History of London
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The history of London, the capital city of England and the United Kingdom, extends over 2000 years. In that time, it has become one of the world's most significant financial and cultural capital cities. It has withstood plague, devastating fire, civil war, aerial bombardment, terrorist attacks, and riots.
The City of London is the historic core of the Greater London metropolis, and is today its primary financial district, it represents only a small part of the wider metropolis.
Foundations and prehistory
Some recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area. In 1993, the remains of a
In 2010, the foundations of a large timber structure, dated to between 4800 BC and 4500 BC[4] were found, again on the foreshore south of Vauxhall Bridge.[5] The function of the mesolithic structure is not known. All these structures are on the south bank at a natural crossing point where the River Effra flows into the Thames.[6]
Archaeologist Leslie Wallace notes, "Because no LPRIA [Late pre-Roman Iron Age] settlements or significant domestic refuse have been found in London, despite extensive archaeological excavation, arguments for a purely Roman foundation of London are now common and uncontroversial."[7]
Early history
Roman London (47–410 AD)
Londinium was established as a civilian town by the Romans about four years[8] after the invasion of 43 AD. London, like Rome, was founded on the point of the river where it was narrow enough to bridge and the strategic location of the city provided easy access to much of Europe. Early Roman London occupied a relatively small area, roughly equivalent to the size of Hyde Park. In around 60 AD, it was destroyed by the Iceni led by their queen Boudica. The city was quickly rebuilt as a planned Roman town and recovered after perhaps 10 years; the city grew rapidly over the following decades.
Although some sources claim that during the 2nd century Londinium replaced
At some time between 180 AD and 225 AD, the Romans built the defensive London Wall around the landward side of the city. The wall was about 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) long, 6 metres (20 ft) high, and 2.5 metres (8.2 ft) thick. The wall would survive for another 1,600 years and define the City of London's perimeters for centuries to come. The perimeters of the present City are roughly defined by the line of the ancient wall.
Londinium was an ethnically diverse city with inhabitants from across the Roman Empire, including natives of Britannia, continental Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa.[9]
In the late 3rd century, Londinium was raided on several occasions by Saxon pirates.[10] This led, from around 255 onwards, to the construction of an additional riverside wall. Six of the traditional seven city gates of London are of Roman origin, namely: Ludgate, Newgate, Aldersgate, Cripplegate, Bishopsgate and Aldgate (Moorgate is the exception, being of medieval origin).
By the 5th century, the Roman Empire was in rapid decline and in 410 AD, the Roman occupation of Britannia came to an end. Following this, the Roman city also went into rapid decline and by the end of the 5th century was practically abandoned.
Anglo-Saxon London (5th century – 1066)
Until recently it was believed that
Early Anglo-Saxon London belonged to a people known as the
At this time Essex was under the overlordship of King
The permanent establishment of Christianity in the East Saxon kingdom took place in the reign of King Sigeberht II in the 650s. During the 8th century, the kingdom of Mercia extended its dominance over south-eastern England, initially through overlordship which at times developed into outright annexation. London seems to have come under direct Mercian control in the 730s.
Around this time the focus of settlement moved within the old Roman walls for the sake of defence, and the city became known as ). The old settlement of Lundenwic became known as the ealdwic or "old settlement", a name which survives today as Aldwich.
From this point, the City of London began to develop its own unique local government. Following Æthelred's death in 911 it was transferred to Wessex, preceding the absorption of the rest of Mercia in 918. Although it faced competition for political pre-eminence in the united
Following the resumption of Viking attacks in the reign of Æthelred, London was unsuccessfully attacked in 994 by an army under King
After Æthelred's death at London in 1016 his son
A Norse saga tells of a battle when King Æthelred returned to attack Danish-occupied London. According to the saga, the Danes lined London Bridge and showered the attackers with spears. Undaunted, the attackers pulled the roofs off nearby houses and held them over their heads in the boats. Thus protected, they were able to get close enough to the bridge to attach ropes to the piers and pull the bridge down, thus ending the Viking occupation of London. This story presumably relates to Æthelred's return to power after Sweyn's death in 1014, but there is no strong evidence of any such struggle for control of London on that occasion.
Following the extinction of Cnut's dynasty in 1042 English rule was restored under
The
Norman and Medieval London (1066 – late 15th century)
The new Norman regime established new fortresses within the city to dominate the native population. By far the most important of these was the
On 17 October 1091 a tornado rated T8 on the TORRO scale (equivalent to an F4 on the Fujita scale) hit London; it directly struck the church of St. Mary-le-Bow; four rafters 7.9 meters long (26 feet) were said to have been buried so deep into the ground that only 1.2 meters (4 feet) was visible. Other churches in the area were destroyed as well; it was reported to have also destroyed over 600 houses (although most of them were primarily wood) and hit the London Bridge, after the tornado the bridge was rebuilt in stone. The tornado caused 2 deaths and an unknown number of injuries; this tornado is mentioned in chronicles by Florence of Worcester and William of Malmesbury, the latter of the two describing it as "a great spectacle for those watching from afar, but a terrifying experience for those standing near".
In 1097,
In 1176, construction began of the most famous incarnation of London Bridge (completed in 1209), which was built on the site of several earlier timber bridges. This bridge would last for 600 years, and remained the only bridge across the River Thames until 1739.
Violence against Jews took place in 1190, after it was rumoured that the new King had ordered their massacre after they had presented themselves at his coronation.[12]
In 1216, during the
In 1224, after an accusation of
London's Jewish community was forced to leave England by the expulsion by Edward I in 1290. They left for France, Holland and further afield; their property was seized, and many suffered robbery and murder as they departed.[12]
Over the following centuries, London would shake off the heavy French cultural and linguistic influence which had been there since the times of the Norman conquest. The city would figure heavily in the development of Early Modern English.
During the
Trade increased steadily during the Middle Ages, and London grew heavily as a result. In 1100, London's population was somewhat more than 15,000. By 1300, it had grown to roughly 80,000. London lost at least half of its population during the
Medieval London was made up of narrow and twisting streets, and most of the buildings were made from combustible materials such as timber and straw, which made fire a constant threat, while sanitation in cities was of low-quality.
Modern history
Tudor London (1485–1604)
Wyngaerde's "Panorama of London in 1543" | ||
---|---|---|
In 1475, the
During the
The period saw London rapidly rising in importance among Europe's commercial centres. Trade expanded beyond Western Europe to Russia, the Levant, and the Americas. This was the period of
The late 16th and early 17th century saw the great flourishing of drama in London whose preeminent figure was William Shakespeare. During the mostly calm later years of Elizabeth's reign, some of her courtiers and some of the wealthier citizens of London built themselves country residences in Middlesex, Essex and Surrey. This was an early stirring of the villa movement, the taste for residences which were neither of the city nor on an agricultural estate, but at the time of Elizabeth's death in 1603, London was still relatively compact.
Xenophobia was rampant in London, and increased after the 1580s. Many immigrants became disillusioned by routine threats of violence and molestation, attempts at expulsion of foreigners, and the great difficulty in acquiring English citizenship. Dutch cities proved more hospitable, and many left London permanently.[18] Foreigners are estimated to have made up 4,000 of the 100,000 residents of London by 1600, many being Dutch and German workers and traders.[19]
Stuart London (1603–1714)
London's expansion beyond the boundaries of the City was decisively established in the 17th century. In the opening years of that century the immediate environs of the City, with the principal exception of the aristocratic residences in the direction of Westminster, were still considered not conducive to health. Immediately to the north was Moorfields, which had recently been drained and laid out in walks, but it was frequented by beggars and travellers, who crossed it in order to get into London. Adjoining Moorfields were Finsbury Fields, a favourite practising ground for the archers, Mile End, then a common on the Great Eastern Road and famous as a rendezvous for the troops.
The preparations for
The general meeting-place of Londoners in the day-time was the nave of
Charles I acceded to the throne in 1625. During his reign, aristocrats began to inhabit the West End in large numbers. In addition to those who had specific business at court, increasing numbers of country landowners and their families lived in London for part of the year simply for the social life. This was the beginning of the "London season". Lincoln's Inn Fields was built about 1629.[22] The piazza of Covent Garden, designed by England's first classically trained architect Inigo Jones followed in about 1632. The neighbouring streets were built shortly afterwards, and the names of Henrietta, Charles, James, King and York Streets were given after members of the royal family.[23]
In January 1642
Subsequently, an extensive system of fortifications was built to protect London from a renewed attack by the Royalists. This comprised a strong earthen rampart, enhanced with bastions and redoubts. It was well beyond the City walls and encompassed the whole urban area, including Westminster and Southwark. London was not seriously threatened by the royalists again, and the financial resources of the City made an important contribution to the parliamentarians' victory in the war.
The unsanitary and overcrowded City of London has suffered from the numerous outbreaks of the plague many times over the centuries, but in Britain it is the last major outbreak which is remembered as the "Great Plague" It occurred in 1665 and 1666 and killed around 60,000 people, which was one fifth of the population. Samuel Pepys chronicled the epidemic in his diary. On 4 September 1665 he wrote "I have stayed in the city till above 7400 died in one week, and of them about 6000 of the plague, and little noise heard day or night but tolling of bells."[24][25]
Great Fire of London (1666)
The Great Plague was immediately followed by another catastrophe, albeit one which helped to put an end to the plague. On the Sunday, 2 September 1666 the
The fire destroyed about 60% of the City, including Old St Paul's Cathedral, 87 parish churches, 44 livery company halls and the Royal Exchange. However, the number of lives lost was surprisingly small; it is believed to have been 16 at most. Within a few days of the fire, three plans were presented to the king for the rebuilding of the city, by Christopher Wren, John Evelyn and Robert Hooke.[27]
Wren proposed to build main thoroughfares north and south, and east and west, to insulate all the churches in conspicuous positions, to form the most public places into large piazzas, to unite the halls of the 12 chief livery companies into one regular square annexed to the
Nonetheless, the new City was different from the old one. Many aristocratic residents never returned, preferring to take new houses in the West End, where fashionable new districts such as
In the City itself there was a move from wooden buildings to stone and brick construction to reduce the risk of fire. Parliament's Rebuilding of London Act 1666 stated "building with brick [is] not only more comely and durable, but also more safe against future perils of fire". From then on only doorcases, window-frames and shop fronts were allowed to be made of wood.[29]
Christopher Wren's plan for a new model London came to nothing, but he was appointed to rebuild the ruined parish churches and to replace
In the winter of 1683–1684, a
At this time the
18th century
The 18th century was a period of rapid growth for London, reflecting an increasing national population, the early stirrings of the Industrial Revolution, and London's role at the centre of the evolving British Empire.
In 1707, an Act of Union was passed merging the Scottish and the English Parliaments, thus establishing the Kingdom of Great Britain. A year later, in 1708 Christopher Wren's masterpiece, St Paul's Cathedral was completed on his birthday. However, the first service had been held on 2nd of December 1697; more than 10 years earlier. This Cathedral replaced the original St. Paul's which had been completely destroyed in the Great Fire of London. This building is considered one of the finest in Britain and a fine example of Baroque architecture.
Many tradesmen from different countries came to London to trade goods and merchandise. Also, more immigrants moved to London making the population greater. More people also moved to London for work and for business making London an altogether bigger and busier city. Britain's victory in the Seven Years' War increased the country's international standing and opened large new markets to British trade, further boosting London's prosperity.
During the Georgian period London spread beyond its traditional limits at an accelerating pace. This is shown in a series of detailed maps, particularly
In 1780, the Tower of London held its only American prisoner, former President of the Continental Congress, Henry Laurens. In 1779, he was the Congress's representative of Holland, and got the country's support for the Revolution. On his return voyage back to America, the Royal Navy captured him and charged him with treason after finding evidence of a reason of war between Great Britain and the Netherlands. He was released from the Tower on 21 December 1781 in exchange for General Lord Cornwallis.
In 1762,
A phenomenon of the era was the coffeehouse, which became a popular place to debate ideas. Growing literacy and the development of the printing press meant that news became widely available. Fleet Street became the centre of the embryonic national press during the century.
18th-century London was dogged by crime. The Bow Street Runners were established in 1750 as a professional police force. Penalties for crime were harsh, with the death penalty being applied for fairly minor crimes. Public hangings were common in London, and were popular public events.
In 1780, London was rocked by the
Up until 1750,
The 18th century saw the breakaway of the American colonies and many other unfortunate events in London, but also great change and Enlightenment. This all led into the beginning of modern times, the 19th century.
19th century
During the 19th century, London was transformed into the world's largest city and capital of the British Empire. Its population expanded from 1 million in 1800 to 6.7 million a century later. During this period, London became a global political, financial, and trading capital. In this position, it was largely unrivalled until the latter part of the century, when Paris and New York began to threaten its dominance.
While the city grew wealthy as Britain's holdings expanded, 19th-century London was also a city of poverty, where millions lived in overcrowded and unsanitary slums. Life for the poor was immortalised by Charles Dickens in such novels as Oliver Twist.
In 1829, the then Home Secretary (and future prime minister) Robert Peel established the Metropolitan Police as a police force covering the entire urban area. The force gained the nickname of "bobbies" or "peelers" named after Robert Peel.
19th-century London was transformed by the coming of the railways. A new network of metropolitan railways allowed for the development of suburbs in neighbouring counties from which middle-class and wealthy people could commute to the centre. While this spurred the massive outward growth of the city, the growth of greater London also exacerbated the class divide, as the wealthier classes emigrated to the suburbs, leaving the poor to inhabit the inner city areas.
The first railway to be built in London was a line from
The urbanised area continued to grow rapidly, spreading into
Parliament finally gave consent for the MBW to construct a large system of
One of the most famous events of 19th-century London was the
As the capital of a massive empire, London became a magnet for immigrants from the colonies and poorer parts of Europe. A large Irish population settled in the city during the Victorian period, with many of the newcomers refugees from the
In 1888, the new County of London was established, administered by the London County Council. This was the first elected London-wide administrative body, replacing the earlier Metropolitan Board of Works, which had been made up of appointees. The County of London covered broadly what was then the full extent of the London conurbation, although the conurbation later outgrew the boundaries of the county. In 1900, the county was sub-divided into 28 metropolitan boroughs, which formed a more local tier of administration than the county council.
Many famous buildings and landmarks of London were constructed during the 19th century including:
- Trafalgar Square
- Big Ben and the Houses of Parliament
- The Royal Albert Hall
- The Victoria and Albert Museum
- Tower Bridge
20th century
1900 to 1939
London entered the 20th century at the height of its influence as the capital of one of the largest empires in history, but the new century was to bring many challenges.
London's population continued to grow rapidly in the early decades of the century, and public transport was greatly expanded. A large tram network was constructed by the London County Council, through the LCC Tramways; the first motorbus service began in the 1900s. Improvements to London's overground and underground rail network, including large scale electrification were progressively carried out.
During World War I, London experienced its first bombing raids carried out by German
The
Like the rest of the country, London suffered severe unemployment during the Great Depression of the 1930s. In the East End during the 1930s, politically extreme parties of both right and left flourished. The Communist Party of Great Britain and the British Union of Fascists both gained serious support. Clashes between right and left culminated in the Battle of Cable Street in 1936. The population of London reached an all-time peak of 8.6 million in 1939.
Large numbers of Jewish immigrants fleeing from Nazi Germany settled in London during the 1930s, mostly in the East End.
Labour Party politician Herbert Morrison was a dominant figure in local government in the 1920s and 1930s. He became mayor of Hackney and a member of the London County Council in 1922, and for a while was Minister of Transport in Ramsay MacDonald's cabinet. When Labour gained power in London in 1934, Morrison unified the bus, tram and trolleybus services with the Underground, by the creation of the London Passenger Transport Board (known as London Transport) in 1933., He led the effort to finance and build the new Waterloo Bridge. He designed the Metropolitan Green Belt around the suburbs and worked to clear slums, build schools, and reform public assistance.[40]
In World War II
During World War II, London, as many other British cities, suffered severe damage, being bombed extensively by the Luftwaffe as a part of The Blitz. Prior to the bombing, hundreds of thousands of children in London were evacuated to the countryside to avoid the bombing. Civilians took shelter from the air raids in underground stations.
The heaviest bombing took place during The Blitz between 7 September 1940 and 10 May 1941. During this period, London was subjected to 71 separate raids receiving over 18,000 tonnes of high explosive. One raid in December 1940, which became known as the Second Great Fire of London, saw a firestorm engulf much of the City of London and destroy many historic buildings. St Paul's Cathedral, however, remained unscathed; a photograph showing the cathedral shrouded in smoke became a famous image of the war.[41]
Having failed to defeat Britain, Hitler turned his attention to the Eastern front and regular bombing raids ceased. They began again, but on a smaller scale with the "Little Blitz" in early 1944. Towards the end of the war, during 1944/45 London again came under heavy attack by pilotless V-1 flying bombs and V-2 rockets, which were fired from Nazi occupied Europe. These attacks only came to an end when their launch sites were captured by advancing Allied forces.
London suffered severe damage and heavy casualties, the worst hit part being the Docklands area. By the war's end, just under 30,000 Londoners had been killed by the bombing, and over 50,000 seriously injured,[42] tens of thousands of buildings were destroyed, and hundreds of thousands of people were made homeless.[43]
1945–2000
Three years after the war, the 1948 Summer Olympics were held at the original Wembley Stadium, at a time when the city had barely recovered from the war. London's rebuilding was slow to begin. However, in 1951 the Festival of Britain was held, which marked an increasing mood of optimism and forward looking.
In the immediate postwar years housing was a major issue in London, due to the large amount of housing which had been destroyed in the war. The authorities decided upon high-rise
Through the 19th and in the early half of the 20th century, Londoners used coal for heating their homes, which produced large amounts of smoke. In combination with climatic conditions this often caused a characteristic smog, and London became known for its typical "London Fog", also known as "Pea Soupers". London was sometimes referred to as "The Smoke" because of this. In 1952, this culminated in the disastrous
Starting in the mid-1960s, and partly as a result of the success of such UK musicians as
From the 1950s onwards London experienced an increase in immigration, largely from Commonwealth countries such as Jamaica, India, Bangladesh and Pakistan. However, the integration of the new immigrants was not always easy. Racial tensions emerged in events such as the Brixton Riots between 10 and 12 April 1981 in the early 1980s.[47]
From the beginning of "
The outward expansion of London was slowed by the war, and the introduction of the
Greater London's population declined steadily in the decades after World War II, from an estimated peak of 8.6 million in 1939 to around 6.8 million in the 1980s. However, it then began to increase again in the late 1980s, encouraged by strong economic performance and an increasingly positive image.
London's traditional status as a major port declined dramatically in the post-war decades as the old Docklands could not accommodate large modern container ships. The principal ports for London moved downstream to the ports of Felixstowe and Tilbury. The docklands area had become largely derelict by the 1980s, but was redeveloped into flats and offices from the mid-1980s onwards. The Thames Barrier was completed in the 1980s to protect London against tidal surges from the North Sea.
In the early 1980s political disputes between the GLC run by
In 2000, London-wide government was restored, with the creation of the
21st century
Around the start of the 21st century, London hosted the much derided Millennium Dome at Greenwich, to mark the new century.[50] Other Millennium projects were more successful. One was the largest observation wheel in the world, the "Millennium Wheel", or the London Eye, which was erected as a temporary structure, but soon became a fixture, and draws four million visitors a year.[51] The National Lottery also released a flood of funds for major enhancements to existing attractions, for example the roofing of the Great Court at the British Museum.[52]
The
On 6 July 2005 London won
London was the starting point for countrywide riots which occurred in August 2011, when thousands of people rioted in several city boroughs and in towns across England. They were the biggest riots in modern English history.[56] In 2011, the population grew over 8 million people for the first time in decades. White British formed less than half of the population for the first time.[57]
In the public there was ambivalence leading-up to the 2012 Summer Olympics in the city,[58] though public sentiment changed strongly in their favour following a successful opening ceremony and when the anticipated organisational and transport problems never occurred.[59]
Boris Johnson, later Prime Minister of the United Kingdom and Leader of the Conservative Party, served as mayor of London from 1 May 2008 until 5 May 2016, being elected in 2008 and reelected in 2012.[60]
In the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum, London was the only region in England, where Remain won the highest share of the vote. The voter turnout was the highest in London since the 1950 general election.[61] However, Britain’s exit from the European Union (EU) in early 2021 (Brexit) only marginally weakened London’s position as an international financial center (IFC).[62][63]
In May 2021, Sadiq Khan, the first Muslim mayor of a major Western capital city, won a second term as London's mayor.[64]
In 2022, the Elizabeth line railway opened, connecting Heathrow and Reading to Shenfield and Abbey Wood through a tunnel in the city between Paddington and Liverpool Street, revolutionising east-west travel in London.[65]
On 6 May 2023, the coronation of Charles III and his wife, Camilla, as king and queen of the United Kingdom and the other Commonwealth realms, took place at Westminster Abbey, London.[66]
As of 9 May 2023, London had received around 18,000 refugees from Ukraine, because of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.[67]
Population
Year | Population[68][69][70][71][72][73][74] | |
---|---|---|
1 | 1–A few farmers | |
50 | 50–100 | |
140 | 45–60,000 | |
300 | 10–20,000 | |
800 | 10–12,000 | |
1000 | 20–25,000 | |
1100 | 10–20,000 | |
1200 | 20–25,000 | |
1300 | 80–100,000 | |
1350 | 25–50,000 | |
1500 | 50–100,000 | |
1550 | 120,000 | |
1600 | 200,000 | |
1650 | 350,000–400,000 | |
1700 | 550,000–600,000 | |
1750 | 700,000 | |
1801 | 959,300 | |
1831 | 1,655,000 | |
1851 | 2,363,000 | |
1891 | 5,572,012 | |
1901 | 6,506,954 | |
1911 | 7,160,525 | |
1921 | 7,386,848 | |
1931 | 8,110,480 | |
1939 | 8,615,245 | |
1951 | 8,196,978 | |
1961 | 7,992,616 | |
1971 | 7,452,520 | |
1981 | 6,805,000 | |
1991 | 6,829,300 | |
2001 | 7,322,400 | |
2006 | 7,657,300 | |
2011 | 8,174,100 | |
2015 | 8,615,246 |
Historical sites of note
- Alexandra Palace
- Battersea Power Station
- Buckingham Palace
- Croydon Airport
- Hyde Park
- Monument to the Great Fire of London
- Palace of Westminster
- Parliament Hill
- Royal Observatory, Greenwich
- St Paul's Cathedral
- Tower Bridge
- Tower of London
- Tyburn
- Vauxhall station
- Waterloo International station
- Westminster Abbey
See also
- Ale silver
- Economy of London
- Culture of London
- Fortifications of London
- Geography of London
- Geology of London
- History of local government in London
- Timeline of London history
Notes
- ^ "British Archaeology, no 46, July 1999: News". britarch.ac.uk. Retrieved 13 June 2015.
- ^ URL:https://vauxhallhistory.org/vauxhall-bridge/. Accessed: 2018-06-23. (Archived by WebCite® at)
- ^ "Vauxhall Bridge Survey Report" (PDF). James Dilley. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 December 2013. Retrieved 9 December 2013.
- ^ London's Oldest Prehistoric Structure. BAJR. 2018-07-06. URL:http://www.bajrfed.co.uk/bajrpress/londons-oldest-prehistoric-structure/. Accessed: 2018-07-06.
- ^ "Thames Discovery Programme - London's Oldest Foreshore Structure!". thamesdiscovery.org. Retrieved 13 June 2015.
- ^ "Time Team – On the banks of the Thames". Channel 4. Archived from the original on 7 December 2006. Retrieved 28 February 2007.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)(Original: "Time Team – On the banks of the Thames". Channel 4.) - ISBN 978-1107047570. Retrieved 16 February 2018.
- ^ Number 1 Poultry (ONE 94), Museum of London Archaeology, 2013. Archaeology Data Service, The University of York.
- ^ DNA study finds London was ethnically diverse from start, BBC, 23 November 2015
- ^ "Londinium – Excavating London's Past". Rome Across Europe. 30 July 2015. Retrieved 15 July 2019.
- ^ Jacobs, Joseph. TITLE. JewishEncyclopedia.com. 2018-07-04. URL:http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/10098-london. Accessed: 2018-07-04. (Archived by WebCite® at)
- ^ Jewish Encyclopedia. JewishEncyclopedia.com.
- The Museum of the Jewish People at Beit Hatfutsot. Archived from the originalon 25 July 2016. Retrieved 2 July 2018.
- OL 24816680M.; see p. 88–99
- ^ public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Steelyard, Merchants of the". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. This article incorporates text from a publication now in the
- ^ J. G. Pounds (1976). "An Historical Geography of Europe 450 B.C.-A.D. 1330, Part 1330". p. 430. CUP Archive
- ^ a b c Nikolaus Pevsner, London I: The Cities of London and Westminster rev. edition,1962, Introduction p 48.
- ^ Bich Luu Lien, "Taking the Bread Out of Our Mouths: Xenophobia in Early Modern London", Immigrants and Minorities, July 2000, Vol. 19 Issue 2, pp. 1–22
- sales reps. But some were prominent figures in English society: men like George Giszefrom Danzig, Dirk Tybis from Duisberg, or the Coglone expatriates Herman Hildebrand, Derich Born and Derich Berck.
- ^ Sheila Hannah Williams, The Lord Mayor's Show in Tudor and Stuart Times (1959).
- ^ Michael Berlin, "Civic ceremony in early modern London". Urban History 13 (1986): 15–27. "Civic ceremony in early modern London". Urban History (1986) 13#1 pp: 15–27.
- ^ Judith Milhous, Thomas Betterton and the management of Lincoln's Inn Fields, 1695–1708 (Southern Illinois University Press, 1979)
- ^ John Summerson, Inigo Jones (Penguin books, 1966)
- ^ Peter Hampson Ditchfield (1908). Memorials of Old London. Bemrose & sons, limited. p. 76.
- ^ Walter George Bell, The Great Plague in London (Bracken Books, 1995).
- ^ Peter Ackroyd, The great fire of London (U of Chicago Press, 1988)
- ^ Thomas Fiddian Reddaway, The rebuilding of London after the great fire (Arnold, 1951).
- ^ Timothy Baker, London: rebuilding the city after the great fire (Phillimore & Company, 2000)
- ^ Thomas Robert Way; Henry Benjamin Wheatley (1896). Reliques of Old London. p. 10.
- ^ Michael Alan Ralph Cooper, A More Beautiful City: Robert Hooke and the Rebuilding of London After the Great Fire (Sutton Pub Limited, 2003)
- ^ William Andrews (1887). Famous Frosts and Frost Fairs in Great Britain: Chronicled from the Earliest to the Present Time. G. Redway. pp. 16–17.
- ISBN 9781572303652.
- ^ Jason R. Ali and Peter Cunich. "The Church East and West: Orienting the Queen Anne Churches, 1711-34". The Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians (2005): 56–73. In JSTOR
- ^ Niall Ferguson, The House of Rothschild (2 vol. 1998) 2:171–75, 297–304
- ^ Lee Jackson, Dirty Old London: The Victorian Fight Against Filth (2014)
- ^ Stephen Halliday, The great stink of London: Sir Joseph Bazalgette and the cleansing of the Victorian metropolis (The History Press, 2013)
- ^ Jeffrey A., Auerbach, ed. The Great Exhibition of 1851: a nation on display (Yale University Press, 1999)
- ^ Lynn Hollen Lees, Exiles of Erin: Irish Migrants in Victorian London (Manchester University Press, 1979)
- ^ Andrew Godley, Jewish Immigrant Entrepreneurship in New York and London, 1880–1914 (2001)
- ^ George W. Jones and Bernard Donoughue, Herbert Morrison: Portrait of a Politician (1973) pp. 189–210.
- ^ Maureen Hill, The Blitz. Marks and Spencer, 2002
- ^ Air Raid Precautions homefront website
- ^ Amy Helen Bell, London was ours: Diaries and memoirs of the London Blitz (IB Tauris, 2011)
- ^ Richard Quentin Donald Hornsey, The Spiv and the Architect: Unruly Life in Postwar London (U of Minnesota Press, 2010).
- ^ London The Biography by Peter Ackroyd, P.758
- ^ Devra L. Davis, "A look back at the London smog of 1952 and the half century since". Environmental health perspectives 110.12 (2002): A734.
- ^ Matt Cook, "'Gay Times': Identity, Locality, Memory, and the Brixton Squats in 1970's London". Twentieth Century British History (2013) 24#1 pp: 84–109.
- ^ "Official: Livingstone wins". The Guardian. 5 May 2000.
- ^ Greg Clark, The Making of a World City: London 1991 to 2021 (John Wiley & Sons, 2014)
- ^ Moore, Rowan (1 December 2019). "The Millennium Dome 20 years on… revisiting a very British fiasco". The Guardian.
- ^ "A Complete Guide to London Eye | History, Architecture & More". www.london-tickets.co.uk.
- ^ "Everything you ever wanted to know about the Great Court". The British Museum.
- ^ "London Plan" (PDF). Mayor of London.
- ^ Oliver, Mark (6 July 2005). "London wins 2012 Olympics". The Guardian.
- ^ "7 July London bombings: What happened that day?". BBC News. 3 July 2015.
- ^ "How the 2011 London riots unfolded". The Week UK. 4 August 2021.
- ^ "London and its Boroughs: Census Profile". Migration Observatory.
- ^ My London, and Welcome to It 27 April 2012
- ^ "London 2012". Olympics.com.
- ^ Walker, Peter (12 June 2019). "Was Boris Johnson as successful as London mayor as he claims?". The Guardian.
- ^ "EU referendum: Most London boroughs vote to remain". BBC News. 24 June 2016.
- ^ "London as a Financial Center Since Brexit: Evidence from the 2022 BIS Triennial Survey | Global Development Policy Center". www.bu.edu.
- ^ "London Mayor Khan demands more autonomy after Brexit vote". Reuters. 28 June 2016.
- ^ "London elections: Sadiq Khan wins second term as mayor". BBC News. 8 May 2021.
- ^ "Direct Elizabeth line services into central London from Reading, Heathrow, and Shenfield start today - Crossrail". 28 December 2022. Archived from the original on 28 December 2022.
- ^ "The Coronation Weekend". Royal.uk.
- ^ "Ukrainian migration to the UK". Migration Observatory.
- ^ http://www.londononline.co.uk/factfile/historical/ population list on London online
- ^ http://www.demographia.com/dm-lon31.htm population list on demographia.com
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- ^ "Major Cities in the Middle Ages | Middle Ages". thefinertimes.com. 29 May 2012. Retrieved 13 June 2015.
- ISBN 9782760522091. Retrieved 13 June 2015.
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- ^ "Greater London, Inner London Population & Density History". demographia.com. Retrieved 13 June 2015.
Further reading
- Ackroyd, Peter. London: A Biography (2009) (First chapter.)
- Ball, Michael, and David T. Sunderland. Economic history of London, 1800–1914 (Routledge, 2002)
- Billings, Malcolm (1994), London: A Companion to Its History and Archaeology, ISBN 1-85626-153-0
- Bucholz, Robert O., and Joseph P. Ward. London: A Social and Cultural History, 1550–1750 (Cambridge University Press; 2012) 526 pages
- Clark, Greg. The Making of a World City: London 1991 to 2021 (John Wiley & Sons, 2014)
- Emerson, Charles. 1913: In Search of the World Before the Great War (2013) compares London to 20 major world cities on the eve of World War I; pp 15 to 36, 431–49.
- Inwood, Stephen. A History of London (1998) ISBN 0-333-67153-8
- Jones, Robert Wynn. The Flower of All Cities: The History of London from Earliest Times to the Great Fire (Amberley Publishing, 2019).
- London. OL 16456334W.
- Mort, Frank, and Miles Ogborn. "Transforming Metropolitan London, 1750–1960". Journal of British Studies (2004) 43#1 pp: 1–14.
- Naismith, Rory, Citadel of the Saxons: The Rise of Early London (I.B.Tauris; 2018), ISBN 978-1788312226
- Porter, Roy. History of London (1995), by a leading scholar
- Weightman, Gavin, and Stephen Humphries. The Making of Modern London, 1914–1939 (Sidgwick & Jackson, 1984)
- White, Jerry. London in the Twentieth Century: A City and Its People (2001) 544 pages; Social history of people, neighborhoods, work, culture, power. Excerpts
- White, Jerry. London in the Nineteenth Century: 'A Human Awful Wonder of God' (2008); Social history of people, neighborhoods, work, culture, power. Excerpt and text search
- White, Jerry. London in the Eighteenth Century: A Great and Monstrous Thing (2013) 624 pages; Excerpt and text search 480pp; Social history of people, neighborhoods, work, culture, power.
- Williams, Guy R. London in the Country: The Growth of Suburbia (Hamish Hamilton, 1975)
- Yale, Pat (1998). London. OL 16041426W.
Environment
- Allen, Michelle Elizabeth. Cleansing the city: sanitary geographies in Victorian London (2008).
- Brimblecombe, Peter. The Big Smoke: A History of Air Pollution in London Since Medieval Times (Methuen, 1987)
- Ciecieznski, N. J. "The Stench of Disease: Public Health and the Environment in Late-Medieval English towns and cities". Health, Culture and Society (2013) 4#1 pp: 91–104.
- Field, Jacob F. London, Londoners and the Great Fire of 1666: Disaster and Recovery (2018)
- Fowler, James. London Transport: A Hybrid in History 1905-48 (Emerald Group Publishing, 2019).
- Hanlon, W. Walker. Pollution and Mortality in the 19th Century (UCLA and NBER, 2015) online
- Jackson, Lee. Dirty Old London: The Victorian Fight Against Filth (2014)
- Jørgensen, Dolly. "'All Good Rule of the Citee': Sanitation and Civic Government in England, 1400–1600". Journal of Urban History (2010). online
- Landers, John. Death and the metropolis: studies in the demographic history of London, 1670–1830 (1993).
- Luckin, Bill, and Peter Thorsheim, eds. A Mighty Capital under Threat: The Environmental History of London, 1800-2000 (U of Pittsburgh Press, 2020) online review.
- Mosley, Stephen. "'A Network of Trust': Measuring and Monitoring Air Pollution in British Cities, 1912–1960". Environment and History (2009) 15#3 pp: 273–302.
- Thorsheim, Peter. Inventing Pollution: Coal, Smoke, and Culture in Britain since 1800 (2009)
Historiography
- Feldman, David, and Gareth Stedman Jones, eds. Metropolis, London: Histories and Representations since 1800 (Routledge Kegan & Paul, 1989)
- Edward Godfrey Cox (1949). "London". Reference Guide to the Literature of Travel. Vol. 3. Seattle: University of Washington. – via Hathi Trust.
Older histories
- George Walter Thornbury. Old and new London : a narrative of its history, its people, and its places (Cassell, Pelter, & Galpin, 1873) -
- Frederick Crace (1878). Catalogue of Maps, Plans & Views of London, Westminster & Southwark. London: Spottiswoode & Co.
- Walter Besant. London (Harper & Bros., 1892)
- Charles Welch (1893–1894). Notes on London Municipal Literature. Vol. 2. London: ) (thematic bibliography about London)
- Reginald R. Sharpe (1894). London and the Kingdom. London: Longmans, Green.
- "London". Chambers's Encyclopaedia. London. 1901.
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: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link - London – Article in the 1908 Catholic Encyclopædia
Archival and academic digital projects
- A Chronicle of London from 1089 to 1483 written in the fifteenth century
- Roman London - "In their own words" (archæologyof London
- London Lives 1690-1800 - A digital archive with personal records from lond during the 18th century
- Exploring 20th-century London – Explore London's history, culture and religions during the 20th century
- The Victorian London
- Collage - The London Picture Archive
External links
- Museum of London
- London History – From Britannia.com
- The Growth of London 1666–1799
- Maritime London