History of Manila
This article's indigenous Malayo-Polynesian roots of early Philippine cultures, and the structure of thassalocratic power relations in pre-16th century Maritime Southeast Asia. It needs to be updated to reflect current scholarly consensus, as reflected in relevant peer-reviewed academic journal articles. (July 2017) |
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The earliest recorded history of
Manila became the seat of the
In 1762 the city
In 1898, Spain ceded control of the Philippines after over three hundred years of colonial rule to the United States after the Treaty of Paris (1898), which ended the Spanish–American War. During the American Period, some semblance of city planning using the architectural designs and master plans by Daniel Burnham was done on the portions of the city south of the Pasig River.
During World War II, much of the city was destroyed during the Battle of Manila (1945) the last of the many Battles fought in Manila's history, but the city was rebuilt in after the war.[1] It was the second most destroyed city in the world after Warsaw, Poland during World War II. The Metropolitan Manila region was enacted as an independent entity in 1975.
Etymology
Manila is the evolved Spanish form of the native placename Maynilà, which comes from the Tagalog phrase may-nilà ("where indigo is found").[2] Nilà is derived from the Sanskrit word nīla (नील) which refers to indigo, and, by extension, to several plant species from which this natural dye can be extracted.[2][3] The Maynilà name is more likely in reference to the presence of indigo-yielding plants growing in the area surrounding the settlement, rather than Maynilà being known as a settlement that trades in indigo dye,[2] since the settlement was founded several hundred years before indigo dye extraction became an important economic activity in the area in the 18th century.[2]
An inaccurate but nevertheless persistent etymology asserts the origin of the city's name as may-nilad ("where nilad is found").
From a linguistic perspective it is unlikely for native Tagalog speakers to completely drop the final consonant /d/ in nilad to arrive at the present form Maynilà.[2] Historian Ambeth Ocampo also states that in all early documents the place had always been called "Maynilà" — and never referred to with a final consonant /d/.[6][7] Despite the may-nilad etymology being erroneous, it continues to be perpetuated through uncritical repetition in both literature[8][9] and popular imagination.[6]
History
Prehistory
Austronesian migrations
As with virtually all the lowland peoples of
These Austronesian cultures are defined by their languages, and by a number of key technologies including the cultural prominence of boats, the construction of thatched houses on piles, the cultivation of tubers and rice, and a characteristic social organization typically led by a “big man” or “man of power”.[12][13]
The Tagalog people and language
Not much is known about when the Tagalog and Kapampangan peoples came to occupy the lands surrounding Manila Bay, but
Some Philippine historians such as Jaime Tiongson[18][19] have asserted that some of the words used in the Laguna Copperplate Inscription, the Philippines' oldest extant written document, came from Old Tagalog, although the text itself used the Javanese Kawi script.[20]
Early history
As the Philippines' oldest extant written document, the LCI provides evidence that a socially complex Tagalog polity, known as Tondo, existed on the Pasig River delta as early as 900 AD - a date that also marks the beginning of written Philippine history. Tondo is presumed by most scholars to have been located on the same location as it did in the Sixteenth century: north of the Pasig River, occupying the northern part of the delta.[20][21]
There are no references that state whether a settlement south of the river, on the southern part of the delta where Maynila was eventually located, also existed at the time the LCI was written.[10] Ample archeological evidence exists, however, that the settlement of Namayan (also called Sapa) flourished further up the Pasig River some time in the tenth or eleventh century. Legends also say that a settlement on the shores of the Bitukang Manok River (now Parian Creek), which eventually became the Pasig settlement, was already established by the thirteenth century.[22]
Legends regarding the foundation of early Maynila
All of the various legends regarding the foundation of early Maynila suggest the existence of an already-existing Tagalog Settlement south of the Pasig River, which rises in importance due to alliance with or annexation by a foreign power. These legends range in date from the mid-1200s to the turn of the 16th century.
Establishment through defeat of Rajah Avirjirkaya by Rajah Ahmad of Brunei (c. 1258)
According to Mariano A. Henson's genealogical research[23] (later brought up by Majul in 1973,[24] and by Santiago in 1990)[25] a settlement in the Maynila area already existed by the year 1258. This settlement was ruled by "Rajah Avirjirkaya" whom Henson described as a "Majapahit Suzerain".
According to Henson, this settlement was attacked by a Bruneian commander named Rajah Ahmad, who defeated Avirjirkaya and established Maynila as a "Muslim principality".[23]
Early references to Selurong (1360s)
This section's factual accuracy is disputed. (November 2017) |
In the 14th century, there is evidence of Manila being a province of the Indonesian Hindu empire of
Under the
The conquest of Sultan Bulkiah from Brunei (1500s)
This section's factual accuracy is disputed. (November 2017) |
During the reign of Sultan
Warring cities period
This section's factual accuracy is disputed. (November 2017) |
In the mid-16th century, the areas of present-day Manila were part of larger
Spanish period
Spanish rule 1571–1762
Governor-General
In 1571, the unity of the Luzon Empire was already threatened by the uneasy alliance of the Rajah Matanda of Sapa, Lakan Dula of Tondo, and Rajah Sulayman, the rajah muda or "crown prince" of Maynila and laxamana or "grand admiral" of the Macabebe Armada. Powerful states like
Because of the Spanish presence in the area, the Chinese people, who were living in the area and engaging in free trade relations with the natives, were subjected to commercial restrictions as well as laws requiring them to pay tribute to Spanish authorities. As a result, the Chinese revolted against the Spaniards in 1574, when a force of about 3,000 men and 62 Chinese warships under the command of Limahong attacked the city. The said attempt was fruitless, and the Chinese were defeated. In order to safeguard the city from similar uprisings later, the Spanish authorities confined the Chinese residents and merchants to a separate district called Parian de Alcaceria.[36]
On June 19, 1591, after the commencement of the construction of a
In 1595, Manila was decreed to be the capital of the Philippines, although it had already in fact served that function practically from its founding in 1571. Legazpi then ordered the creation of a municipal government or cabildo with a set of Spanish-style houses, monasteries, nunneries, churches, and schools giving birth to
At various times in the following century, the Chinese rose in revolt against the Spaniards. In 1602, they set fire to Quiapo and Tondo, and for a time threatened to capture Intramuros. In 1662, they again revolted, while in 1686, a conspiracy led by Tingco plotted to kill all the Spaniards.[citation needed] These events led to the expulsion of the Chinese from Manila and the entire country by virtue of the decrees that were made by the Spanish authorities to that effect. However, later reconciliations nearly always permitted the continuation of the Chinese community in the city.
British occupation (1762–1764)
British forces conquered Manila in October 1762 with the city coming under British occupation until 1764 as a result of the Seven Years' War. Spain became Britain's enemy when it sided with France due to ties between their royal families.[39][40]
The British accepted the written surrender of the Spanish government in the Philippines from Archbishop Rojo and the Real Audiencia on 30 October 1762.[41] The city remained the capital and key to the Spanish East Indies under the government of the provisional British governor, acting through the Archbishop of Manila and the Real Audiencia. The terms of surrender proposed by Archbishop Rojo and agreed to by the British leaders, secured private property, guaranteed the Roman Catholic religion and its episcopal government, and granted the citizens of the former Spanish colony the rights of peaceful travel and of trade "as British subjects". Under the direction of the provisional British governor, the Spanish East Indies was to be governed by the Audencia Real, the expenses of which were agreed to be paid for by Spain.[41] The terms of surrender dated 29 October 1762 signed by Archbishop Rojo, and sealed with the Spanish Royal Seal, ceding the entire archipelago to Great Britain. This was rejected by Simón de Anda y Salazar who claimed to have been appointed Governor-General under the Statutes of the Indies.[42]
Outside of Manila, the Spanish forces in the region regrouped in Pampanga, where Salazar established his headquarters first in Bulacan, then in Bacolor.[43] So successful was Salazar's efforts at harassing the British that Captain Thomas Backhouse reported to the Secretary of War in London that "the enemy is in full possession of the country".[44]
At the time of signing the treaty, the signatories were not aware that Manila had been captured by the British and was being administered by them as a colony. Consequently, no specific provision was made for the Philippines. Instead they fell under the general provision that all other lands not otherwise provided for be returned to the Spanish Crown.[45]
An unknown number of
Spanish rule 1764–1898
Mexican Independence in 1821 necessitated direct rule from Spain.
Being the traditional seat of education and liberal thinking in the Philippines, Manila was a rich field for anticlerical propaganda. The seeds of revolution germinated in 1886 with the publication of
The Katipunan movement grew until open rebellion broke out in August 1896 after its discovery by the Spaniards. Bonifacio's attack on Manila was unsuccessful. Rizal became a martyr of the revolution when the Spaniards executed him by firing squad on December 30, 1896 in Bagumbayan. After several months of fighting, a revolutionary government was formed at the Tejeros Convention in Cavite province with Emilio Aguinaldo at its head. Aguinaldo's government was also unsuccessful in its fight for independence, and as part of the Pact of Biak-na-Bato peace treaty, Aguinaldo accepted exile in Hong Kong.[49]
American period (1898–1942)
U.S. Troops invaded Manila in 1898 and waged war with the Spaniards and Filipinos in the Spanish–American War and the Philippine–American War. Following the defeat of Spain, U.S. forces took control of the city and the islands in one of the most brutal and forgotten chapters of Philippine American history.
The American Navy, under Admiral
During the Battle of Manila the Americans took control of Manila from the Spanish. Admiral Dewey testified that after the battle the Spanish Governor wished to surrender to the Americans rather than the Filipinos.
In the
Having just won their independence from Spain, the Filipinos were fiercely opposed to once again being occupied. Emilio Aguinaldo proclaimed the First Philippine Republic at the Malolos Congress and had begun to build the foundations for an independent nation. Admiral Dewey, however, claimed he never recognized the Philippine Republic, as he did not have the authority to do so and did not consider it an organized government.[53]
War broke out between the Filipinos and the Americans on February 4, 1899, the 1899 Battle of Manila, which began the Philippine–American War. The Americans pursued the retreating Filipino forces province by province, until General Emilio Aguinaldo (then president of the Republic) surrendered in Palanan, Isabela, on March 23, 1901.
Manila continued under an American military government until civil government was established for the city on July 31, 1901.
During the American Period, some semblance of city planning using the architectural designs and master plans by Daniel Burnham was done on the portions of the city south of the Pasig River.
In 1935, the
World War II and Japanese occupation
This section may require copy editing. (December 2023) |
Filipino and American combat units were ordered to withdraw from the city and all military installations removed on December 24, 1941 (Philippine time). That same day, Manila was declared an open city to spare the city from death and destruction.[54] Despite this, the Japanese warplanes bombed Manila and for the first time, Manileños experienced the first air raid.[citation needed] Quezon issued a decree enlarging the safe zone to include outlying areas of Manila as safe zones, establishing the new administrative jurisdiction, the City of Greater Manila.
The main general headquarters of the
The post of mayor of Greater Manila was given to Quezon's former Executive Secretary, Jorge B. Vargas. On the evening of New Year's Day of 1942, a Japanese courier delivered notice to Vargas that Japanese forces already bivouacked at Parañaque would enter Greater Manila the following day. From 9 am to 10 am of January 2, Japanese imperial forces marched into the City of Manila.
Vargas was tasked to hand over Greater Manila to the new authorities and present the remaining Filipino leaders to Japanese authorities. Vargas and the Filipino leaders present were asked to choose three options; (1) a purely Japanese military administration, (2) a dictatorial government run by a Filipino under General Artemio Ricarte who went on self-exile to Japan after the Filipino-American war, or (3) a government by commission selected by Filipinos. Vargas and the local leaders chose the third option and established the Philippine Executive Commission to manage initially Greater Manila, and was later expanded to cover the whole of the Philippines.
Vargas assumed the chairmanship of the Philippine Executive Commission and appointed to the post of Mayor of Greater Manila in 1942,
On October 20, 1944, American and Philippine Commonwealth troops, led by American General
Contemporary period
The Golden Age and the Marcos Era (1952–1965)
With Arsenio Lacson becoming the first elected mayor in 1952 (all mayors were appointed prior to this), the City of Manila underwent The Golden Age,[55] was revitalized, and once again became the "Pearl of the Orient", a moniker it earned before the outbreak of the war.
After Mayor Lacson's successful term in the fifties, the city was led by Mayor Antonio Villegas during most of the 60's, and Mayor Ramon Bagatsing for nearly the entire decade of the 70's until the 1986 Edsa revolution, making him the longest serving Mayor of Manila.
Mayors Lacson, Villegas, and Bagatsing are most often collectively referred to as "the Big Three of Manila" for their rather long tenures as chief executive of City Hall (continuously for over three decades, from 1952–1986), but more importantly, for their impeccable contribution to the development and progress of the City and their lasting legacy in uplifting the quality of life and welfare of the people of Manila.
The Marcos Era (1965–1986)
During the Marcos Era, the region of the Manila Metropolitan area was enacted as an independent entity in 1975 encompassing several cities and towns, being a separate local-regional unit and the seat of government of the Philippines.
Fifth Republic (1986–present)
After the
In 1992,
Atienza is known for selling public school campuses to private entities. The Lucky Chinatown Mall and Cityplace Condo (Megaworld Corporation) now stands used to be the site of two heritage schools: Jose Abad Santos High School and Rajah Soliman High School. It was summarily demolished despite protests from teachers and local activists.
Among the numerous controversies surrounding Lim's administration were the filing of human rights complaints against him and other city officials by councilor Dennis Alcoreza on 2008,[59] the resignation of 24 city officials because of the maltreatment of Lim's police forces, and his bloody resolution of the Manila hostage crisis, one of the deadliest hostage crisis in the Philippines. Lim was also accused of graft and corruption,[60] believed to be the cause of the city's bankruptcy. These allegations were later followed by a complaint in 2012 by Vice Mayor Isko Moreno and 28 city councilors which cited that Lim's statement in a meeting were "life-threatening" to them.[61][62] During the 2013 elections, former President Joseph Estrada defeated Lim in the mayoral race despite having recently moved from neighboring San Juan, where he had previously served as its long time mayor. Estrada was reelected in 2016 but lost to former actor and Vice Mayor Isko Moreno, who campaigned on a change platform and a youthful image and was colloquially referred to as "Yorme" (a reversed phonemic of the word "Mayor"). In 2022, Moreno launched an ultimately unsuccessful bid for the Presidency in elections held that May. He was succeeded by his Vice Mayor, Honey Lacuna, who became the first woman to become Mayor of Manila.
Historical battles
The first two recorded battles in Manila occurred in 1365 in which Maharaja
After the battle and occupation of Manila by Britain in 1762, the city was pillaged for 40 hours. The next two consecutive battles for Manila; the battle in 1896 and the battle in 1898 did little damage to the city as whole. The battle of 1899, the first battle of the Philippine–American War, caused more than 200 Filipino casualties.
During the battle of Manila in 1945 between the Japanese Empire and the Allied forces, some 100,000 to 500,000 of Manila's civilians were killed by the Japanese troops in Manila massacre. The whole city was devastated, erasing its cultural and historic identity, including the destruction of the walled city of Intramuros. Reconstruction of the city took place afterwards, with some of Manila's landmarks restored.
See also
References
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- ^ JSTOR 29791188.
- ^ Chamberlain, Alexander F. (1901). "Philippine Studies: V. The Origin of the Name Manila". The American Antiquarian and Oriental Journal. 23 (5): 33.
- ^ "Ixora manila Blanco". World Marine Species Database. Retrieved 20 August 2018.
- ^ Merrill, Elmer Drew (1903). A Dictionary of the Plant Names of the Philippine Islands. Manila: Bureau of Public Printing.
- ^ a b Ambeth Ocampo (25 June 2008), Looking Back: Pre-Spanish Manila, Philippine Daily Inquirer, archived from the original on 28 June 2008, retrieved 21 August 2018
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- ^ Zorc, David. 1977. "The Bisayan Dialects of the Philippines: Subgrouping and Reconstruction". Pacific Linguistics C.44. Canberra: The Australian National University
- ^ Blust, Robert. 1991. "The Greater Central Philippines hypothesis". Oceanic Linguistics 30:73–129
- ^ Tiongson, Jaime F. (2006-11-11). "Puliran in the Laguna Copperplate Inscription: Laguna de Bay or Pulilan, Bulacan?". Bayang Pinagpala. Archived from the original on 2012-11-28. Retrieved 2011-11-18.
- ^ Tiongson, Jaime F. (November 29, 2006). "Pailah is Pila, Laguna". Archived from the original on 2012-07-07. Retrieved 2011-11-18.
- ^ a b Postma, Antoon (June 27, 2008). "The Laguna Copper-Plate Inscription: Text and Commentary". Philippine Studies. 40 (2). Ateneo de Manila University: 182–203.
- ^ The Laguna Copperplate Inscription, 2006-07-14, archived from the original on 2008-02-05, retrieved 2008-02-05
- ISBN 978-971-10-1069-0.
- ^ a b Henson, Mariano A (1955). The Province of Pampanga and its towns (A.D. 1300–1955) with the genealogy of the rulers of central Luzon. Manila: Villanueva Books.
- ^ Majul, César Adib (1973). Muslims in the Philippines. Diliman: University of the Philippines Asian Center.
- ^ a b Santiago, Luciano P.R. (1990). "The Houses of Lakandula, Matanda, and Soliman [1571–1898]: Genealogy and Group Identity". Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society. 18.
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- ^ a b San Agustin, Gaspar de, Conquistas de las Islas Philipinas 1565-1615, Translated by Luis Antonio Mañeru, 1st bilingual ed [Spanish and English], published by Pedro Galende, OSA: Intramuros, Manila, 1998
- ^ Scott 1994
- ^ Pusat Sejarah Brunei Archived 2015-04-15 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved February 07, 2009.
- ^ Henson, Mariano A. 1965. The Province of Pampanga and Its Towns: A.D. 1300–1965. 4th ed. revised. Angeles City: By the author.
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- ^ Filipiniana: Act of Taking Possession of Luzon by Martin de Goiti Archived 2008-02-21 at the Wayback Machine. Accessed September 06, 2008.
- ^ a b Blair 1911, pp. cc=philamer, q1=blair, op2=and, op3=and, rgn=works, rgn1=author, rgn2=title, rgn3=title, idno=AFK2830.0001.003, didno=AFK2830.0001.003, view=image, seq=00000171 173–174
- ^ The Philippines was an autonomous Captaincy-General under the Viceroyalty of New Spain from 1521 until 1815 [1]
- ^ The Manila Galleon Trade. The Metropolitan Museum of Manila. Accessed February 07, 2009.
- ^ History of the Philippine Islands by Dr. Antonio de Morga Archived 2009-05-08 at the Wayback Machine. Accessed January 24, 2009.
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- ^ Barrows, David (2014). "A History of the Philippines". Guttenburg Free Online E-books. 1: 179.
Within the walls, there were some six hundred houses of a private nature, most of them built of stone and tile, and an equal number outside in the suburbs, or "arrabales," all occupied by Spaniards ("todos son vivienda y poblacion de los Españoles"). This gives some twelve hundred Spanish families or establishments, exclusive of the religious, who in Manila numbered at least one hundred and fifty, the garrison, at certain times, about four hundred trained Spanish soldiers who had seen service in Holland and the Low Countries, and the official classes.
- ^ Leebrick, Karl Clayton (2007). The English expedition to Manila and the Philippine Islands in the year 1762. University of California, Berkeley. p. 52.
- ISBN 978-0-559-25329-4.
- ^ a b Tracy 1995, p. 54.
- ^ Fish 2003, p. 134
- ^ Tracy 1995, p. 58.
- ^ Backhouse, Thomas (1765). The Secretary at War to Mr. Secretary Conway. London: British Library. pp. v. 40.
- ^ Tracy 1995, p. 109.
- ^ Fish 2003, p. 158
- ISBN 9788471123787.
- ^ John Bowring, "Travels in the Philippines", p. 18, London, 1875
- ^ Thurber, Dani. "Research Guides: World of 1898: International Perspectives on the Spanish American War: Katipunan". guides.loc.gov. Retrieved 2024-01-07.
- ^ Battle of Manila Bay, 1 May 1898 Archived 14 January 2009 at the Wayback Machine. Accessed September 08, 2008.
- ^ "Philippines, The", The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001-07, bartleby.com, archived from the original on 2008-07-28, retrieved 2009-05-14
- ^ "Philippine History", Pinas, De La Salle University, archived from the original on 2006-08-22, retrieved 2009-05-14
- ^ Admiral Dewey Testifies. Accessed September 05, 2008.
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- ^ Hancock 2000, p. 16[citation not found]
- ^ MSN Encarta: Manila. Accessed September 06, 2008. Archived 2009-11-01.
- ^ Mundo, Sheryl (2009-12-01). "It's Atienza vs. Lim Part 2 in Manila". Manila: ABS-CBN News and Current Affairs. Archived from the original on 2009-12-03. Retrieved 2010-04-25.
Environment Secretary Jose 'Lito' Atienza will get to tangle again with incumbent Manila Alfredo Lim in the coming 2010 elections.
- ^ Legaspi, Amita (2008-07-17). "Councilor files raps vs Lim, Manila execs before CHR". GMA News. Archived from the original on 2011-05-22. Retrieved 2010-04-20.
A Manila City councilor on Thursday filed human rights complaints against Mayor Alfredo Lim, other city officials and policemen over the violent takeover of the Dealco slaughterhouse in Vitas, Tondo last July 11.
- ^ Legaspi, Amita (July 17, 2008). "Councilor files raps vs Lim, Manila execs before CHR". GMA News. Retrieved 4 March 2014.
A Manila City councilor on Thursday filed human rights complaints against Mayor Alfredo Lim, other city officials and policemen over the violent takeover of the Dealco slaughterhouse in Vitas, Tondo last July 11.
- The Daily Tribune. Archived from the originalon 2016-03-07. Retrieved 25 June 2012.
- ^ Jenny F. Manongdo (June 23, 2012). "Isko, 28 Dads Rap Lim; Mayor Strikes Back". Manila Bulletin. Retrieved 25 June 2012.[dead link]
- ^ "Isko Moreno, 28 councilors file complaint vs Lim". ABS-CBN News and Current Affairs. Retrieved 25 June 2012.
- ISBN 978-99917-2-372-3.
- ^ Relation of the Voyage in Luzon sa Blair & Robertson. The Philippine Islands, 1493-1803;Volume III, 1569-1576.
- ^ Stearn, Duncan, Chronology of South-East Asian History 1400-1996 (Dee Why, NSW: The Mitraphab Centre Pty Ltd., 1997).
External links
Sources
- Bayor, Ronald H (June 23, 2004), The Columbia Documentary History of Race and Ethnicity in America, Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0-231-11994-8, retrieved 2009-05-14.
- Blair, Emma Helen, ed. (1911), The Philippine Islands, 1493-1803, (Vol. 1, no. 3).
- LCCN 2004695066, retrieved 2009-05-14.
- Fish, Shirley (2003), When Britain Ruled the Philippines 1762–1764, Bloomington, Ind.: 1st Book Library, ISBN 978-1-4107-1069-7.
- Hancock, Rose (April 2000). "April Was a Cruel Month for the Greatest Manila Mayor Ever Had". 1898:The Shaping of Philippine History. 35. Vol. II. Manila: Asia Pacific Communications Network, Inc. pp. 15–20.
- Kumar, Amitava (October 29, 1999), Poetics/Politics: Radical Aesthetics for the Classroom, Palgrave, ISBN 978-0-312-21866-9, retrieved 2009-05-14.
- ISBN 978-0-393-30588-3, retrieved 2009-05-14.
- Tracy, Nicholas (1995), Manila Ransomed: The British Assault on Manila in the Seven Years' War, University of Exeter Press, ISBN 978-0-85989-426-5
Further reading
- Published in the 19th century
- William Milburn; Thomas Thornton (1825). "Manilla". Oriental Commerce; or the East India Trader's Complete Guide. London: Kingsbury, Parbury, and Allen.
- Margherita Arlina Hamm (1898), Manila and the Philippines, London: F.T. Neely, OL 7237592M
- John Foreman (1899), "(Manila)", The Philippine Islands (2nd ed.), New York: C. Scribner's Sons
- Manila and the Philippine Islands: an up to date handbook of facts, New York: Philippines Company, 1899, OL 24648057M
- Published in the 20th century
- Commercial Directory of Manila, Manila, 1901, )
- OCLC 5082081
- Historical Notes Concerning Manila. United States government. 1904.
- Kemlein & Johnson's Guide and Map of Manila and Vicinity. Manila, Kemlein & Johnson. 1908.
- Manila, the pearl of the Orient, Manila, Philippine Islands: Manila Merchants' Association, 1908, OL 7012107M
- Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 17 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 578–580. .
- Philippines. Office of Public Welfare Commissioner. (1922), Directory of charitable and social service organizations and institutions in the city of Manila (2nd ed.), Manila: Bureau of Printing, OL 7214795M