History of Macedonia (ancient kingdom)

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The

ancient Persia during the reigns of Amyntas I of Macedon (r. 547 – 498 BC) and his son Alexander I of Macedon (r. 498 – 454 BC). The period of Achaemenid Macedonia came to an end in roughly 479 BC with the ultimate Greek victory against the second Persian invasion of Greece led by Xerxes I
and the withdrawal of Persian forces from the European mainland.

During the age of

Olynthos, both of which were defeated with the aid of foreign powers, the city-states of Thessaly and Sparta, respectively. Alexander II (r. 370 – 368 BC) invaded Thessaly but failed to hold Larissa, which was captured by Pelopidas of Thebes, who made peace with Macedonia on condition that they surrender noble hostages, including the future king Philip II of Macedon
(r. 359 – 336 BC).

Philip II came to power when his older brother

Attalid
successor kingdoms in the former territories of Alexander's empire.

Macedonia continued its role as the dominant state of

Roman Greece
.

Early history and legend

Main articles: Achaemenid Macedonia and Argead dynasty
Further information: List of ancient Macedonians § Kings
UNESCO World Heritage Site

The

Velleius and Justin and by the Greek biographer Plutarch and the Greek geographer Pausanias stated that Caranus of Macedon was the first Macedonian king and that he was succeeded by Perdiccas I.[5][6][7][8][9][10] Greeks of the Classical period generally accepted the origin story provided by Herodotus, or another involving lineage from Zeus, chief god of the Greek pantheon, lending credence to the idea that the Macedonian ruling house possessed the divine right of kings.[11] Herodotus wrote that Alexander I of Macedon (r. 498 – 454 BC) convinced the Hellanodikai authorities of the Ancient Olympic Games that his Argive lineage could be traced back to Temenus, and thus his perceived Greek identity permitted him to enter the Olympic competitions.[12]

Very little is known about the

Aigai (modern Vergina) could have been under their rule since roughly the mid-7th century BC, during the Archaic period.[15]

octadrachm of Alexander I of Macedon (r. 498 – 454 BC), minted c. 465–460 BC, showing an equestrian figure wearing a chlamys (short cloak) and petasos
(head cap) while holding two spears and leading a horse

The kingdom was situated in the fertile alluvial plain, watered by the rivers

Thracian tribes.[16] To the north of Macedonia lay various non-Greek peoples such as the Paeonians due north, the Thracians to the northeast, and the Illyrians, with whom the Macedonians were frequently in conflict, to the northwest.[17] To the south lay Thessaly, with whose inhabitants the Macedonians had much in common, both culturally and politically, while to the west lay Epirus, with whom the Macedonians had a peaceful relationship and in the 4th century BC formed an alliance against Illyrian raids.[18] Prior to the 4th century BC, the kingdom covered a region approximately corresponding to the western and central parts of the region of Macedonia in modern Greece.[19]

After

marriage alliance.[23] Persian authority over Macedonia was interrupted by the Ionian Revolt (499–493 BC), yet the Persian general Mardonius was able to subjugate Macedonia, bringing it under Persian rule.[24] It is doubtful, though, that Macedonia was ever officially included within a Persian satrapy (i.e. province).[25] The Macedonian king Alexander I must have viewed his subordination as an opportunity to aggrandize his own position, since he used Persian military support to extend his own borders.[26] The Macedonians provided military aid to Xerxes I during the Second Persian invasion of Greece in 480–479 BC, which saw Macedonians and Persians fighting against a Greek coalition led by Athens and Sparta.[27] Following the Greek victory at Salamis, the Persians sent Alexander I as an envoy to Athens, hoping to strike an alliance with their erstwhile foe, yet his diplomatic mission was rebuffed.[28] Achaemenid control over Macedonia ceased when the Persians were ultimately defeated by the Greeks and fled the Greek mainland in Europe.[29]

Involvement in the Classical Greek world

Further information: Delian League, Spartan hegemony, and Theban hegemony
Silver tetraobol coins issued during the reign of Perdiccas II (r. 454 – 413 BC)
Macedon (orange) during the Peloponnesian War around 431 BC, with Athens and the Delian League (yellow), Sparta and Peloponnesian League (red), independent states (blue), and the Persian Achaemenid Empire (purple).

Alexander I, who Herodotus claimed was entitled

tributary states and in 437/436 BC founded the city of Amphipolis at the mouth of the Strymon River for access to timber as well as gold and silver from the Pangaion Hills.[34]

War broke out in 433 BC when Athens, perhaps seeking additional cavalry and resources in anticipation of the

Chalcidice, winning over the important city of Potidaea.[36] Athens responded by sending a naval invasion force that captured Therma and laid siege to Pydna.[37] However, they were unsuccessful in retaking Chalcidice and Potidaea due to stretching their forces thin by fighting the Macedonians and their allies on multiple fronts, and therefore sued for peace with Macedonia.[37] War resumed shortly after with the Athenian capture of Beroea and Macedonian aid given to the Potidaeans during an Athenian siege, yet by 431 BC, the Athenians and Macedonians concluded a peace treaty and alliance orchestrated by the Thracian ruler Sitalces of the Odrysian kingdom.[38] The Athenians had hoped to use Sitalces against the Macedonians, but due to Sitalces' desire to focus on acquiring more Thracian allies, he convinced Athens to make peace with Macedonia on the condition that he provide cavalry and peltasts for the Athenian army in Chalcidice.[39] Under this arrangement, Perdiccas II was given back Therma and no longer had to contend with his rebellious brother, Athens, and Sitacles all at once; in exchange he aided the Athenians in their subjugation of settlements in Chalcidice.[40]

In 429 BC, Perdiccas II sent aid to the Spartan commander Cnemus in Acarnania, but the Macedonian forces arrived too late to enter the Battle of Naupactus, which ended in an Athenian victory.[41] In that same year, Sitalces, according to Thucydides, invaded Macedonia at the behest of Athens to aid them in subduing Chalcidice and to punish Perdiccas II for violating the terms of their peace treaty.[42] However, given Sitalces' huge Thracian invading force (allegedly 150,000 soldiers) and a nephew of Perdiccas II that he intended to place on the Macedonian throne after toppling the latter's regime, Athens must have become wary of acting on their supposed alliance since they failed to provide him with promised naval support.[43] Sitalces eventually retreated from Macedonia, perhaps due to logistical concerns: a shortage of provisions and harsh winter conditions.[44]

In 424 BC, Perdiccas began to play a prominent role in the Peloponnesian War by aiding the Spartan general

suzerain lord.[49]

Archelaus I of Macedon
(r. 413 – 399 BC)

Perdiccas II was obliged to send aid to the Athenian general

Archelaus I (r. 413 – 399 BC).[53]

Archelaus I maintained good relations with Athens throughout his reign, relying on Athens to provide naval support in his 410 BC siege of Pydna, and in exchange providing Athens with timber and naval equipment.[54] With improvements to military organization and building of new infrastructure such as fortresses, Archelaus was able to strengthen Macedonia and project his power into Thessaly, where he aided his allies; yet he faced some internal revolt as well as problems fending off Illyrian incursions led by Sirras.[55] Although he retained Aigai as a ceremonial and religious center, Archelaus I moved the capital of the kingdom north to Pella, which was then positioned by a lake with a river connecting it to the Aegean Sea.[56] He improved Macedonia's currency by minting coins with a higher silver content as well as issuing separate copper coinage.[57] His royal court attracted the presence of well-known intellectuals such as the Athenian playwright Euripides.[58]

A silver stater of Amyntas III of Macedon (r. 393 – 370 BC)
A stater of Perdiccas III of Macedon (r. 368 – 359 BC)

Historical sources offer wildly different and confused accounts as to who assassinated Archelaus I, although it likely involved a

royal pages at his court.[59] What ensued was a power struggle lasting from 399 to 393 BC of four different monarchs claiming the throne: Orestes, son of Archelaus I; Aeropus II, uncle, regent, and murderer of Orestes; Pausanias, son of Aeropus II; and Amyntas II, who was married to the youngest daughter of Archelaus I.[60] Very little is known about this period, although each of these monarchs aside from Orestes managed to mint debased currency imitating that of Archelaus I.[61] Finally, Amyntas III (r. 393 – 370 BC), son of Arrhidaeus and grandson of Amyntas I, succeeded to the throne by killing Pausanias.[60]

The Greek historian Diodorus Siculus provided a seemingly conflicting account about Illyrian invasions occurring in 393 BC and 383 BC, which may have been representative of a single invasion led by

Olynthos was allegedly poised to overthrow Amyntas III and conquer the Macedonian kingdom, Teleutias, brother of the Spartan king Agesilaus II, sailed to Macedonia with a large Spartan force to provide critical aid to Amyntas III.[64] The result of this campaign in 379 BC was the surrender of Olynthos and the abolition of the Chalcidian League.[65]

Amyntas III had children with two wives, but it was his eldest son by his marriage with

Crannon as a challenge to the suzerainty of the tagus (supreme Thessalian military leader) Alexander of Pherae, the Thessalians appealed to Pelopidas of Thebes for help to expel both of these rival overlords.[67] After Pelopidas captured Larissa, Alexander II made peace and allied with Thebes, handing over noble hostages including his brother and future king, Philip II.[68] Afterwards, Ptolemy of Aloros assassinated his brother-in-law Alexander II and acted as regent for the latter's younger brother Perdiccas III (r. 368 – 359 BC).[69] Ptolemy's intervention in Thessaly in 367 BC provoked another Theban invasion by Pelopidas, who was undermined when Ptolemy bribed his mercenaries not to fight, thus leading to a newly proposed alliance between Macedonia and Thebes, but only on the condition that more hostages, including one of his Ptolemy's sons, were to be handed over to Thebes.[70] By 365 BC, Perdiccas III had reached the age of majority and took the opportunity to kill his regent Ptolemy, initiating a sole reign marked by internal stability, financial recovery, fostering of Greek intellectualism at his court, and the return of his brother Philip from Thebes.[70] However, Perdiccas III also dealt with an Athenian invasion by Timotheus, son of Conon, that led to the loss of Methone and Pydna, while an invasion of Illyrians led by Bardylis succeeded in killing Perdiccas III and 4,000 Macedonian troops in battle.[71]

Rise of Macedon

Main article: Expansion of Macedonia under Philip II
Further information: Argead dynasty, Amyntas IV of Macedon, and League of Corinth
Left: a bust of Philip II of Macedon (r. 359 – 336 BC) from the Hellenistic period, located at Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek
Right: another bust of Philip II, a 1st-century AD Roman copy of a Hellenistic Greek original, now in the Vatican Museums

Philip II of Macedon (r. 359 – 336 BC), who spent much of his adolescence as a political hostage in Thebes, was twenty-four years old when he acceded to the throne and immediately faced crises that threatened to topple his leadership.[72] However, with the use of deft diplomacy, he was able to convince the Thracians under Berisades to cease their support of Pausanias, a pretender to the throne, and the Athenians to halt their backing of another pretender named Arg(a)eus (perhaps the same who had caused trouble for Amyntas III).[73] He achieved these by bribing the Thracians and their Paeonian allies and removing a garrison of Macedonian troops from Amphipolis, establishing a treaty with Athens that relinquished his claims to that city.[74] He was also able to make peace with the Illyrians who had threatened his borders.[75]

dependent states
(yellow)

The exact date in which Philip II initiated reforms to radically transform the Macedonian army's organization, equipment, and training is unknown, including the formation of the Macedonian phalanx armed with long pikes (i.e. the sarissa). The reforms took place over a period of several years and proved immediately successful against his Illyrian and Paeonian enemies.[76] Confusing accounts in ancient sources have led modern scholars to debate how much Philip II's royal predecessors may have contributed to these military reforms. It is perhaps more likely that his years of captivity in Thebes during the Theban hegemony influenced his ideas, especially after meeting with the renowned general Epaminondas.[77]

Although Macedonia and the rest of Greece traditionally practiced

Olynthian War (349–348 BC) against the Chalcidian League.[83]

While Athens was preoccupied with the Social War (357–355 BC), Philip took this opportunity to retake Amphipolis in 357 BC, for which the Athenians later declared war on him, and by 356 BC, recaptured Pydna and Potidaea, the latter of which he handed over to the Chalcidian League as promised in a treaty of 357/356 BC.[84] In this year, he was also able to take Crenides, later refounded as Philippi and providing much wealth in gold, while his general Parmenion was victorious against the Illyrian king Grabos II of the Grabaei.[85] During the siege of Methone from 355 to 354 BC, Philip lost his right eye to an arrow wound, but was able to capture the city and was even cordial to the defeated inhabitants (unlike the Potidaeans, who had been sold into slavery).[86]

It was at this stage when Philip II involved Macedonia in the

Thessalian cavalry, provided him a seat on the Amphictyonic Council and a marriage alliance with Pherae by wedding Nicesipolis, niece of the tyrant Jason of Pherae.[89]

Alexander Severus
.

After campaigning against the Thracian ruler

Thracian Chersonese.[94] Meanwhile, Phocis and Thermopylae were captured, the Delphic temple robbers executed, and Philip II was awarded the two Phocian seats on the Amphictyonic Council as well as the position of master of ceremonies over the Pythian Games.[95] Athens initially opposed his membership on the council and refused to attend the games in protest, but they were eventually swayed to accept these conditions, partially due to the oration On the Peace by Demosthenes.[96]

For the next few years Philip II was occupied with reorganizing the administrative system of Thessaly, campaigning against the Illyrian ruler

Nicaea (near Thermopylae), leading Thebes to join Athens, Megara, Corinth, Achaea, and Euboea in a final confrontation against Macedonia at the Battle of Chaeronea in 338 BC.[100] The Athenian oligarch Philippides of Paiania was instrumental in the Macedonian victory at Chaeronea by assisting Philip II's cause, but was later prosecuted in Athens as a traitor by the orator and statesman Hypereides.[101]

After the Macedonian victory at Chaeronea, Philip II imposed harsh conditions on Thebes, installing an

western Anatolia.[105] The latter region, yielding far more wealth and valuable resources than the Balkans, was also coveted by the Macedonian king for its sheer economic potential.[106]

The ruins of the Philippeion at Olympia, Greece, which was built by Philip II of Macedon to celebrate his victory at the Battle of Chaeronea in 338 BC[107]

After his election by the League of Corinth as their

Ptolemy, Nearchus, and Harpalus.[109] To reconcile with Olympias, Philip II had their daughter Cleopatra marry Olympias' brother (and Cleopatra's uncle) Alexander I of Epirus, yet Philip II was assassinated by his bodyguard Pausanias of Orestis during their wedding feast and succeeded by Alexander.[110]

Empire

Further information: Wars of Alexander the Great, Wars of the Diadochi, and Chronology of the expedition of Alexander the Great into Asia
Left: Bust of Alexander the Great by the Athenian sculptor Leochares, 330 BC, Acropolis Museum, Athens
Right: Bust of Alexander the Great, a Roman copy of the Imperial Era (1st or 2nd century AD) after an original bronze sculpture made by the Greek sculptor Lysippos, Louvre, Paris
The empire of Alexander the Great at the time of his death in 323 BC

Before Philip II was assassinated in the summer of 336 BC, relations with his son Alexander had degenerated to the point where he excluded him entirely from his planned invasion of Asia, choosing instead for him to act as

Persia, and much of Central and South Asia (i.e. modern Pakistan).[114] His first pressing concerns, however, would be to bury his father at Aigai and to pursue a campaign of suppression closer to home in the Balkans.[115] Following Philip's death, the members of the League of Corinth revolted, yet were soon quelled by military force alongside persuasive diplomacy, Alexander forcing them to rejoin the league and elect him as hegemon to carry out the planned invasion of Achaemenid Persia.[116] Alexander also took the opportunity to settle the score he had with his rival Attalus (who had taunted him during the wedding feast of his daughter Cleopatra Eurydice and Philip II) by having him executed.[117]

In 335 BC, Alexander led a campaign against the Thracian tribe of the

prisoners of war, and burned the city to the ground as a warning to others, which proved effective since no other Greek state aside from Sparta dared to challenge Alexander for the remainder of his reign.[121]

Throughout his military career and kingship, Alexander won every battle that he personally commanded.

King Porus of the Pauravas threatened Alexander's troops, he had them form open ranks to surround the elephants and dislodge their handlers by using their sarissa pikes.[125] When his Macedonian troops threatened mutiny at Opis, Babylonia (near modern Baghdad, Iraq) in 324 BC, Alexander III offered Macedonian military titles and greater responsibilities to Persian officers and units instead, forcing his troops to seek forgiveness, which the king offered at a banquet urging reconciliation between Persians and Macedonians.[126]

Hephaistos) is perhaps Hephaestion
, one of Alexander's loyal companions.

Despite his skills as a commander, Alexander perhaps undercut his own rule by demonstrating signs of

Stateira II, eldest daughter of Darius III, and Parysatis II, youngest daughter of Artaxerxes III, at the Susa weddings in 324 BC.[132]

Meanwhile, in Greece the only disturbance to Macedonian rule was the attempt by the

tyrannies installed in Greece were to be abolished and Greek freedom restored (despite the possibility that the Macedonian king most likely had Antipater install them in the first place).[137]

Philip III Arrhidaeus (r. 323 – 317 BC) bearing images of Athena (left) and Nike
(right)

When Alexander the Great died at Babylon in 323 BC, his mother Olympias immediately accused Antipater and his faction with poisoning him, although there is no evidence to confirm this.[138] With no official heir apparent, the loyalties of the Macedonian military command became split between one side proclaiming Alexander's half-brother Philip III Arrhidaeus (r. 323 – 317 BC) as king and another siding with Alexander's infant son with Roxana, Alexander IV (r. 323 – 309 BC).[139] Except for the Euboeans and Boeotians, the Greeks also immediately rose up in a rebellion against Antipater known as the Lamian War (323–322 BC).[140] When Antipater was defeated at the 323 BC Battle of Thermopylae, he fled to Lamia where he was besieged by the Athenian commander Leosthenes. Leonnatus rescued Antipater by lifting the siege.[141] Although Antipater ultimately subdued the rebellion, he died in 319 BC and left a vacuum of power wherein the two proclaimed kings of Macedonia became pawns in a power struggle between the diadochi, the former generals of Alexander's army who were now carving up his empire.[142]

Kingdoms of the diadochi c. 301 BC, after the Battle of Ipsus
  Kingdom of Ptolemy I Soter
  Kingdom of Cassander
  Kingdom of Lysimachus
  Kingdom of Seleucus I Nicator
  Epirus
Other
  Carthage
  Roman Republic
  Greek States

A

Eumenes of Cardia managed to kill Craterus in battle, this had no grand effect on the course of events now that the victorious coalition convened in Syria to settle the issue of a new regency and territorial rights in the 321 BC Partition of Triparadisus.[146] The council appointed Antipater as regent over the two kings, after which Antipater delegated authority to the leading generals. However, before Antipater died in 319 BC, he named the staunch Argead loyalist Polyperchon as the regent to succeed him, passing over his own son Cassander, ignoring the right of the king to choose a regent (since Philip III was considered mentally unstable), and bypassing the council of the army as well.[147]

Forming an alliance with Ptolemy, Antigonus, and Lysimachus, Cassander had his officer Nicanor capture the Munichia fortress of Athens' port town Piraeus in defiance of Polyperchon's decree that Greek cities should be free of Macedonian garrisons, sparking the Second War of the Diadochi (319–315 BC).[148] Given a string of military failures by Polyperchon, in 317 BC Philip III, by way of his politically-engaged wife Eurydice II of Macedon, officially replaced him as regent with Cassander.[149] Afterwards Polyperchon desperately sought the aid of Olympias, mother of Alexander III who still resided in Epirus.[149] A joint force of Epirotes, Aetolians, and Polyperchon's troops invaded Macedonia and forced the surrender of Philip III and Eurydice's army, allowing Olympias to execute the king and force his queen to commit suicide.[150] Olympias then had Nicanor killed along with dozens of leading Macedonian nobles, yet by the spring of 316 BC Cassander defeated her forces, captured her, and placed her on trial for murder before sentencing her to death.[151]

Cassander married Philip II's daughter

Seleucus Nicator from his satrapy of Babylonia; in reaction to this a coalition of Cassander, Ptolemy, and Lysimachus issued an ultimatum to Antigonus in 315 BC for him to surrender various territories in Asia.[153] Antigonus promptly allied with Polyperchon, now based in Corinth, and issued an ultimatum of his own to Cassander, charging him with murder for executing Olympias and demanding that he hand over the royal family, king Alexander IV and the queen mother Roxana.[154] The conflict that followed lasted until the winter of 312/311 BC, when a new peace settlement recognized Cassander as general of Europe, Antigonus as 'first in Asia', Ptolemy as general of Egypt, and Lysimachus as general of Thrace.[155] Cassander had Alexander IV and Roxana put to death in the winter of 311/310 BC, had Heracles of Macedon executed in 309 BC as part of a peace settlement with Polyperchon, and by 306–305 BC the diadochi were declared kings of their respective territories.[156]

Hellenistic era

Further information: Antipatrid dynasty, Antigonid dynasty, Hellenistic period, Pyrrhic War, Chremonidean War, and Cleomenean War
Naples National Archaeological Museum

The beginning of

King of Thrace decisively defeated the Antigonids at the Battle of Ipsus in 301 BC, killing Antigonus and forcing Demetrius into flight.[158]

Cassander died in 297 BC and his sickly son

Antipater II of Macedon (r. 297 – 294 BC), with their mother Thessalonike of Macedon acting as regent.[159] While Demetrius fought against the Antipatrid forces in Greece, Antipater II killed his own mother and regent to obtain power.[159] His desperate brother Alexander V then requested aid from Pyrrhus of Epirus (r. 297 – 272 BC),[159] who had fought alongside Demetrius at the Battle of Ipsus, yet spent time as a hostage in Egypt as stipulated in an alliance treaty between Demetrius and Ptolemy I.[160] In exchange for defeating the forces of Antipater II and forcing him to flee to the court of Lysimachus in Thrace, Pyrrhus was awarded the westernmost portions of the Macedonian kingdom.[161] Demetrius marched north and invited his nephew Alexander V into his camp for a banquet on friendly pretenses, yet had him assassinated as he attempted to leave. Demetrius was then proclaimed king in Macedonia, yet his subjects became increasingly concerned by his conduct as a seemingly aloof monarch and Eastern-style autocrat.[159]

War broke out between Pyrrhus and Demetrius in 290 BC when

Corcyra.[162] The war dragged on until 288 BC, when Demetrius lost the support of the Macedonians and fled the country. Macedonia was then divided between Pyrrhus and Lysimachus, the former taking western Macedonia and the latter eastern Macedonia.[162]

By 286 BC, Lysimachus was able to expel Pyrrhus and his forces from Macedonia altogether, yet in 282 BC, a new war erupted between Lysimachus and Seleucus I.

Antigonus II of Macedon (r. 277 – 274 BC, 272 – 239 BC).[168]

Beginning in 280 BC, Pyrrhus embarked on a campaign in

rise of Rome now that Greek cities in southern Italy such as Tarentum became Roman allies.[169] Despite having a depleted treasury, Pyrrhus decided to invade Macedonia in 274 BC, due to the perceived political instability of Antigonus II's regime. After defeating the largely mercenary army of Antigonus II at the 274 BC Battle of Aous, Pyrrhus was able to drive him out of Macedonia and force him to take refuge with his naval fleet.[170]

Mieza (modern-day Lefkadia), Imathia, Central Macedonia, Greece
, 2nd century BC

Pyrrhus lost much of his support among the Macedonians in 273 BC when his unruly Gallic mercenaries plundered the royal cemetery of

Argos in 272 BC, Pyrrhus was killed while fighting in the city's streets, allowing Antigonus II to reclaim Greece as well.[173] He then restored the Argead dynastic graves at Aigai by constructing a massive tumulus.[174] Antigonus II also secured the Illyrian front and annexed Paeonia.[172]

The Antigonid naval fleets docked at

Antiochus II, a peace settlement between Antigonus II and Ptolemy II Philadelphus of Egypt was finally struck in 255 BC.[180]

The Temple of Apollo at Corinth, built c. 540 BC, with the Acrocorinth (i.e. the acropolis of Corinth that once held a Macedonian garrison)[181] seen in the background

However, in 251 BC,

Demetrius II of Macedon (r. 239 – 229 BC). Seeking an alliance with Macedonia to defend against the Aetolians, the queen mother and regent Olympias II of Epirus offered her daughter Phthia of Macedon to Demetrius II in marriage, which he accepted yet damaged relations with the Seleucids by divorcing Stratonice of Macedon.[185] Although the Aetolians formed an alliance with the Achaean League as a result, Demetrius II was able to invade Boeotia and capture it from the Aetolians by 236 BC.[181]

Demetrius II's control of Greece diminished by the end of his reign, though, when he lost

Dardanian Kingdom invaded Macedonia and defeated an army of Demetrius II shortly before his death in 229 BC.[188] Although his child son, Philip immediately inherited the throne, his regent Antigonus III Doson (r. 229 – 221 BC), nephew of Antigonus II, was proclaimed king by the army and Philip as his heir following a string of military victories against the Illyrians in the north and the Aetolians in Thessaly.[189]

obverse and a scene on the reverse depicting Apollo sitting on the prow of a ship

Although the Achaean League had been fighting Macedonia for decades, Aratus sent an embassy to Antigonus III in 226 BC seeking an unexpected alliance now that the reformist king Cleomenes III of Sparta was threatening the rest of Greece in the Cleomenean War (229–222 BC).[190] In exchange for military aid, Antigonus III demanded the return of Corinth to Macedonian control, which Aratus finally agreed to in 225 BC.[191] Antigonus III's first move against Sparta was to capture Arcadia in the spring of 224 BC.[192] After reforming a Hellenic league in the same vein as Philip II's League of Corinth and hiring Illyrian mercenaries for additional support, Antigonus III managed to defeat Sparta at the Battle of Sellasia in 222 BC.[193] For the first time in Sparta's history, their city was then occupied by a foreign power, restoring Macedonia's position as the leading power in Greece.[194] Antigonus died a year later, perhaps from tuberculosis, leaving behind a strong Hellenistic kingdom for his successor Philip V.[195]

Roman Sicily to patrol the Illyrian coasts, causing Philip V to reverse course and order his fleet to retreat, averting open conflict for the time being.[200]

Conflict with Rome

Main article: Macedonian Wars
Further information: Cretan War (205–200 BC), Punic Wars, and Macedonian–Carthaginian Treaty
Ptolemaic Empire
(violet purple)

In 215 BC, at the height of the

Lissus in 212 BC and potentially threatened southern Italy in support of Hannibal, the Roman Senate responded by inciting the Aetolian League, as well as Attalus I (r. 241 – 197 BC) of Pergamon, Sparta, Elis, and Messenia to wage war against Philip V, keeping him occupied and away from the Italian peninsula.[205]

A year after the Aetolian League concluded a

Hellespont and Bosporus as well as Ptolemaic Samos, which led Rhodes to form an alliance with Pergamon, Byzantium, Cyzicus, and Chios against Macedonia.[210] Despite Philip V's nominal alliance with the Seleucid king, he lost the naval Battle of Chios in 201 BC and was subsequently blockaded at Bargylia by a combined fleet of the victorious Rhodian and Pergamene navies.[211]

obverse and Athena Alkidemos
brandishing a thunderbolt on the reverse

While Philip V was ensnared in a conflict with several Greek maritime powers, Rome viewed these unfolding events as an opportunity to punish a former ally of Hannibal, come to the aid of its Greek allies, and commit to a war that perhaps required a limited amount of resources in order to achieve victory.

philhellenic intentions of the Romans contrasted with the combative and antagonistic Macedonian response.[215] When the comitia centuriata finally voted in approval of the Roman Senate's declaration of war and handed their ultimatum to Philip V by the summer of 200 BC, demanding that a tribunal assess the damages owed to Rhodes and Pergamon, the Macedonian king rejected it outright. This marked the beginning of the Second Macedonian War (200–197 BC), with Publius Sulpicius Galba Maximus spearheading military operations by landing at Apollonia along the coast of Illyria with two Roman legions.[216]

Bronze bust of Eumenes II of Pergamon, a Roman copy of a Hellenistic Greek original, from the Villa of the Papyri in Herculaneum

Although the Macedonians were able to successfully defend their territory for roughly two years,[217] the Roman consul Titus Quinctius Flamininus managed to expel Philip V from Macedonia in 198 BC with him and his forces taking refuge in Thessaly.[218] When the Achaean League abandoned Philip V to join the Roman-led coalition, the Macedonian king sued for peace, but the terms offered were considered too stringent and so the war continued.[218] In June 197 BC, the Macedonians were defeated at the Battle of Cynoscephalae.[219] Rome, dismissing the Aetolian League's demands to dismantle the Macedonian monarchy altogether, ratified a treaty that forced Macedonia to relinquish control of much of its Greek possessions, including Corinth, while allowing it to preserve its core territory, if only to act as a buffer against Illyrian and Thracian incursions into Greece.[220] Although the Greeks, especially the Aetolians, suspected Roman intentions of supplanting Macedonia as the new hegemonic power in Greece, Flaminius announced at the Isthmian Games of 196 BC that Rome intended to preserve Greek liberty by leaving behind no garrisons or exacting tribute of any kind.[221] This promise was delayed due to the Spartan king Nabis capturing Argos, necessitating Roman intervention and a peace settlement with the Spartans, yet the Romans finally evacuated Greece in the spring of 194 BC.[222]

Encouraged by the Aetolian League and their calls to liberate Greece from the Romans, the

Asia Minor.[226]

A tetradrachm of Perseus of Macedon (r. 179 – 168 BC); British Museum

While becoming increasingly entangled in Greek affairs and failing to please all sides in various disputes, the Roman Senate decided in 184/183 BC to force Philip V to abandon the cities of

Amphictyonic Council.[231]

Eumenes II came to Rome in 172 BC and delivered a speech to the Senate denouncing the alleged crimes and transgressions of Perseus.[232] This convinced the Roman Senate to declare the Third Macedonian War (171–168 BC), although Klaus Bringmann asserts that negotiations with Macedonia were completely ignored due to Rome's "political calculation" that the Macedonian kingdom had to be destroyed in order to ensure the elimination of the "supposed source of all the difficulties which Rome was having in the Greek world".[233] Although Perseus' forces were victorious against the Romans at the Battle of Callinicus in 171 BC, the Macedonian army was defeated at the Battle of Pydna in June 168 BC.[234] Perseus fled to Samothrace but surrendered shortly afterwards, was brought to Rome for the triumph of Lucius Aemilius Paullus Macedonicus, and placed under house arrest at Alba Fucens where he died in 166 BC.[235]

The Romans formally disestablished the Macedonian monarchy by installing four separate allied

Roman province of Macedonia.[239]

See also

References

  1. ISBN 978-1597975193
    . That sense of being one people allowed each Greek state and its citizens to contribute their values, experiences, traditions, resources, and talents to a new national identity and psyche. It was not until Philip's reign that a common sentiment of what it meant to be a Hellene reached all Greeks. Alexander took this culture of Hellenism with him to Asia, but it was Philip, as leader of the Greeks, who created it and in doing so made the Hellenistic Age possible.
  2. ISBN 978-1444334128
    . He [Philip] also recognized the power of pan-hellenic sentiment when arranging Greek affairs after his victory at Chaironeia: a pan-hellenic expedition against Persia ostensibly was one of the main goals of the League of Corinth.
  3. ISBN 978-1551114323
    . In the end, the Greeks would fall under the rule of a single man, who would unify Greece: Philip II, king of Macedon (360-336 BC). His son, Alexander the Great, would lead the Greeks on a conquest of the ancient Near East vastly expanding the Greek world.
  4. ^ a b King 2010, p. 376; Sprawski 2010, p. 127; Errington 1990, pp. 2–3.
  5. ^ Titus Livius, "The History of Rome", 45.9: "This was the end of the war between the Romans and Perseus, after four years of steady campaigning, and also the end of a kingdom famed over a large part of Europe and all of Asia. They reckoned Perseus as the twentieth after Caranus, who founded the kingdom."
  6. ^ Marcus Velleius Paterculus, "History of Rome", 1.6: "In this period, sixty-five years before the founding of Rome, Carthage was established by the Tyrian Elissa, by some authors called Dido. About this time also Caranus, a man of royal race, eleventh in descent from Hercules, set out from Argos and seized the kingship of Macedonia. From him Alexander the Great was descended in the seventeenth generation, and could boast that, on his mother's side, he was descended from Achilles, and, on his father's side, from Hercules.”
  7. ^ Justin, "Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus", 7.1.7: "But Caranus accompanied by a great multitude of Greeks, having been directed by an oracle to seek a settlement in Macedonia, and having come into Emathia, and followed a flock of goats that were fleeing from a tempest, possessed himself of the city of Edessa...”
  8. ^ Plutarch, “Alexander”, 2.1: "As for the lineage of Alexander, on his father's side he was a descendant of Heracles through Caranus, and on his mother's side a descendant of Aeacus through Neoptolemus; this is accepted without any question."
  9. ^ Pausanias, "Description of Greece", 9.40.8–9: "The Macedonians say that Caranus, king of Macedonia, overcame in battle Cisseus, a chieftain in a bordering country. For his victory Caranus set up a trophy after the Argive fashion, but it is said to have been upset by a lion from Olympus, which then vanished. Caranus, they assert, realized that it was a mistaken policy to incur the undying hatred of the non-Greeks dwelling around, and so, they say, the rule was adopted that no king of Macedonia, neither Caranus himself nor any of his successors, should set up trophies, if they were ever to gain the good-will of their neighbors. This story is confirmed by the fact that Alexander set up no trophies, neither for his victory over Dareius nor for those he won in India."
  10. ^ Errington 1990, p. 3.
  11. ^ King 2010, p. 376; Sprawski 2010, p. 127.
  12. ^ Badian 1982, p. 34; Sprawski 2010, p. 142.
  13. ^ King 2010, p. 376; Errington 1990, p. 251.
  14. ^ King 2010, p. 376.
  15. ^ Errington 1990, p. 2.
  16. ^ Lewis & Boardman 1994, pp. 723–724, see also Hatzopoulos 1996, pp. 105–108 for the Macedonian expulsion of original inhabitants such as the Phrygians.
  17. ^ Anson 2010, p. 5.
  18. ^ Anson 2010, pp. 5–6.
  19. ^ Thomas 2010, pp. 67–68, 74–78.
  20. ^ Olbrycht 2010, p. 343; Sprawski 2010, p. 134; Errington 1990, p. 8.
  21. Anthemous
    in 506 BC.
  22. ^ Olbrycht 2010, p. 343.
  23. ^ Olbrycht 2010, p. 343; Sprawski 2010, p. 136; Errington 1990, p. 10.
  24. ^ Olbrycht 2010, p. 344; Sprawski 2010, pp. 135–137; Errington 1990, pp. 9–10.
  25. ^ Sprawski 2010, p. 137.
  26. ^ Olbrycht 2010, p. 344; Errington 1990, p. 10.
  27. ^ Olbrycht 2010, pp. 344–345; Sprawski 2010, pp. 138–139.
  28. ^ Sprawski 2010, pp. 139–140.
  29. ^ Olbrycht 2010, p. 345; Sprawski 2010, pp. 139–141; see also Errington 1990, pp. 11–12 for further details.
  30. ^ Sprawski 2010, pp. 141–142; Errington 1990, pp. 9, 11–12.
  31. ^ Sprawski 2010, p. 143.
  32. ^ Roisman 2010, pp. 145–146.
  33. ^ Roisman 2010, p. 146; see also Errington 1990, pp. 13–14 for further details.
  34. ^ Roisman 2010, pp. 146–147; Müller 2010, p. 171; Cawkwell 1978, p. 72; see also Errington 1990, pp. 13–14, 16 for further details.
  35. ^ Roisman 2010, pp. 146–147.
  36. ^ Roisman 2010, p. 147; see also Errington 1990, p. 18 for further details.
  37. ^ a b Roisman 2010, p. 147.
  38. ^ Roisman 2010, pp. 147–148.
  39. ^ Roisman 2010, p. 148.
  40. ^ Roisman 2010, p. 148; Errington 1990, pp. 19–20.
  41. ^ Roisman 2010, p. 149.
  42. ^ Roisman 2010, p. 149; Errington 1990, p. 20.
  43. ^ Roisman 2010, pp. 149–150; Errington 1990, p. 20.
  44. ^ Roisman 2010, p. 150; Errington 1990, p. 20.
  45. ^ Roisman 2010, pp. 150–151; Errington 1990, pp. 21–22.
  46. ^ Roisman 2010, pp. 151–152; Errington 1990, pp. 21–22.
  47. ^ Roisman 2010, p. 152; Errington 1990, p. 22.
  48. ^ Roisman 2010, p. 152; Errington 1990, pp. 22–23.
  49. ^ Roisman 2010, pp. 152–153.
  50. ^ Roisman 2010, p. 153; Errington 1990, pp. 22–23.
  51. ^ Roisman 2010, pp. 153–154; see also Errington 1990, p. 23 for further details.
  52. ^ Roisman 2010, p. 154; see also Errington 1990, p. 23 for further details.
  53. ^ Roisman 2010, p. 154; Errington 1990, pp. 23–24.
  54. ^ Roisman 2010, pp. 154–155; Errington 1990, p. 24.
  55. ^ Roisman 2010, pp. 155–156.
  56. ^ Roisman 2010, p. 156; Errington 1990, p. 26.
  57. ^ Roisman 2010, pp. 156–157.
  58. ^ Roisman 2010, pp. 156–157; Errington 1990, p. 26.
  59. ^ Roisman 2010, pp. 157–158; Errington 1990, p. 28.
  60. ^ a b Roisman 2010, p. 158; Errington 1990, pp. 28–29.
  61. ^ Roisman 2010, p. 158.
  62. ^ Roisman 2010, pp. 158–159; see also Errington 1990, p. 30 for further details.
  63. ^ Roisman 2010, p. 159; see also Errington 1990, p. 30 for further details.
  64. ^ Roisman 2010, pp. 159–160;
  65. ^ Roisman 2010, p. 160; Errington 1990, pp. 32–33.
  66. ^ Roisman 2010, p. 161; Errington 1990, pp. 34–35.
  67. ^ Roisman 2010, pp. 161–162; Errington 1990, p. 35.
  68. ^ Roisman 2010, pp. 161–162; Errington 1990, pp. 35–36.
  69. ^ Roisman 2010, p. 162; Errington 1990, pp. 35–36.
  70. ^ a b Roisman 2010, pp. 162–163; Errington 1990, p. 36.
  71. ^ Roisman 2010, pp. 163–164; Errington 1990, p. 37.
  72. ^ Müller 2010, pp. 166–167; Buckley 1996, pp. 467–472.
  73. ^ Müller 2010, pp. 167–168; Buckley 1996, pp. 467–472.
  74. ^ Müller 2010, pp. 167–168; Buckley 1996, pp. 467–472; Errington 1990, pp. 38.
  75. ^ Müller 2010, p. 167.
  76. ^ Müller 2010, p. 168.
  77. ^ Müller 2010, pp. 168–169.
  78. Asia Minor (modern Turkey
    ) soon after this wedding. Müller also suspects that this marriage was one of political convenience meant to ensure the loyalty of an influential Macedonian noble house.
  79. ^ Müller 2010, p. 169.
  80. ^ Müller 2010, p. 170; Buckler 1989, p. 62.
  81. ^ Müller 2010, pp. 170–171; Gilley & Worthington 2010, p. 187.
  82. ^ Müller 2010, pp. 167, 169; Roisman 2010, p. 161.
  83. ^ Müller 2010, pp. 169, 173–174; Cawkwell 1978, p. 84; Errington 1990, pp. 38–39.
  84. ^ Müller 2010, p. 171; Buckley 1996, pp. 470–472; Cawkwell 1978, pp. 74–75.
  85. ^ Müller 2010, p. 172; Hornblower 2002, p. 272; Cawkwell 1978, p. 42; Buckley 1996, pp. 470–472.
  86. ^ Müller 2010, pp. 171–172; Buckler 1989, pp. 63, 176–181; Cawkwell 1978, pp. 185–187;
    Cawkwell contrarily provides the date of this siege as 354–353 BC.
  87. ^ Müller 2010, pp. 171–172; Buckler 1989, pp. 8, 20–22, 26–29.
  88. ^ Müller 2010, pp. 172–173; Cawkwell 1978, pp. 60, 185; Hornblower 2002, p. 272; Buckler 1989, pp. 63–64, 176–181;
    Conversely, Buckler provides the date of this initial campaign as 354 BC, while affirming that the second Thessalian campaign ending in the Battle of Crocus Field occurred in 353 BC.
  89. ^ Müller 2010, p. 173; Cawkwell 1978, pp. 62, 66–68; Buckler 1989, pp. 74–75, 78–80; Worthington 2008, pp. 61–63.
  90. ^ Müller 2010, p. 173; Cawkwell 1978, p. 44; Schwahn 1931, col. 1193–1194.
  91. ^ Cawkwell 1978, p. 86.
  92. ^ Müller 2010, pp. 173–174; Cawkwell 1978, pp. 85–86; Buckley 1996, pp. 474–475.
  93. ^ Müller 2010, pp. 173–174; Worthington 2008, pp. 75–78; Cawkwell 1978, pp. 96–98.
  94. ^ Müller 2010, p. 174; Cawkwell 1978, pp. 98–101.
  95. ^ Müller 2010, pp. 174–175; Cawkwell 1978, pp. 95, 104, 107–108; Hornblower 2002, pp. 275–277; Buckley 1996, pp. 478–479.
  96. ^ Müller 2010, p. 175.
  97. ^ Müller 2010, pp. 175–176; Cawkwell 1978, pp. 114–117; Hornblower 2002, p. 277; Buckley 1996, p. 482; Errington 1990, p. 44.
  98. ^ Mollov & Georgiev 2015, p. 76.
  99. ^ Müller 2010, p. 176; Cawkwell 1978, pp. 136–142; Errington 1990, pp. 82–83.
  100. ^ Müller 2010, pp. 176–177; Cawkwell 1978, pp. 143–148.
  101. ISBN 0-292-79142-9
    .
  102. ^ Müller 2010, p. 177; Cawkwell 1978, pp. 167–168.
  103. ^ Müller 2010, pp. 177–178; Cawkwell 1978, pp. 167–171; see also Hammond & Walbank 2001, p. 16 for further details.
  104. ^ Olbrycht 2010, pp. 348, 351
  105. ^ Olbrycht 2010, pp. 347–349
  106. ^ Olbrycht 2010, p. 351
  107. ^ Errington 1990, p. 227.
  108. ^ a b Müller 2010, pp. 179–180; Cawkwell 1978, p. 170.
  109. ^ Müller 2010, pp. 180–181; see also Hammond & Walbank 2001, p. 14 for further details.
  110. ^ Müller 2010, pp. 181–182; Errington 1990, p. 44; Gilley & Worthington 2010, p. 186; see Hammond & Walbank 2001, pp. 3–5 for details of the arrests and judicial trials of other suspects in the conspiracy to assassinate Philip II of Macedon.
  111. ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, pp. 189–190; Müller 2010, p. 183.
  112. F.W. Walbank discuss possible Macedonian as well as foreign suspects, such as Demosthenes and Darius III: Hammond & Walbank 2001
    , pp. 8–12.
  113. ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, p. 190; Müller 2010, p. 183; Renault 2001, pp. 61–62; Fox 1980, p. 72; see also Hammond & Walbank 2001, pp. 3–5 for further details.
  114. ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, p. 186.
  115. ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, p. 190.
  116. ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, pp. 190–191; see also Hammond & Walbank 2001, pp. 15–16 for further details.
  117. ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, p. 191.
  118. ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, p. 191; Hammond & Walbank 2001, pp. 34–38.
  119. ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, p. 191; Hammond & Walbank 2001, pp. 40–47.
  120. ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, p. 191; see also Errington 1990, p. 91 and Hammond & Walbank 2001, p. 47 for further details.
  121. ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, pp. 191–192; see also Errington 1990, pp. 91–92 for further details.
  122. ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, pp. 192–193.
  123. ^ a b c Gilley & Worthington 2010, p. 193.
  124. ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, pp. 193–194; Holt 2012, pp. 27–41.
  125. ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, pp. 193–194.
  126. ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, p. 194; Errington 1990, p. 113.
  127. ^ a b Gilley & Worthington 2010, p. 195.
  128. ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, pp. 194–195.
  129. ^ Errington 1990, pp. 105–106.
  130. ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, p. 198.
  131. ^ Holt 1989, pp. 67–68.
  132. ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, p. 196.
  133. ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, p. 199; Errington 1990, p. 93.
  134. F.W. Walbank state that Alexander the Great left "Macedonia under the command of Antipater, in case there was a rising in Greece." Hammond & Walbank 2001
    , p. 32.
  135. ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, pp. 200–201; Errington 1990, p. 58.
  136. ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, p. 201.
  137. ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, pp. 201–203.
  138. ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, p. 204; see also Errington 1990, p. 44 for further details.
  139. ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, p. 204; see also Errington 1990, pp. 115–117 for further details.
  140. ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, p. 204; Adams 2010, p. 209; Errington 1990, pp. 69–70, 119.
  141. ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, pp. 204–205; Adams 2010, pp. 209–210; Errington 1990, pp. 69, 119.
  142. ^ Gilley & Worthington 2010, p. 205; see also Errington 1990, p. 118 for further details.
  143. ^ Adams 2010, pp. 208–209; Errington 1990, p. 117.
  144. ^ Adams 2010, pp. 210–211; Errington 1990, pp. 119–120.
  145. ^ Adams 2010, p. 211; Errington 1990, pp. 120–121.
  146. ^ Adams 2010, pp. 211–212; Errington 1990, pp. 121–122.
  147. ^ Adams 2010, pp. 207 n. #1, 212; Errington 1990, pp. 122–123.
  148. ^ Adams 2010, pp. 212–213; Errington 1990, pp. 124–126.
  149. ^ a b Adams 2010, p. 213; Errington 1990, pp. 126–127.
  150. ^ Adams 2010, pp. 213–214; Errington 1990, pp. 127–128.
  151. ^ Adams 2010, p. 214; Errington 1990, pp. 128–129.
  152. ^ Adams 2010, pp. 214–215.
  153. ^ Adams 2010, p. 215.
  154. ^ Adams 2010, pp. 215–216.
  155. ^ Adams 2010, p. 216.
  156. ^ Adams 2010, pp. 216–217; Errington 1990, p. 129.
  157. ^ Adams 2010, p. 217; Errington 1990, p. 145.
  158. ^ Adams 2010, p. 217; Errington 1990, pp. 145–147; Bringmann 2007, p. 61.
  159. ^ a b c d Adams 2010, p. 218.
  160. ^ a b Bringmann 2007, p. 61.
  161. ^ Adams 2010, p. 218; Errington 1990, p. 153.
  162. ^ a b Adams 2010, pp. 218–219; Bringmann 2007, p. 61.
  163. ^ Adams 2010, p. 219; Bringmann 2007, p. 61; Errington 1990, p. 155;
    Conversely, Errington dates Lysimachus' reunification of Macedonia by expelling Pyrrhus of Epirus as 284 BC, not 286 BC.
  164. ^ a b Adams 2010, p. 219; Bringmann 2007, p. 61; Errington 1990, pp. 156–157.
  165. ^ Adams 2010, p. 219; Bringmann 2007, p. 63; Errington 1990, pp. 159–160.
  166. ^ Errington 1990, p. 160.
  167. ^ Errington 1990, pp. 160–161.
  168. ^ Adams 2010, p. 219; Bringmann 2007, p. 63; Errington 1990, pp. 162–163.
  169. ^ a b Adams 2010, pp. 219–220; Bringmann 2007, p. 63.
  170. ^ Adams 2010, pp. 219–220; Bringmann 2007, p. 63; Errington 1990, p. 164.
  171. ^ Adams 2010, p. 220; Errington 1990, pp. 164–165.
  172. ^ a b Adams 2010, p. 220.
  173. ^ Adams 2010, p. 220; Bringmann 2007, p. 63; Errington 1990, p. 167.
  174. ^ Adams 2010, p. 220; Errington 1990, pp. 165–166.
  175. ^ Adams 2010, pp. 220–221.
  176. ^ Adams 2010, p. 221; see also Errington 1990, pp. 167–168 about the resurgence of Sparta under Areus I.
  177. ^ Adams 2010, p. 221; Errington 1990, p. 168.
  178. ^ Adams 2010, p. 221; Errington 1990, pp. 168–169.
  179. ^ Adams 2010, p. 221; Errington 1990, pp. 169–171.
  180. ^ Adams 2010, p. 221.
  181. ^ a b Adams 2010, p. 222.
  182. ^ Adams 2010, pp. 221–222; Errington 1990, p. 172.
  183. ^ Adams 2010, p. 222; Errington 1990, pp. 172–173.
  184. ^ Adams 2010, p. 222; Errington 1990, p. 173.
  185. ^ Adams 2010, p. 222; Errington 1990, p. 174.
  186. ^ Adams 2010, p. 223; Errington 1990, pp. 173–174.
  187. ^ a b Adams 2010, p. 223; Errington 1990, p. 174.
  188. ^ Adams 2010, p. 223; Errington 1990, pp. 174–175.
  189. ^ Adams 2010, p. 223; Errington 1990, pp. 175–176.
  190. ^ Adams 2010, pp. 223–224; Eckstein 2013, p. 314; see also Errington 1990, pp. 179–180 for further details.
  191. ^ Adams 2010, pp. 223–224; Eckstein 2013, p. 314; Errington 1990, pp. 180–181.
  192. ^ Adams 2010, p. 224.
  193. ^ Adams 2010, p. 224; Eckstein 2013, p. 314; Errington 1990, pp. 181–183.
  194. ^ Adams 2010, p. 224; see also Errington 1990, p. 182 about the Macedonian military's occupation of Sparta following the Battle of Sellasia.
  195. ^ Adams 2010, p. 224; Errington 1990, pp. 183–184.
  196. ^ Eckstein 2010, p. 229; Errington 1990, pp. 184–185.
  197. ^ Eckstein 2010, p. 229; Errington 1990, pp. 185–186, 189.
  198. ^ Eckstein 2010, pp. 229–230; see also Errington 1990, pp. 186–189 for further details;
    Errington seems less convinced that Philip V at this point had any intentions of invading southern Italy via Illyria once the latter was secured, deeming his plans to be "more modest", Errington 1990, p. 189.
  199. ^ Eckstein 2010, p. 230; Errington 1990, pp. 189–190.
  200. ^ Eckstein 2010, pp. 230–231; Errington 1990, pp. 190–191.
  201. ^ Bringmann 2007, p. 79; Eckstein 2010, p. 231; Errington 1990, p. 192; also mentioned by Gruen 1986, p. 19.
  202. ^ Bringmann 2007, p. 80; see also Eckstein 2010, p. 231 and Errington 1990, pp. 191–193 for further details.
  203. ^ Errington 1990, pp. 191–193, 210.
  204. ^ Bringmann 2007, p. 82; Errington 1990, p. 193.
  205. ^ Bringmann 2007, p. 82; Eckstein 2010, pp. 232–233; Errington 1990, pp. 193–194; Gruen 1986, pp. 17–18, 20.
  206. ^ Bringmann 2007, p. 83; Eckstein 2010, pp. 233–234; Errington 1990, pp. 195–196; Gruen 1986, p. 21; see also Gruen 1986, pp. 18–19 for details on the Aetolian League's treaty with Philip V of Macedon and Rome's rejection of the second attempt by the Aetolians to seek Roman aid, viewing the Aetolians as having violated the earlier treaty.
  207. ^ Bringmann 2007, p. 85; see also Errington 1990, pp. 196–197 for further details.
  208. ^ Eckstein 2010, pp. 234–235; Errington 1990, pp. 196–198; see also Bringmann 2007, p. 86 for further details.
  209. ^ Bringmann 2007, pp. 85–86; Eckstein 2010, pp. 235–236; Errington 1990, pp. 199–201; Gruen 1986, p. 22.
  210. ^ Bringmann 2007, p. 86; see also Eckstein 2010, p. 235 for further details.
  211. ^ Bringmann 2007, p. 86; Errington 1990, pp. 197–198.
  212. ^ Bringmann 2007, pp. 86–87.
  213. ^ Bringmann 2007, p. 87; see also Errington 1990, pp. 202–203: "Roman desire for revenge and private hopes of famous victories were probably the decisive reasons for the outbreak of the war."
  214. ^ Eckstein 2010, pp. 233–235.
  215. ^ Bringmann 2007, p. 87.
  216. ^ Bringmann 2007, pp. 87–88; Errington 1990, pp. 199–200; see also Eckstein 2010, pp. 235–236 for further details.
  217. ^ Eckstein 2010, p. 236.
  218. ^ a b Bringmann 2007, p. 88.
  219. ^ Bringmann 2007, p. 88; Eckstein 2010, p. 236; Errington 1990, p. 203.
  220. ^ Bringmann 2007, p. 88; Eckstein 2010, pp. 236–237; Errington 1990, p. 204.
  221. ^ Bringmann 2007, pp. 88–89; Eckstein 2010, p. 237.
  222. ^ Bringmann 2007, pp. 89–90; see also Eckstein 2010, p. 237 and Gruen 1986, pp. 20–21, 24 for further details.
  223. ^ Bringmann 2007, pp. 90–91; Eckstein 2010, pp. 237–238.
  224. ^ Bringmann 2007, p. 91; Eckstein 2010, p. 238.
  225. ^ Bringmann 2007, pp. 91–92; Eckstein 2010, p. 238; see also Gruen 1986, pp. 30, 33 for further details.
  226. ^ Bringmann 2007, p. 92; Eckstein 2010, p. 238.
  227. Thracian
    coast as 183 BC, while Eckstein dates it as 184 BC.
  228. ^ Bringmann 2007, p. 97; see also Errington 1990, pp. 207–208 for further details.
  229. ^ Bringmann 2007, p. 97; Eckstein 2010, pp. 240–241; see also Errington 1990, pp. 211–213 for a discussion about Perseus' actions during the early part of his reign.
  230. ^ Bringmann 2007, pp. 97–98; Eckstein 2010, p. 240.
  231. ^ Bringmann 2007, p. 98; Eckstein 2010, p. 240; Errington 1990, pp. 212–213.
  232. ^ Bringmann 2007, pp. 98–99; Eckstein 2010, pp. 241–242.
  233. ^ Bringmann 2007, pp. 98–99; see also Eckstein 2010, p. 242, who says that "Rome ... as the sole remaining superpower ... would not accept Macedonia as a peer competitor or equal."
  234. ^ Bringmann 2007, p. 99; Eckstein 2010, pp. 243–244; Errington 1990, pp. 215–216; Hatzopoulos 1996, p. 43.
  235. ^ Bringmann 2007, p. 99; Eckstein 2010, p. 245; Errington 1990, pp. 204–205, 216; see also Hatzopoulos 1996, p. 43 for further details.
  236. ^ a b Bringmann 2007, pp. 99–100; Eckstein 2010, p. 245; Errington 1990, pp. 216–217; see also Hatzopoulos 1996, pp. 43–46 for further details.
  237. ^ Bringmann 2007, p. 104; Eckstein 2010, pp. 246–247.
  238. ^ Bringmann 2007, pp. 104–105; Eckstein 2010, p. 247; Errington 1990, pp. 216–217.
  239. ^ Bringmann 2007, pp. 104–105; Eckstein 2010, pp. 247–248; Errington 1990, pp. 203–205, 216–217.

Sources

Further reading

  • Fox, Robin Lane. 2011. Brill's Companion to Ancient Macedon: Studies In the Archaeology and History of Macedon, 650 BC-300 AD. Leiden: Brill.
  • King, Carol J. 2018. Ancient Macedonia. New York: Routledge.
  • Roisman, Joseph, and Ian Worthington. 2010. A Companion to Ancient Macedonia. Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell.

External links

Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article "Macedonian Empire".
Library resources about
History of Macedonia (ancient kingdom)
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