad visual de Pontevedra Facultad de Geografía e Historia Departamento de Historia del Arte Universidad De Santiago De Compostela, Doctoral Thesis, Carla Fernández Martínez, Santiago de Compostela, June 2013 http://ddspace.usc.es/bitstream/10347/9566/1/rep_548.pdf[permanent dead link] p.191
- ^ Stanley Leathes; George Walter Prothero; Adolphus William Ward; John Emerich Edward Dalberg-Acton (1964). The Cambridge Modern History. Cambridge University Archive. p. 651. GGKEY:LG4DY5XT9WU.
- ^ Boyajian 2007, pp. 212–213
- ISBN 978-1-4200-6590-9.
- ^ Truxillo 2001, p. 37
- ^ Bethell 1987, p. 48
- ISBN 978-1-107-00785-7.
- ^ Acton1964, p. 561
- ISBN 978-1-317-89771-2.
- ISBN 978-90-272-8839-4.
- ^ Martin Andrew Sharp Hume (1940). Spain: Its Greatness and Decay. CUP Archive. p. 253. GGKEY:Q835P4SJC4Z.
- ^ Encyclopaedia Londinensis, or, Universal dictionary of arts, sciences, and literature. 1826. p. 286.
- ISBN 978-0-521-22424-6.
- ISBN 978-0-8166-5782-7.
- ISBN 978-0-521-07524-4.
- ISBN 978-1-317-89021-8.
- ISBN 978-0-19-960454-8.
- ISBN 978-1-55643-601-7.
- ISBN 978-0-300-16560-9.
- ISBN 978-85-87470-28-7.
- ISBN 978-0-520-08115-4.
- ISBN 978-1-4290-1694-0.
- ISBN 978-0-7876-4680-6.
- ISBN 978-0-520-91908-2.
- ^ Bethell 1987, p. 242
- ISBN 978-1-135-27620-1.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-252-06215-5.
- ISBN 978-1-86189-683-4.
- ISBN 978-3-443-11012-3.
- ISBN 978-1-4020-8609-0.
- ^ Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America. Seismological Society of America. 1913. p. 57.
- ISBN 978-0-521-40949-0.
- ^ Eduardo Freire de Oliveira; A. Esteves Rodrigues da Silva (1908). Elementos para a historia do municipio de Lisboa. Typographia universal. p. 141.
- ISBN 978-1-933648-19-4.
- ISBN 9780870445927.
- ISBN 978-0-521-45044-7.
- ISBN 978-0-520-91346-2.
- ISBN 978-0-521-47240-1.
- ISBN 978-1-4532-2631-5.
- ISBN 978-1-4008-5633-6.
- ISBN 978-0-486-27625-0.
- ISBN 978-0-470-99883-0.
- ^ Maxwell 1995, p. 24
- ISBN 978-94-007-6576-4.
- ^ Library of Universal Knowledge. American book exchange. 1880. p. 89.
- ^ British Historical Society of Portugal (1990). Annual Report and Review. The Society. p. 52.
- ^ N. La Clède (1905). Historia de Portugal: A dynastia de Bragança. Bibliotheca do Povo. p. 928.
- ^ João Maria Baptista (1876). Chorographia moderna do reino de Portugal. Typographia da Academia Real das Sciencias. p. 639.
- ^ Bibliotheca do povo e das escolas. D. Corazzi, Empreza Horas Romanticas. 1884. p. 4.
- ISBN 978-0-203-02398-3.
- ^ Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo Pombal (Marquês de) (1861). Cartas e outras obras selectas do marquez de Pombal. Livraria universal. p. 267.
- ^ Alfredo Mesquita (1903). Lisboa. Empreza da Historia de Portugal. pp. 163.
- ^ João P. Ribeiro (1807). Indice chronologico remissivo da legislacã̧o Portugeuza: posterior à publicãcã̧o do codigo Filippino con hum appendice. Pt. 4. p. 1.
- ISBN 978-0-521-04545-2.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-139-99251-0.
- ISBN 978-0-19-164758-1.
- ISBN 978-1-4728-0313-9.
- ISBN 978-1-4808-0156-1.
- ISBN 978-1-135-95998-2.
- ISBN 978-3-642-39686-1.
- ISBN 978-0-299-28383-4.
- ISBN 978-94-007-7981-5.
- ISBN 978-1-4441-3202-1.
- ISBN 978-0-312-22975-7.
- ^ New Scientist. New Science Publications. 2005. p. 53.
- ISBN 978-0-19-860568-3.
- ISBN 9780836950410.
- ISBN 978-1-84383-063-4.
- ^ Fritz Rothstein (1968). Beautiful Squares: Example of Richness and Variety of Form in One Aspect of Civic Design. Edition Leipzig.
- ISBN 978-1-4008-5860-6.
- ISBN 978-0-415-94988-0.
- ISBN 978-1-4299-4724-4.
- ^ Newitt 2009, p. 146
- ^ Carlos Babo. Marques de Pombal. Biblioteca Nacional Portugal. p. 46. GGKEY:8EQZAL5RDGK.
- ISBN 978-972-46-2124-1.
- ISBN 978-1-4738-3158-2.
- ISBN 978-0-300-15053-7.
- ISBN 978-0-521-00926-3.
- ISBN 978-0-691-13571-7.
- ISBN 978-1-134-13065-8.
- ISBN 978-0-521-23223-4.
- ^ Livermore 2004, pp. 84–85
- ISBN 978-0-7546-6428-4.
- ISBN 978-1-85754-845-7.
- ISBN 978-0-7190-0876-4.
- ISBN 978-1-56656-395-6.
- ISBN 978-1-84537-114-2.
- ^ Jack 2007, p. 136
- ISBN 978-0-7546-5575-6.
- ISBN 978-1-56324-744-6.
- ISBN 978-85-7496-200-9.
- ISBN 978-84-475-3542-2.
- ISBN 978-90-272-3457-5.
- ISBN 978-1-61592-968-9.
- ISBN 978-0-300-15357-6.
- ^ José Ferreira Borges de Castro (Visconde de); Julio Firmino Judice Biker; Portugal – Ministério dos Negócios Estrangeiros (1857). Supplemeto á Collecção dos tratados, convenções, contratos e actos publicos celebrados entre a corôa de Portugal e as mais potencias desde 1640. Imprensa nacional. pp. 19–25.
- ISBN 978-1-59114-362-8.
- ISBN 978-1-59691-751-4.
- ^ Encyclopædia Britannica (1824). Encyclopædia Britannica: or, A dictionary of arts and sciences, compiled by a society of gentlemen in Scotland; ed. by W. Smellie;. Suppl. to the 4th, 5th, and 6th eds. p. 538.
- ISBN 978-0-230-24131-2.
- ISBN 978-1-4738-1715-9.
- ISBN 978-0-300-14361-4.
- ISBN 978-1-317-89780-4.
- ^ Esdaile 2008, p. 155
- ^ Sacheverell Sitwell (1961). Great houses of Europe. Putnam. p. 279.
- ISBN 978-1-78337-982-8.
- ^ T. M. Hughes, Esq. (1847). Revelations of Portugal, and Narrative of an Overland Journey to Lisbon, at the Close of 1846; with a Picture of the Present State of Spain. 2nd Ed. Colburn. p. 329.
- ISBN 978-1-61145-037-8.
- ISBN 978-1-908984-17-3.
- ISBN 978-0-313-31106-2.
- ISBN 978-84-600-5128-2.
- ISBN 978-0-300-19860-7.
- ^ The London Quarterly Review. Theodore Foster. 1811. p. 4.
- ISBN 978-1-136-59714-5.
- ^ Joaquim Veríssimo Serrão (1977). História de Portugal: A instauração do liberalismo (1807–1832) (4 ed.). Editorial Verbo. p. 79.
- ^ The Annual Register, Or, A View of the History and Politics of the Year ... J.G. & F. Rivington. 1854. p. 460.
- ISBN 978-1-4464-4876-2.
- ^ Esdaile 2008, p. 150
- ISBN 978-1-78200-129-4.
- ISBN 978-1-84832-743-6.
- ISBN 978-0-19-285333-2.
- ISBN 978-0-394-51119-1.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-135-45579-8.
- ^ The Gentleman's Magazine. F. Jeffries. 1817. p. 457.
- ^ George Young (1917). Portugal Old and Young: an Historical Study. Clarendon press. p. 217.
- ISBN 978-0-7627-9665-6.
- ISBN 978-0-7391-9332-7.
- ISBN 978-0-8133-7020-0.
- ^ Rebecca L. Jones-Kellogg (2007). Alexandre Herculano and the historical-gothic tradition in Portugal: dark times, mad monks and national critique in O Fronteiro D'África ou Três Noites Aziagas (1838), Eurico o Presbítero (1844) and O Monge de Cister (1848). University of Wisconsin—Madison. p. 18.
- ^ Fernand Mourret (1931). A History of the Catholic Church: Period of the early Nineteenth Century (1823–1878). B. Herder book Company. p. 215.
- ISBN 978-0-300-16844-0.
- ^ James MacCaffrey (1910). History of the Catholic Church in the Nineteenth Century (1789–1908). M.H. Gill. pp. 179, 393.
- ISSN 1645-6432.
- ISBN 978-90-5201-937-6.
- ISBN 978-0-7546-6029-3.
- ISBN 978-92-64-02262-1.
- ISBN 978-972-36-0489-4.
- ^ James H. Guill (1900). A history of the Azores Islands. Vol. 5. Golden Shield Publications, Golden Shield International. p. 351.
- ^ Livermore 2004, p. 31
- ^ BankoffLübken 2012, p. 157
- ^ ISBN 978-0-7923-9830-1.
- ISBN 978-0-415-94771-8.
- ISBN 978-1-57607-335-3.
- ISBN 978-0-231-07954-9.
- ^ a b Francis J. D. Lambert (1981). The Cortes and the King: Constitutional Monarchy in the Iberian World. Institute of Latin American Studies. p. 21.
- ISBN 978-1-137-32383-5.
- ISBN 978-1-59377-245-1.
- ISBN 978-0-7190-1719-3.
- ISBN 978-1-86064-796-3.
- ^ Thomson 2014, p. 23
- ISBN 978-0-8420-2831-8.
- ISBN 978-0-8133-0488-5.
- ^ Afrique Et Développement. Council for the Development of Economic and Social Research in Africa. 1996. p. 188.
- ^ Gallagher 1983, p. 16
- ISBN 9789722106740.
- ^ ISBN 978-989-8074-04-1.
- ^ Robert C. Smith (1968). The Art of Portugal 1500 – 1800. p. 256.
- ^ The Courier. Commission of the European Communities. July 1994. p. 49.
- ISBN 978-0-19-518948-3.
- ISBN 978-92-3-104121-1.
- ^ Journal of the American Medical Association. American Medical Association. 1894. p. 120.
- ^ Diaspora: A Journal of Transnational Studies. Oxford University Press. 2003. p. 204.
- ISBN 978-1-136-99725-9.
- ^ Samuel Murray (1918). Seven Legs Across the Seas: A Printer's Impressions of Many Lands. Moffat. p. 12.
- ^ Electrical World. McGraw-Hill. 1900. p. 566.
- ^ A. Cunnick Inchbold ("Mrs. Stanley Inchbold.") (1907). Lisbon & Cintra: with some account of other cities and historical sites in Portugal. Chatto & Windus. p. 15.
- ISBN 978-85-7577-152-5.
- ISBN 978-1-85566-115-8.
- ^ Architecture Today. Architecture Today. 1990. pp. 4–5.
- ^ Places. Vol. 9. MIT Press. 1994. p. xl.
- ^ Pereira Mata 1996, p. 81
- ^ Maria Joao Madeira Rodrigues (1975). Monumentos e edifícios notáveis do distrito de Lisboa: Lisboa. Junta Distrital de Lisboa. p. 162.
- ISBN 978-1-136-11812-8.(Gymnasium Theatre); it was a show combining satirical songs and sketches about the previous year in the capital.
It was in 1851 that the revista Lisboa em 1850 (Lisbon in 1850) opened at the Teatro Ginásio
- ^ Historical Abstracts: Modern history abstracts, 1450–1914. American Bibliographical Center, Clio. 1997. p. 967.
- ^ Great Britain. Parliament. House of Commons (1859). Parliamentary Papers, House of Commons and Command. H.M. Stationery Office. p. 112.
- ^ Fernando Catroga (2010). "O Republicanismo Português (Cultura, história e política)" [Portuguese Republicanism (Culture, History, and Politics)] (PDF). Revista da Faculdade de Letras, História – Porto. III (in Portuguese). 11. Porto: Universidade de Coimbra: 117. Retrieved 21 December 2014.
- S2CID 5378347.
- ISBN 978-1-135-76589-7.
- ^ Jack, 2007, p. 154
- ISBN 978-1-85109-421-9.
- ISBN 978-0-7546-0720-5.
- ^ Great Britain. Foreign Office; Great Britain. Parliament. House of Commons (1841). Correspondence with the British Commissioners, at Sierra Leone, the Havana, Rio de Janeiro, and Surinam: From May 11th, to December 31st, 1840, inclusive. William Clowes. p. 86.
- ISBN 978-85-7139-600-5.
- ^ Pereira Mata1996, p. 128
- ^ United States Congressional serial set. 1902. p. 608.
- ISBN 978-1-55164-139-3.
...in cities like Lisbon and Oporto, there were multifarious unions of locksmiths, casters, turners, tinsmiths, goldsmiths, etc.
- ^ Armando Castro (1978). A revolução industrial em Portugal no século XIX. Limiar. p. 169.
- ^ Manuela Silva (1989). Pobreza urbana em Portugal: um inquérito a famílias em habitat degradado, nas cidades de Liboa, Porto e Setúbal. Cáritas Portuguesa. p. 133.
- ISBN 9789722332576.
- ISBN 978-0-7146-4071-6.
- ^ Jack2007, p. 153
- ISBN 978-972-8361-33-4.
- ^ "CMH1910", p. 272
- ISBN 978-989-8265-90-6.
- ISBN 978-1-317-96899-3.
- ISBN 978-90-411-3454-7.
- ISBN 978-1-78093-712-0.
- ISBN 978-0-521-65971-0.
- ISBN 978-0-7425-6793-1.
- ISBN 978-1-4387-7536-4.
- ^ WheelerOpello 2010, p. 15
- ISBN 978-0-292-77305-9.
- ISBN 978-0-8139-3248-4.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-4128-2296-1.
- ^ Ler história. Vol. 18–20. Centro de Estudos de História Contemporânea Portuguesa. 1990. p. 64.
- ISBN 978-0-521-64382-5.
- ^ Pereira Mata 1996, p. 80
- ^ Augusto Vieira Silva (1987). A Cerca Fernandina de Lisboa. p. 52.
Ficou aí um largo, que incorporou as ruas contíguas: Rua Martim Moniz, Largo Silva e Albuquerque e parte das Ruas da Palma e da Mouraria, ao qual o povo começou a -chamar Largo Martim Moniz, como dissemos atraz.
- ^ José Augusto França (1966). Terceira parte (1880–1910) e quarto parte (depais de 1910). Bertrand. p. 122.
- ISBN 978-0-7201-1608-3.
- ^ Calderon Dinís (1986). Tipos e factos da Lisboa do meu tempo: 1900–1974. Publicações Dom Quixote. p. 124.
- ISBN 9789722315791.
- ISBN 978-972-8361-16-7.
- ISBN 978-1-929631-98-8.
- ISBN 978-0-299-14873-7.
- ISBN 978-1-135-69011-3.
- ISBN 978-1-78225-044-9.
- ISBN 978-1-59942-983-0.
- ISBN 978-989-8074-60-7.
- ISBN 978-84-9012-356-0.
- ISBN 9780413267009.
- ^ Agache, A. "L’amenagement de la Costa do Sol (Portugal)". Urbanisme. (Mars-Avril, 1936)
- ^ Agache, A. Lisbonne – Urbanisation de la Région Ouest. Paris: Mimeo, 1936
- ^ Catarina Teles Ferreira Camarinhas & Vasco Brito, "Elementos para o estudo do Plano de Urbanização da cidade de Lisboa (1938)". Cadernos do Arquivo Municipal, n.º 9 (2007), pp. 182–183.
- ISBN 9781586488796.
- ^ "Steven Spielberg Film and Video Archive – Portugal Europe's Crossroads". Archived from the original on 9 December 2014. Retrieved 6 March 2015.
- ^ "Tall Ships get Royal send-off". BBC News. Retrieved 11 July 2006.
- ^ "Tagus River Bridge – Road Deck". American Bridge Company. Archived from the original on 31 August 2014. Retrieved 15 March 2015.
- ISBN 978-0-8387-5708-6.
- ISBN 978-0-7190-2797-0.
- ^ Barraqué 2010, p. 81
- ISBN 978-1-84150-109-3.
- ISBN 978-972-33-1086-3.
- ISBN 978-1-317-98419-1.
- ^ "SEDES: História". sedes.pt (in Portuguese). SEDES Associação para o Desenvolvimento Económico e Social. Archived from the original on 25 July 2014.
consumo acompanham essa evolução, reforçados ainda pelas remessas de emigrantes.
- ISBN 978-1-61069-280-9.
- ISBN 978-1-61234-586-4.
- ISBN 978-1-55753-620-4.
- ISBN 978-0-7546-6795-7.
- ISBN 978-1-136-58770-2.
- ISBN 978-92-64-04207-0.
- ISBN 978-1-84484-773-0.
- ISBN 978-92-871-3903-0.
- ^ OECD 2008, p. 57
- ^ Sociedade e estado: revista semestral do Departamento de Sociologia da UnB. O Departamento. 1998. p. 183.
- ISBN 978-1-137-25313-2.
- ISBN 978-1-60021-478-3.
- ISBN 978-0-215-03372-7.
- ISBN 978-0-7614-7892-8.
- ISBN 978-0-19-155552-7.
- ^ Jonathan Edwards; Miguel Moita; Roger Vaughan (2004). Robinson, M.; Long, P. (eds.). "The impacts of Mega-events: the case of EXPO'98 – Lisbon", Tourism and Cultural Festivals and events: Marketing, Management and Development. Bournemouth University, UK: Sunderland, Business Education Publishers. p. 206. Archived from the original on 23 January 2015.
- ISBN 978-1-4725-2524-6.
- ^ "Welcome to the official global voting platform of the New 7 Wonders". New7Wonders. Retrieved 8 July 2009.
- ISBN 978-3-8260-4386-4.
- ^ Patrícia Jesus (2009). "Lisboa abre concursos para novas hortas urbanas". Diário de Notícias Portugal. Archived from the original on 23 January 2015.
- ISBN 978-3-0343-0106-0.
- ISBN 978-0-8223-7885-3.
- ISBN 978-1-107-01757-3.
- ^ "NATO Review - NATO Lisbon Summit Edition". Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 23 January 2015.
- ^ "NATO summit meetings". Nato Int. North Atlantic Treaty Organization. 10 February 2014. Archived from the original on 8 September 2014.