History of Louisiana
History of Louisiana |
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The history of the area that is now the
European influence began in the 1500s, and
Following Reconstruction in the 1870s, white Democrats had regained political control in the state. In 1896, the
In the early-to-mid 20th century, many African Americans would leave the state in the Great Migration. They moved to mainly urban areas in the North and Midwest. The Great Depression of the 1930s would hit the states economy hard, as mostly agricultural state at the time, farm prices had dropped to all-time lows. In the states urban areas such as New Orleans, many warehouses and businesses had closed, leaving many unemployed. The Federal Emergency Relief Administration would help flow money into the state, providing employment opportunities for Louisiana projects. World War II would help accelerate the industrialization of Louisiana's economy and provide further economic growth.[1][2] In the 1950s and 1960s, the Civil Rights movement had started to gain national attention, and with the passing of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Voting Rights Act of 1965, disfranchisement of African Americans in the state had ended.
In the late 20th Century, Louisiana saw rapid industrialization and rise of economic markets such as oil refineries, petrochemical plants, foundries, along with industries of produce foods, fishing, transportation equipment, and electronic equipment. Tourism also became important to the Louisiana economy, with Mardi Gras becoming a known major celebration held annually since 1838.[3] In 2005, Hurricane Katrina struck Louisiana and surrounding areas in the Gulf of Mexico, resulting in major damages. A $15 billion new levee system built in New Orleans would take place from 2006 to 2011.
Prehistory
Lithic stage
The
Archaic period
During the
By 2200 BC, during the Late Archaic period the Poverty Point culture occupied much of Louisiana and was spread into several surrounding states. Evidence of this culture has been found at more than 100 sites, including the Jaketown Site near Belzoni, Mississippi. The largest and best-known site is near modern-day Epps, Louisiana at Poverty Point. The Poverty Point culture may have hit its peak around 1500, making it the first complex culture, and possibly the first tribal culture, not only in the Mississippi Delta but in the present-day United States. Its people were in villages that extended for nearly 100 miles across the Mississippi River.[5] It lasted until approximately 700 BC.
Woodland period
The Poverty Point culture was followed by the Tchefuncte and Lake Cormorant cultures of the Tchula period, local manifestations of Early Woodland period. These descendant cultures differed from Poverty Point culture in trading over shorter distances, creating less massive public projects, completely adopting ceramics for storage and cooking. The Tchefuncte culture were the first people in Louisiana to make large amounts of pottery. Ceramics from the Tchefuncte culture have been found in sites from eastern Texas to eastern Florida, and from coastal Louisiana to southern Arkansas.[6] These cultures lasted until 200 AD.
The Middle Woodland period started in Louisiana with the Marksville culture in the southern and eastern part of the state[7] and the Fourche Maline culture in the northwestern part of the state. The Marksville culture takes its name from the Marksville Prehistoric Indian Site in Avoyelles Parish, Louisiana. These cultures were contemporaneous with the Hopewell cultures of Ohio and Illinois, and participated in the Hopewell Exchange Network.
At this time populations became more sedentary and began to establish semi-permanent villages and to practice
By 400 AD in the eastern part of the state, the Late Woodland period had begun with the Baytown and Troyville cultures (named for the Troyville Earthworks in Jonesville, Louisiana), and later the Coles Creek culture. Archaeologists have traditionally viewed the Late Woodland as a time of cultural decline after the florescence of the Hopewell peoples. Late Woodland sites, with the exception of sites along the Florida Gulf Coast, tend to be small when compared with Middle Woodland sites. Although settlement size was small, there was an increase in the number of Late Woodland sites over Middle Woodland sites, indicating a population increase. These factors tend to mark the Late Woodland period as an expansive period, not one of a cultural collapse.[10] Where the Baytown peoples began to build more dispersed settlements, the Troyville people instead continued building major earthwork centers.[11] The type site for the culture, the Troyville Earthworks, once had the second tallest precolumbian mound in North America and the tallest in Louisiana at 82 feet (25 m) in height.[12]
The Coles Creek culture from 700 to 1200 AD marks a significant change in the cultural history of the area. Population increased dramatically, and there is strong evidence of a growing cultural and political complexity, especially by the end of the Coles Creek sequence. Although many of the classic traits of chiefdom societies are not yet manifested, by 1000 CE the formation of simple elite polities had begun. Coles Creek sites are found in present-day Arkansas, Louisiana, Oklahoma, Mississippi, and Texas. Many Coles Creek sites were erected over earlier Woodland period mortuary mounds, leading researchers to speculate that emerging elites were symbolically and physically appropriating dead ancestors to emphasize and project their own authority.[13]
Mississippian period
The
Native groups at time of European settlement
The following groups are known to have inhabited the state's territory when the Europeans began colonization:[19]
- The Choctaw nation (Muskogean):
- The Bayougoula, in areas directly north of the Chitimachas in the parishes of St. Helena, Tangipahoa, Washington, East Baton Rouge, West Baton Rouge, Livingston, and St. Tammany. They were allied with the Quinipissa-Mougoulacha in St. Tammany parish.
- The Houma in the East and West Feliciana and Pointe Coupee parishes (about 100 miles (160 km) north of the town named for them).
- The Okelousa in Pointe Coupee parish.
- The Acolapissa in St. Tammany parish. They were allied with the Tangipahoa in Tangipahoa parish.
- The Natchez nation:
- The Caddo Confederacy:
- The Adaiin Natchitoches parish
- The Natchitochesconfederacy consisting of the Natchitoches in Natchitoches parish
- The Yatasi and Nakasa in the Caddo and Bossier parishes,
- The Ouachitain the Caldwell parish.
- The
- The Appalousain St. Landry parish.
- The Washain Assumption parish, the Chawasha in Terrebonne parish, and the Yagenechito to the east.
- The Tunica in northeastern parishes of Tensas, Madison, East Carroll and West Carroll, and the related Koroa in East Carroll parish.
Many current place names in the state, including
European contact
The first European explorers to visit Louisiana came in 1528 when a
French exploration and colonization (1682–1763)
European interest in Louisiana was dormant until the late 17th century, when French expeditions, which had imperial, religious and commercial aims, established a foothold on the Mississippi River and Gulf Coast. With its first settlements, France lay claim to a vast region of North America and set out to establish a commercial empire and French nation stretching from the Gulf of Mexico through Canada. It was also establishing settlements in Canada, from the Maritimes westward along the St. Lawrence River and into the region surrounding the Great Lakes.
The French explorer
French leaders encouraged French men to marry French women while in Louisiana, and specifically not Native Americans, for "the purpose of a more respectable and successful colony." However, clergy members encouraged French men to marry their Indian sexual partners to avoid sin, as well as convert to Christianity. Some French men would also purchase women as slaves for a brief period for "domestic chores in the woods."[20][21]
The French colony of Louisiana originally claimed all the land on both sides of the Mississippi River and north to French territory in Canada around the Great Lakes. A royal ordinance of 1722—following the transfer of the Illinois Country's governance from Canada to Louisiana—may have featured the broadest definition of the region: all land claimed by France south of the Great Lakes between the Rocky Mountains and the Alleghenies[22]
A generation later, trade conflicts between Canada and Louisiana led to a more defined boundary between the French colonies; in 1745, Louisiana governor general
This boundary between Canada and Louisiana remained in effect until the Treaty of Paris in 1763, after which France ceded its remaining claims east of the Mississippi—except for New Orleans—to Great Britain. (Although British forces had established control over the "Canadian" posts in the Illinois and Wabash countries in 1761, they did not have control over Vincennes or the Mississippi River settlements at Cahokia and Kaskaskia until 1764, after the ratification of the peace treaty.[23]) As part of a general report on conditions in the newly conquered lands, Gen. Thomas Gage, then commandant at Montreal, explained in 1762 that, although the boundary between Louisiana and Canada wasn't exact, it was understood the upper Mississippi above the mouth of the Illinois was in Canadian trading territory.[24] The French established an important and lucrative fur trade in the northern areas, which became increasingly important. It competed with Dutch, and later English merchants, across the northern tier for fur trade with the Native Americans. The fur trade also helped cement alliances between Europeans and Native American tribes.[citation needed]
The settlement of
Louisiana's French settlements contributed to further exploration and outposts. They were concentrated along the banks of the Mississippi and its major tributaries, from Louisiana to as far north as the region called the Illinois Country, in modern-day Indiana, Illinois and Missouri.
Initially Mobile, and (briefly) Biloxi served the capital of the colony. In 1722, recognizing the importance of the Mississippi River to trade and military interests, France made New Orleans the seat of civilian and military authority. The Illinois Country exported its grain surpluses down the Mississippi to New Orleans, which climate could not support their cultivation. The lower country of Louisiana (modern-day Arkansas, Mississippi and Louisiana) depended on the Illinois French for survival through much of the eighteenth century.
European settlement in the Louisiana colony was not exclusively French; in the 1720s, German immigrants settled along the Mississippi River in a region referred to as the German Coast.
Africans and early slavery
In 1719, two French ships arrived in New Orleans, the
Peter Caron says that the geographic and perhaps linguistic connection among many African captives did not necessarily imply developing a common culture in Louisiana. They likely differed in religions. Some slaves from Senegambia were
Spanish interregnum (1763–1803)
France ceded most of its territory east of the Mississippi to the Kingdom of Great Britain after its defeat in the Seven Years' War. The area around New Orleans and the parishes around Lake Pontchartrain, along with the rest of Louisiana, became a possession of Spain after the Seven Years' War by the Treaty of Paris of 1763.[citation needed]
Spanish rule did not affect the pace of francophone immigration to the territory, which increased due to the
In 1779 during the
During this time, Spanish-speaking immigrants arrived such as the Canary Islanders of Spain, which are known as the Isleños and Andalusians from the south of Spain called Malagueños. The Isleños and Malagueños immigrated to Louisiana between 1778 and 1783. The Isleños settled in southeast Louisiana mainly in St. Bernard Parish, just outside of New Orleans, as well as near the area just below Baton Rouge. The Malagueños settled mainly around New Iberia, but some spread to other parts of southern Louisiana.[citation needed]
Both free and enslaved populations increased rapidly during the years of Spanish rule, as new settlers and Creoles imported large numbers of slaves to work on plantations. Although some American settlers brought slaves with them who were native to Virginia or North Carolina, the Pointe Coupee inventories of the late eighteenth century showed that most slaves brought by traders came directly from Africa. In 1763 settlements from New Orleans to Pointe Coupee (north of Baton Rouge) included 3,654 free persons and 4,598 slaves. By the 1800 census, which included West Florida, there were 19,852 free persons and 24,264 slaves in Lower Louisiana. Although the censuses do not always cover the same territory, the slaves became the majority of the population during these years. Records during Spanish rule were not as well documented as with the French slave trade, making it difficult to trace African origins. The volume of slaves imported from Africa resulted in what historian Gwendolyn Midlo Hall called "the re-Africanization" of Lower Louisiana, which strongly influenced the culture.[31]
In 1800, France's
Incorporation into the United States and antebellum years (1803–1860)
As a result of his setbacks, Napoleon gave up his dreams of American empire and sold Louisiana (New France) to the United States in 1803. The U.S. divided the land into two territories: the Territory of Orleans, which became the state of Louisiana in 1812, and the District of Louisiana, which consisted of the vast lands not included in the Orleans Territory, extending west of the Mississippi River north to Canada. The Florida Parishes were annexed from the short-lived and strategically important Republic of West Florida, by proclamation of President James Madison in 1810.
The
In 1811, the largest
U.S. statehood
With the growth of settlement in the Midwest (formerly the Northwest Territory) and Deep South during the early decades of the 19th century, trade and shipping increased markedly in New Orleans. Produce and products moved out of the Midwest down the
By 1840 New Orleans had the biggest
With changing agriculture in the Upper South as planters shifted from tobacco to less labor-intensive mixed agriculture, planters had excess laborers. Many sold slaves to traders to take to the Deep South. Slaves were driven by traders overland from the Upper South or transported to New Orleans and other coastal markets by ship in the
.Secession and the American Civil War (1860–1865)
With its plantation economy, Louisiana was a state that generated wealth from the labor of and trade in enslaved Africans. It also had one of the largest free black populations in the United States, totaling 18,647 people in 1860. Most of the free blacks (or free people of color, as they were called in the French tradition) lived in the New Orleans region and southern part of the state. More than in other areas of the South, most of the free people of color were of mixed race. Many gens de couleur libre in New Orleans were middle class and educated; many were also property owners. In contrast, according to the 1860 census, 331,726 people were enslaved, nearly 47% of the state's total population of 708,002.[37]
Construction and elaboration of the levee system was critical to the state's ability to cultivate its commodity crops of cotton and sugar cane. Enslaved Africans built the first levees under planter direction. Later levees were expanded, heightened and added to mostly by Irish immigrant laborers, whom contractors hired when doing work for the state. As the 19th century progressed, the state had an interest in ensuring levee construction. By 1860, Louisiana had built 740 miles (1,190 km) of levees on the Mississippi River and another 450 miles (720 km) of levees on its outlets. These immense earthworks were built mostly by hand. They averaged six feet in height, and up to twenty feet in some areas.[38]
Enfranchised elite whites' strong economic interest in maintaining the slave system contributed to Louisiana's decision to secede from the Union in 1861. It followed other Southern states in seceding after the election of Abraham Lincoln as President of the United States. Louisiana's secession was announced on January 26, 1861, and it became part of the Confederate States of America.
The state was quickly overtaken by Union troops in the
Late 19th to early 20th century
Reconstruction, disenfranchisement, and segregation (1865–1929)
In the immediate aftermath of the American Civil War, many Confederates regained public office. Legislature across the South passed
According to Barry Crouch, George Ruby, a mulatto from New England was a leader in black education in Louisiana from 1863 to 1866. The Army assigned Ruby to the Freedmen's Bureau. His roles encompassed that of a teacher, a school administrator, and a mobile inspector for the Bureau. His responsibilities included assessing local conditions, assisting in the establishment of black schools, and evaluating the performance of Bureau field officers. Ruby's endeavors were met with a positive response from the black population, who eagerly embraced education, but they also faced vehement opposition, including physical violence, from numerous planters and other white individuals. Ruby's career exemplifies the role played by the Black carpetbagger during the Civil War and Reconstruction era in Louisiana.[39]
In the 1870s, whites accelerated their insurgency to regain control of political power in the state. The Red River area, where new parishes had been created by the Reconstruction legislature, was an area of conflict. On Easter Sunday 1873, an estimated 85 to more than 100 blacks were killed in the Colfax massacre, as white militias had gathered to challenge Republican officeholders after the disputed gubernatorial election of 1872.
Later, 5,000 White Leaguers battled 3,500 members of the Metropolitan Police and state militia in New Orleans after demanding the resignation of Governor
Through the 1880s, white Democrats began to reduce voter registration of blacks and poor whites by making registration and elections more complicated. They imposed institutionalized forms of racial discrimination and also conducted voter intimidation and violence against black Republicans. The rate of lynchings of blacks increased through the century, reaching a peak in the late 1800s, but with lynchings continuing well into the 20th century. Blacks came out in force in the April 1896 elections, in areas where they could freely vote, to support a Republican-Populist fusion ticket that might overturn the conservative Democrats. Blacks were threatened by increasing talk about restricting their vote, and Mississippi had already passed a new constitution in 1890 that disenfranchised most blacks. Racial tensions and violence were high, and there were 21 lynchings of blacks in Louisiana that year, surpassing the total for any state. Returns from Democratic-controlled plantation parishes were doctored, and the Democrats won the race. The legislature "refused to investigate what everyone knew was a stolen election."[42]
In 1898, the white Democratic,
The state population in 1900 was 47% African-American: 652,013 citizens, of whom many in New Orleans were descendants of
In the notable 19th-century
From July 24–27, 1900, New Orleans erupted in a white race riot after Robert Charles, an African-American laborer, fatally shot a white police officer during an altercation. He escaped and during and after the manhunt for him, whites rampaged through the city attacking other blacks and burning down two black schools. A total of 28 people died, including Charles, and more than 50 were wounded. Most of the casualties were black. The riot received national attention and ended only with intervention by state militia.[46]
As a result of disfranchisement, African Americans in Louisiana essentially had no representation; as they could not vote, they could not participate in juries or in local, state or federal offices. As a result, they suffered inadequate funding for schools and services, and lack of attention to their interests and worse in the segregated state. They continued to build their own lives and institutions.
In 1915, the Supreme Court struck down the grandfather clause in its ruling in Guinn v. United States. Although the case originated in Oklahoma, Louisiana and other Southern states had used similar clauses to exempt white voters from literacy tests. State legislators quickly passed new requirements for potential voters to demonstrate "understanding," or reading comprehension, to official registrars. Administered subjectively by whites, in practice the understanding test was used to keep most black voters off the rolls. By 1923, Louisiana established the all-white primary, which effectively shut out the few black voters from the Democratic Party, the only competitive part of elections in the one-party state.[47]
In the middle decades of the 20th century, thousands of African Americans left Louisiana in the Great Migration north to industrial cities. The boll weevil infestation and agricultural problems had cost sharecroppers and farmers their jobs, and continuing violence drove out many families. The mechanization of agriculture had reduced the need for many farm laborers. They sought skilled jobs in the burgeoning defense industry in California in the 1940s, better education for their children, and living opportunities in communities where they could vote, as well as an escape from southern violence.[48]
Orphan trains
During some of this period, Louisiana accepted Catholic orphans in an urban resettlement program organized in New York City.
Mid-to-late 20th century
Great Depression and World War II (1929–1940s)
During some of the Great Depression, Louisiana was led by Governor Huey Long. He was elected to office on populist appeal. Though popular for his public works projects, which provided thousands of jobs to people in need, and for his programs in education and increased suffrage for poor whites, Long was criticized for his allegedly demagogic and autocratic style. He extended patronage control through every branch of Louisiana's state government. Especially controversial were his plans for wealth redistribution in the state. Long's rule ended abruptly with his assassination in the state capitol in 1935.
Mobilization for World War II created defense industry jobs in the state, attracting thousands of rural black and white farmers into the cities to obtain such employment. However, tens of thousands of black workers left the state in the Second Great Migration for the North and West Coast to seek skilled jobs and better pay in the defense industry outside the South, better education for themselves and their children, and living opportunities in communities where they could vote.[49]
Although Long removed the poll tax associated with voting, the all-white primaries were maintained through 1944, until the Supreme Court struck them down in Smith v. Allwright. Through 1948 black people in Louisiana continued to be essentially disfranchised, with only 1% of those eligible managing to vote.[50] Schools and public facilities continued to be segregated.
Civil Rights movement (1950–1970)
State legislators created other ways to suppress black voting, but from 1948 to 1952, it crept up to 5% of those eligible. Civil rights organizations in New Orleans and southern parishes, where there had been a long tradition of free people of color before the American Civil War, worked hard to register black voters.
In the 1950s the state created new requirements for a citizenship test for voter registration. Despite opposition by the
Patterns of
The disfranchisement of African Americans did not end until their leadership and activism throughout the South during the
21st century
Since colonization, the American Civil War, and the Civil Rights movement, Louisiana during the 21st century began transitioning to a more racially and ethnically diverse state; the state also became a center for the film industry and growing technology firms from North Louisiana to Acadiana.[55][56][57][58] As Southern Louisiana grew in population during the beginning of the 21st century, more significant concern was expressed for climate change and sea level rise.[59][60]
Hurricane Katrina
In August 2005, New Orleans and many other low-lying parts of the state along the Gulf of Mexico were hit by the catastrophic Hurricane Katrina. It caused widespread damage due to the breaching of levees and large-scale flooding of more than 80% of the city. Officials issued warnings to evacuate the city and nearby areas, but tens of thousands of people, mostly African Americans, had stayed behind, some stranded, and suffered through the damage of the widespread flood waters.
Cut off in many cases from healthy food, medicine, or water, or assembled in public spaces without functioning emergency services, more than 1,500 people in New Orleans died in the aftermath. Government at all levels had failed to prepare adequately despite severe hurricane warnings, and emergency responses were slow. The state faced a humanitarian crisis stemming from conditions in many locations and the large tide of evacuating citizens, especially the city of New Orleans.
Early 2010s
In 2010, Baton Rouge started a market push to become a test city for
Mid to late 2010s
In 2015, the city of Lafayette gained international attention for a mass shooting and murder-suicide at Grand 16 Theater;[62][63] this mass shooting spurred further discussion and debate on gun control in the United States.[64] During 2015, the Lafayette metropolitan area also overtook the Shreveport–Bossier City metropolitan area by population, becoming Louisiana's third largest metropolitan region.[65]
In July 2016 the
In 2016, the Greater Baton Rouge metropolitan area was heavily affected by the shooting of police officers in July and flooding in August.
In 2019, three Louisiana black churches were set on fire.[71] The suspect used gasoline, destroying each church completely. Holden Matthews, 21 years old, was charged with the destruction of the churches.[72][73]
Early 2020s
The first presumptive case relating to the
The rapid spread of COVID-19 in Louisiana likely originated in late February 2020 when the virus was introduced into the state via domestic travel, originating from a single source.[77] The virus was already present in New Orleans before Mardi Gras; however, it is likely that the festival accelerated the spread.[77]
Numerous "clusters" of confirmed cases have appeared at nursing homes across southern Louisiana, including an outbreak at Lambeth House in New Orleans that has infected over fifty and killed thirteen elderly residents as of March 30.[78][79] As the state has increased its capacity for testing, a University of Louisiana at Lafayette study estimated the growth rate in Louisiana was among the highest in the world, prompting serious concerns about the state's healthcare capacity to care for sick patients.[citation needed] On March 24, only 29% of ICU beds were vacant statewide, and Edwards announced coronavirus patients would likely overwhelm hospitals in New Orleans by April 4.[80][needs update]
As of May 28, 2021[update], Louisiana has administered 3,058,019 COVID-19 vaccine doses, and has fully vaccinated 1,337,323 people, equivalent to 28.67 percent of the population.[81] As of November 19, 2021[update], the number of doses administered has reached 5,096,864, and the number of fully vaccinated individuals is 2,253,496, representing 48.31 percent of the population.[82]
On August 29, 2021, Hurricane Ida made landfall in Louisiana, passing through New Orleans on the 16th anniversary of Hurricane Katrina. A citywide power outage and significant damage was reported.[83] The post-Katrina levee system successfully defended the city, but some suburbs without levees or where levees were still under construction flooded.[84]
See also
- African Americans in Louisiana
- History of slavery in Louisiana
- Louisiana (New France)
- French colonization of the Americas
- French colonial empire
- Louisiana (New Spain)
- Acadiana
- History of the Southern United States
- Black Belt in the American South
- Deep South
- List of governors of Louisiana
- List of Louisiana state historic sites
- List of National Historic Landmarks in Louisiana
- Timeline of Baton Rouge
- Timeline of New Orleans
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- ^ "Groups plan to make push for Google Fiber experiment" Archived July 25, 2014, at the Wayback Machine, WAFB, April 5, 2010.
- ^ "Louisiana cinema shooting: Lafayette gunman 'had violent past'". BBC News. British Broadcasting Corporation. July 24, 2015. Retrieved November 21, 2021.
- ^ Shapiro, Emily; Liddy, Tom (July 24, 2015). "Lafayette, Louisiana, Movie Theater Gunman Was 'Intent on Shooting and Escaping'". ABC News. American Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved November 21, 2021.
- ^ Crilly, Rob (July 24, 2015). "Two dead in cinema shooting as Obama says he was stymied on gun control". The Telegraph. Retrieved November 21, 2021.
- ^ Goff, Jessica. "Lafayette now third largest metro area in the state". The Daily Advertiser. Gannett. Retrieved February 22, 2021.
- ^ "Alton Sterling protesters treated 'like animals' in Baton Rouge prison, advocacy group claims". The Advocate. July 8, 2017. Archived from the original on November 9, 2020. Retrieved September 26, 2020.
- ^ "BRPD officer injured in Alton Sterling protest can pursue negligence claim against organizer". The Advocate. December 17, 2019. Archived from the original on September 18, 2020. Retrieved September 26, 2020.
- ^ Jason Samenow (August 19, 2016). "No-name storm dumped three times as much rain in Louisiana as Hurricane Katrina". Washington Post. Archived from the original on August 20, 2016. Retrieved August 19, 2016.
- ^ Baton Rouge Area Chamber (August 18, 2016). "BRAC's preliminary analysis of potential magnitude of flooding's impact on the Baton Rouge region" (PDF). Baton Rouge Area Chamber. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 16, 2016. Retrieved August 22, 2016.
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- ^ Szekely, Peter (April 11, 2019). "Son of sheriff's deputy charged with burning three Louisiana black churches". Reuters. Archived from the original on September 27, 2020. Retrieved September 26, 2020.
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- ^ Coleman, Justine (March 25, 2020). "Trump approves major disaster declaration in Louisiana for coronavirus pandemic". The Hill. Retrieved March 25, 2020.
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Further reading
Surveys
- Allain, Mathe. Louisiana Literature and Literary Figures (2004)
- Baker, Vaughan B. Visions and Revisions: Perspectives on Louisiana Society and Culture (2000)
- Becnel, Thomas A. Agriculture And Economic Development (1997)
- Brasseaux, Carl A. A Refuge for All Ages: Immigration in Louisiana History (1996)
- Gentry, Judith F., and Janet Allured, eds. Louisiana Women: Their Lives and Times. (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2009) 354 pp. ISBN 978-0-8203-2947-5
- Kniffen, Fred B.; Hiram F. Gregory; George A. Stokes (1987). The Historic Indian Tribes of Louisiana: From 1542 to the Present. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press.
- Louisiana Writers' Project. Louisiana: A Guide to the State. New York: Hastings House, 1941. Works Project Administration. Online edition
- Neuman, Robert W.; Lanier A. Simmons (1969). A Bibliography Relative to the Indians of the State of Louisiana. Anthropological Study. Department of Conservation, Louisiana Geological Survey.
- Nolan, Charles. Religion in Louisiana (2004)
- Schafer, Judith K., Warren M. Billings, and Glenn R. Conrad. ''An Uncommon Experience : Law and Judicial Institutions in Louisiana 1803–2003 (1997)
- Wade, Michael G. Education in Louisiana (1999)
- Wall, Bennett H.; Rodrigue, John C., eds. (2014). Louisiana: A History (6th ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-118-61929-2. Standard contemporary survey text.
Colonial to 1900
- Conrad, Glenn R. The French Experience in Louisiana (1995)
- Delatte, Carolyn. Antebellum Louisiana, 1830-1860: Life And Labor(2004)
- Din, Gilbert C. The Spanish Presence in Louisiana, 1763–1803 (1996)
- Labbe, Dolores Egger. The Louisiana Purchase and its Aftermath, 1800–1830 (1998)
- Schott Matthew J. Louisiana Politics and the Paradoxes of Reaction and Reform, 1877–1928, (2000)
- Smith, F. Todd. Louisiana and the Gulf South Frontier, 1500–1821 (LSU Press, 2014) 278 pp.
- Vidal, Cecile, ed. Louisiana: Crossroads of the Atlantic World (University of Pennsylvania Press; 2013) 278 pages; essays by scholars on Louisiana in Atlantic history from the late-17th to the mid-19th centuries.
Civil War and reconstruction
- Arnesen, Eric. Waterfront Workers of New Orleans: race, class, and politics, 1863–1923. (Oxford UP, 1991).
- Bergeron, Arthur. The Civil War in Louisiana: Military Activity (2004)
- Blassingame, John W. Black New Orleans 1860–1880 (U of Chicago Press, 1973).
- Capers, Gerald M. Occupied City, New Orleans Under the Federals 1862–1865. (U of Kentucky Press, 1965).
- Crouch, Barry A. "Black Education in Civil War and Reconstruction Louisiana: George T. Ruby, the Army, and the Freedmen’s Bureau." Louisiana History 38#3 (1997), pp. 287–308. online
- Fischer, Roger. The Segregation Struggle in Louisiana, 1862–1877. (University of Illinois Press: 1974) Study of free persons of color in New Orleans who provided leadership in the unsuccessful fight against segregation of schools and public accommodations.
- Hogue, James Keith. Uncivil War: Five New Orleans Street Battles and the Rise and Fall of Radical Reconstruction (LSU Press, 2006)
- Hollandsworth Jr, James G. The Louisiana Native Guards: The Black Military Experience During the Civil War (LSU Press, 1995).
- Hollandsworth, James G. An Absolute Massacre: The New Orleans Race Riot of July 30, 1866 (LSU Press, 2001).
- Long, Alecia P. The Great Southern Babylon: Sex, Race, and Respectability in New Orleans, 1865—1920 (LSU Press, 2005).
- McCrary, Peyton. Abraham Lincoln and Reconstruction: The Louisiana Experiment (1978).
- Powell, Lawrence N. Reconstructing Louisiana(2001)
- Rabinowitz, Howard N. Race Relations in the Urban South 1865–1890 (Oxford UP, 1978).
- Rousey, Dennis Charles. Policing the Southern City: New Orleans 1805–1889 (LSU Press, 1996).
- Stout IV, Arthur Wendel. "A Return to Civilian Leadership: New Orleans, 1865–1866" (MA thesis, LSU, 2007). online bibliography pp. 58–62.
- Taylor, Joe Gray. Louisiana Reconstructed, 1863–1877 (LSU Press, 1974).
- Vincent, Charles. "Negro Leadership and Programs in the Louisiana Constitutional Convention of 1868." Louisiana History (1969): 339–351. in JSTOR
- Wetta, Frank J. The Louisiana Scalawags: Politics, Race, and Terrorism During the Civil War and Reconstruction (Louisiana State University Press; 2012) 256 pages
- White, Howard A. The Freedmen's Bureau in Louisiana (LSU Press, 1970).
Since 1900
- Allured, Janet. Remapping Second-Wave Feminism: The Long Women's Rights Movement in Louisiana, 1950–1997 (U of Georgia Press, 2016). xvi, 348 pp.
- Becnel, Thomas. Senator Allen Ellender of Louisiana: A Biography (1996)
- Bridges, Tyler. Bad Bet on the Bayou: The Rise of Gambling in Louisiana and the Fall of Governor Edwin Edwards (2002) excerpt and text search
- Fairclough, Adam. Race & Democracy: The Civil Rights Struggle in Louisiana, 1915–1972 (1999) excerpt and text search
- Haas, Edward F. The Age of the Longs, Louisiana, 1928–1960 (2001)
- Kurtz, Michael L. Louisiana Since the Longs, 1960 to Century's End (1998)
- Moore, John Robert. "The New Deal in Louisiana," in John Braeman et al. eds. The New Deal: Volume Two – the State and Local Levels (1975) pp. 137–65.
- Sanson, Jerry Purvis. Louisiana During World War II: Politics and Society, 1939–1945 (1999) excerpt and text search
- Schott Matthew J. Louisiana Politics and the Paradoxes of Reaction and Reform, 1877–1928 (2000)
- Schott, Matthew J. "Class conflict in Louisiana voting since 1877: some new perspectives." Louisiana History 12.2 (1971): 149–165. online
- Williams, T. Harry. Huey Long (1970), Pulitzer Prize
Local and regional
- Ancelet, Barry Jean, Jay D. Edwards, and Glen Pitre, eds. Cajun Country (1991)
- Clark, John G. New Orleans, 1718–1812: An Economic History (1970)
- Jeansonne, Glen. Leander Perez: Boss of the Delta (2006) excerpt and text search
Race and ethnicity
- Broussard, Sherry T. African Americans in Lafayette and Southwest Louisiana (Arcadia, 2012) online.
- Crouch, Barry A. "Black Education in Civil War and Reconstruction Louisiana: George T. Ruby, the Army, and the Freedmen’s Bureau." Louisiana History 38#3 (1997), pp. 287–308. online
- De Jong, Greta. A different day: African American struggles for justice in rural Louisiana, 1900–1970 (U of North Carolina Press, 2002) online.
- Gauthreaux, Alan G. Italian Louisiana: History, Heritage, & Tradition. (2019). online
- Hall, Gwendolyn Midlo. Africans in colonial Louisiana: the development of Afro-Creole culture in the eighteenth-century (LSU Press, 1995) online.
- Keele, Luke, William Cubbison, and Ismail White. "Suppressing black votes: a historical case study of voting restrictions in Louisiana." American Political Science Review 115.2 (2021): 694–700. online
- Scarpaci, Vincenza. "Walking the color line: Italian immigrants in rural Louisiana, 1880–1910." in Are Italians White? (Routledge, 2012) pp. 60–76.
- Vincent, Charles, ed. The African American Experience in Louisiana: From the Civil War to Jim Crow (Center for Louisiana Studies, University of Southwestern Louisiana, 1999).
- Vincent, Charles. " 'Of Such Historical Importance...': The African American Experience in Louisiana." Louisiana History 50.2 (2009): 133–158 online.