History of Minnesota
The history of the U.S. state of Minnesota is shaped by its original Native American residents, European exploration and settlement, and the emergence of industries made possible by the state's natural resources. Early economic growth was based on fur trading, logging, milling and farming, and later through railroads and iron mining.
The earliest known settlers followed herds of large game to the region during the
Minnesota's legal identity was created as the Minnesota Territory in 1849, and it became the 32nd U.S. state on May 11, 1858. After the chaos of the American Civil War and the Dakota War of 1862 ended, the state's economy grew when its timber and agriculture resources were developed. Railroads attracted immigrants, established the farm economy, and brought goods to market. The power provided by St. Anthony Falls spurred the growth of Minneapolis, and the innovative milling methods gave it the title of the "milling capital of the world".
New industry came from iron ore, discovered in the north, mined relatively easily from
Native American inhabitation
Prehistory
The oldest known human remains in Minnesota, dating back about 9,000 years ago,
Several hundred years later, the climate of Minnesota warmed significantly. As large animals such as
Ancient history
Archaeological evidence of Native American presence dates between 2,500 and 5,000 years ago at the
By AD 800, wild rice became a staple crop in the region, and corn farther to the south.[14] Within a few hundred years, the Mississippian culture reached into the southeast portion of the state, and large villages were formed. The Dakota Native American culture may have descended from some of the peoples of the Mississippian culture.[15]
European colonization
When Europeans first started exploring Minnesota, the region was inhabited primarily by tribes of
At some early point, the Missouria moved south into what is now Missouri, the Menominee ceded much of their westernmost lands and withdrew closer to the region of Green Bay, Wisconsin,[19] and the A'ani were pushed north and west by the Dakota and split into the Gros Ventre and the Arapaho.[20] Later tribes who would inhabit the region include the Assiniboine, who split from the Dakota and returned to Minnesota, but later also moved west as American settlers came to populate the region.[21]
European exploration
17th century
In the late 1650s,
Around this time, the Ojibwa Native Americans reached Minnesota as part of a westward migration. Having come from a region around Maine, they had experience dealing with European traders. They sold furs and purchased guns. Tensions rose between the Ojibwa and Dakota in the ensuing years.[24]
In 1671, France signed a treaty with a number of tribes to allow trade. Shortly thereafter, French trader Daniel Greysolon, Sieur du Lhut, arrived in the area and began trading with the local tribes. Du Lhut explored the western area of Lake Superior, near his namesake, the city of Duluth, and areas south of there. He helped to arrange a peace treaty between the Dakota and Ojibwa tribes in 1679.[25]
Father Louis Hennepin, with companions Michel Aco and Antoine Auguelle (a.k.a. Picard Du Gay), headed north from the area of modern Illinois after coming into that area with an exploration party headed by René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle. They were captured by a Dakota tribe in 1680. While with the tribe, they came across and named the Falls of Saint Anthony. Soon, Du Lhut was able to obtain through negotiation the release of Hennepin's party. Hennepin returned to Europe and wrote a book, Description of Louisiana, published in 1683, about his travels; many portions, including the part about Saint Anthony Falls, were strongly embellished. As an example, he described the falls as having a drop of 50 to 60 feet (15–18 m), when they were really only about 16 feet (4.9 m).[26] Pierre-Charles Le Sueur explored the Minnesota River to the Blue Earth area around 1700. He thought the blue earth was a source of copper, and he told stories about the possibility of mineral wealth, but there actually was no copper in it.[27]
18th century
Explorers searching for the fabled
19th century
In 1817, Major
In 1822 the
Several efforts were made to find the source of the
Joseph Nicollet scouted the area in the late 1830s, exploring and mapping the Upper Mississippi River basin, the St. Croix River, and the land between the Mississippi and Missouri Rivers. He and John C. Frémont left their mark in the southwest part of the state, carving their names in the pipestone quarries near Winnewissa Falls (an area now part of Pipestone National Monument, in Pipestone County).[41][42]
Territorial foundation and settlement
Land acquisition
All of the land east of the Mississippi River was granted to the United States by the
During the first half of the 19th century, the northeastern portion of the state was a part of the Northwest Territory, then the Illinois Territory, then the Michigan Territory, and finally the Wisconsin Territory. The western and southern areas of the state, although theoretically part of the Wisconsin Territory from its creation in 1836, were not formally organized until 1838, when they became part of the Iowa Territory.[page needed] [49]
Establishment of Fort Snelling, Minneapolis and Saint Paul
Slaves Dred Scott and his wife were taken to the fort by their master, John Emerson. They lived at the fort and elsewhere in territories where slavery was prohibited. After Emerson's death, the Scotts argued that since they had lived in free territory, they were no longer slaves. The U.S. Supreme Court sided against the Scotts in Dred Scott v. Sandford. Dred Scott Field, located just a short distance away in Bloomington, is named in memory of Fort Snelling's significance in one of the most important legal decisions in U.S. history.[53][54]
By 1851, treaties between Native American tribes and the U.S. government had opened much of Minnesota to settlement, so Fort Snelling no longer was a frontier outpost. It served as a training center for soldiers during the American Civil War and later as the headquarters for the Department of Dakota. A portion has been designated as Fort Snelling National Cemetery where over 160,000 are interred. During World War II, the fort served as a training center for nearly 300,000 inductees. Fort Snelling is now a historic site operated by the Minnesota Historical Society.[52]
Fort Snelling was largely responsible for the establishment of the city of
The city of
Minneapolis and Saint Paul are collectively known as the
Early European settlement and development
Saint Anthony, on the east bank of the Mississippi River later became part of Minneapolis, and was an important lumber milling center supplied by the
Minnesota Territory
On August 26, 1848, shortly after Wisconsin was admitted to the Union, a convention of sixty-one met in Stillwater to petition Congress to create a Minnesota Territory from the remainder of the Wisconsin and Iowa Territories.
With
Statehood
In December 1856, Henry Mower Rice brought forward two bills in Congress: an enabling act that would allow Minnesota to form a state constitution, and a railroad land grant bill. Rice's enabling act defined a state containing both prairie and forest lands. The state was bounded on the south by Iowa, on the east by Wisconsin, on the north by Canada, and on the west by the Red River of the North and the Bois de Sioux River, Lake Traverse, Big Stone Lake, and then a line extending due south to the Iowa border. Rice made this motion based on Minnesota's population growth.[74]
At the time, tensions between the northern and the southern United States were growing, in
After the enabling act was passed, territorial legislators had a difficult time writing a state constitution. A
The state constitution was sent to the United States Congress for ratification in December 1857. The approval process was drawn out for several months while Congress debated over issues that had stemmed from the Kansas–Nebraska Act. Southerners had been arguing that the next state should be pro-slavery, so when Kansas submitted the pro-slavery Lecompton Constitution, the Minnesota statehood bill was delayed. After that, Northerners feared that Minnesota's Democratic delegation would support slavery in Kansas. Finally, after the Kansas question was settled and after Congress decided how many representatives Minnesota would get in the House of Representatives, the bill passed.[77] The eastern half of the Minnesota Territory, under the boundaries defined by Rice, became the country's 32nd state on May 11, 1858.[78] The western part remained unorganized until its incorporation into the Dakota Territory on March 2, 1861.
Military conflicts
Civil War
When news broke in 1861 that Fort Sumter had been fired on, Gov. Ramsey happened to be in Washington, D.C., and rushed to the White House to give President Abraham Lincoln Minnesota's support, being the first Union governor to do so.[79] The soldiers of the 1st Minnesota Infantry Regiment were the first soldiers offered to fight for the Union Army.[80] Minnesota had more than 24,000 troops serve in the Civil War, about one-seventh of the state's population in 1860.[81] Nearly 3,000 lost their lives to battlefield wounds or disease.[81]
The 1st Minnesota changed the course of the decisive Battle of Gettysburg.[81][82] Desperate to make time for reinforcements to arrive, on Gettysburg's second day, July 2, 1863, General Winfield Scott Hancock sent the 262 members of 1st Minnesota to halt a Confederate assault.[80] They succeeded in capturing a Confederate flag and held the line for the Union, but all but 47 of them were killed, wounded, or captured.[83] The regiment lost 17 more facing Pickett's Charge to end the battle the next day.[84] Lt. Col. William F. Fox wrote that "the percentage of loss in the First Minnesota, Gibbon's Division [is] without an equal in the records of modern warfare".[85] Explaining his role in ordering the First Minnesota in, Hancock is quoted, "There is no more gallant deed recorded in history ..."[85]
By the end of the war, Minnesota had raised 11 regiments of infantry, two sharpshooter units, and some cavalry and artillery.[80]
Dakota War of 1862
During the Civil War, the state faced another crisis as the Dakota War of 1862 broke out.[79] As white settlement pressed in, the Dakota were destitute, even starving because of the loss of habitat of huntable game.[46] Dakota had signed the Treaty of Traverse des Sioux and Treaty of Mendota in 1851, negotiating with corrupt officials who enriched themselves.[86] They were given a strip of land of 10 miles (16 km) north and south of the Minnesota River, but were later forced to sell the northern half.[87][88] In 1862, crop failures left the Dakota with food shortages, and government money was delayed.[89]
The conflict was ignited when four young Dakota men, searching for food, killed a family of white settlers on August 17.[90] That night, a faction of Little Crow's Dakota decided to try and drive all settlers out of the Minnesota River valley. In the weeks that followed, Dakota warriors attacked and killed hundreds of settlers, causing thousands to flee the area.[91] The ensuing battles at the Lower Sioux Agency, Fort Ridgely, Birch Coulee, and Wood Lake punctuated a six-week war, which ended with the trial of 425 Indians for their participation in the war.[92] Of this number, 303 were convicted and sentenced to death. Bishop Henry Benjamin Whipple pled to President Abraham Lincoln for clemency, and the death sentences of all but 39 Sioux were reduced to prison terms. On December 26, 1862, 38 Sioux were hanged in the largest mass execution in the United States.[93]
Many of the remaining Dakota Indians, including
World War I
When the United States entered the
Fort Snelling was converted to a rehabilitation hospital for veterans, and treated victims of the 1918 influenza pandemic.[97]
World War II
Naval reservists of the Minnesota Naval Militia were manning the USS Ward at the entrance of Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941. Sailors on the USS Ward fired at a Japanese minisub attempting to enter the harbor that morning in what is credited as the United States' first shot of World War II.[98] Like other U.S. States, Minnesota contributed to the war effort. The United States Navy gave Cargill shipbuilding contracts after seeing their ability to build ships and barges for transporting grain. From facilities in Savage, Minnesota on the south bank of the Minnesota River, Cargill launched 18 refueling ships and 4 towboats for the war. After the war, Cargill transitioned those facilities into a major grain shipping terminal.[99]
The War Department created the
Between 70 and 75% of the iron needed to fight the war came from Minnesota's
During the war Minnesota had multiple prisoner of war camps, all satellites of the 10,000-person POW Camp at Algona, Iowa.[105] Despite some friction from unions, because of a labor shortage, German war prisoners worked in the lumber, agriculture, and food processing industries, especially commercial canning.[105]
Economic and social development
Immigration
Immigration to Minnesota began after the 1851 Treaty of Traverse des Sioux opened the land for white settlement[106] in a land grab described as "pell mell".[107] In the 1850s, settlers moving onto Minnesota lands formerly inhabited by Native Americans created a population explosion of 2,831% (by far the nation's fastest).[108] Initially the territory was hungry for immigrants, and in 1855 the Minnesota Territory hired an emigration commissioner to attract immigrants in New York.[109] Of the estimated 47 million immigrants who reached the U.S. between 1820 and 1975, about one million came to or through Minnesota.[110] The French came in 1860, and were followed by the Irish and Swiss. The next wave, starting about 1875, brought British, French and French Canadians, Germans, and Norwegians. Danes and Swedes followed beginning in about 1880. Poles came after about 1895. Just before 1900, Hungarians and Dutch arrived. Belgians and Finns followed, and around 1910, Greeks and Italians began to come.[111] By the late 1800s, 37% of Minnesotans were foreign-born;[112] by 1920, that had dropped to 20%, and by 2017, to 8.2% (448,397 residents).[113]
Intolerance and discrimination began to take hold.[114] The 1921 Emergency Quota Act restricted immigration to the US.[115] Citizens formed night schools on the Iron Range to teach Americanization. The practice spread and an Americanization council was formed in 1920.[116] The Ku Klux Klan reemerged around 1921, taking political action against Jews, Catholics, and people of color, and advocating that the true American was the white Protestant.[117] The Klan attracted women and families through everyday events like church suppers and weddings, and hosted annual parades in Owatonna, but lost steam in the state after about five years.[118]
Legislation made immigration possible again. In 1948 Minnesota passed the Displaced Persons Act and welcomed Latvians and Estonians after World War II.[119] In 1975, the state accepted Vietnamese and other Southeast Asians. When the US passed the Refugee Assistance Act in 1975, federal funds became available to local social service agencies, and Southeast Asians were directed primarily to Minnesota and California.[119] The largest groups of foreign-born residents in Minnesota in 2018 were born in Mexico, Somalia, and India.[112] In 2020, the Twin Cities had the largest Hmong population of any US metropolitan area.[120] In 2019, the Somali diaspora in Minneapolis was the largest anywhere,[need quotation to verify] comprising 1.5% of Minnesotans.[120]
Farming and railroads
After the Civil War, Minnesota attracted European immigration and farmland settlers. Minnesota's population in 1870 was 439,000; this number tripled during the two subsequent decades.
Industrial development
At the end of the 19th century, several forms of industrial development shaped Minnesota. In 1882, a
Urbanization and government
As a result of industrialization, the population became more concentrated in urban areas. By 1900, the Twin Cities were becoming a center of commerce, led by the Minneapolis Grain Exchange. Many of the businessmen who had made money in the railroad, flour milling, and logging industries started to donate money to cultural institutions such as the Minneapolis Symphony Orchestra (now the Minnesota Orchestra). The parks of Minneapolis, under the direction of Theodore Wirth became famous, and the new Minnesota State Capitol building and the Cathedral of Saint Paul attracted attention to Saint Paul.[130]
The role of government grew during the early 20th century. In the rural areas, most people obtained food and manufactured goods from neighbors and other people they knew personally. As industry and commerce grew, goods such as food, materials, and medicines were no longer made by neighbors, but by large companies. In response, citizens called on their government for consumer protection, inspection of goods, and regulation of public utilities.[131] The growth of the automobile spurred calls to develop roads and to enforce traffic laws. New regulations were necessary for commerce and safety, and for banking and insurance. Since government was getting more complex, citizens demanded more of a role in their government, and became more politically active.[132]
Health
Norman Risjord writes in A Popular History of Minnesota that Mayo was a "pioneer in the concept of integrated group practice of medicine" and is "one of the premier medical facilities in the world", with more than 40,000 employees including 2,000 physicians, by the beginning of the 21st century.[137] U.S. News & World Report's 2021 survey placed the Mayo Clinic first on the best hospitals honor roll and in the top four in most fields.[138]
Great Depression
The
Elected governor in 1930,
In 1933 the
Labor unions began forcefully asserting themselves. The
Modern economy
Flour milling spurred the growth of banking in Minneapolis.
Agriculture evolved from an individual occupation into a major industry after World War II. Technological developments increased farm productivity with the automation of feedlots for hogs and cattle, machine milking for dairy production, and large poultry building operations. Crops became more specialized with hybridization of corn and wheat, fertilization, and mechanical equipment such as tractors and combines became the norm. University of Minnesota professor Norman Borlaug contributed to this knowledge as part of the Green Revolution.[152] The Minnesota Valley Canning Company sold cream style corn and then peas before becoming Green Giant in 1950.[153]
Minnesota Mining and Manufacturing Company (3M) was founded in 1902 in Two Harbors, Minnesota, and was later moved to Duluth, Saint Paul, and then Maplewood. The founders of 3M got their start by manufacturing sandpaper. Under the leadership of William L. McKnight, the company established product lines such as abrasives for wet sanding, masking tape and other adhesives, roofing granules, resins, and films.[154]
Suburban development intensified after the war, fueled by the demand for new housing. In 1957, the Legislature created a planning commission for the Twin Cities metropolitan area, which became the Metropolitan Council in 1967.[155]
Northwest Airlines was founded in 1926 carrying mail from the Twin Cities to Chicago. The airline, long headquartered in Eagan,[156] merged with Delta Air Lines in October 2008 and the Northwest headquarters closed.[157]
Technology
Engineering Research Associates, formed in Saint Paul in 1946, built massive mainframes for the still-secret National Security Agency's wartime code-breaking and Cold War intelligence needs.[158] Minneapolis startup Control Data Corporation under executive William Norris and engineer Seymour Cray imagined the computer hardware marketplace and then filled it profitably.[159] From his hometown in Wisconsin, Cray and his team delivered the world's fastest computer, called the first supercomputer, in the mid-60s for Control Data back in Minnesota.[159][160]
Rival
At a Minneapolis campus from 1927 until the 1990s,
Infrastructure
The state officially started its trunk highway system in 1920, with the passage of the
On August 1, 2007, the Interstate 35W Mississippi River Bridge in Minneapolis collapsed during the evening rush hour. A construction project was in progress on the bridge and nearly 300 short tons (270 t) of construction equipment and materials was positioned on the bridge. The main span of the deck truss experienced a catastrophic failure, and collapsed; 13 people died and 145 were injured.[166] The National Transportation Safety Board investigation revealed that one of the gusset plates was insufficient.[167][168] The collapse raised questions about other deficient bridges in the United States and in Minnesota.[168] It was determined that $60.5 billion would need to be raised to keep Minnesota's road system functional. A third of Minnesota's highway bridges were more than 50 years old, and the state's pavement condition was ranked 38th in the nation.[169]
Politics
Civil rights
The 1791 United States Bill of Rights gave civil rights to propertied White men;[181] race, sex, immigration, and LGBTQ discrimination have been barriers to constitutional equality.[182] In 1868, Minnesota was the first state to grant Black men the right to vote after two failed attempts;[183] however, true opportunities for Blacks remained illusory.[184] The Minnesota Human Rights Act of 1967 defends thirteen "protected classes" of people in seven areas of protection.[185]
Native American men voted and served in the Minnesota legislature between 1849 and 1862, when they had citizenship and considerable political power.[186] Following the Dakota War, Native Americans lost their citizenship (and some, their lives) and none served again until 1933.[186] Arcane, exclusionary language [specify] dating from the Minnesota Territory was in the state constitution until 1960.[186]
In 1920, women earned the right to vote with the Nineteenth Amendment.[187] Other women's rights[188] were advanced in the Equal Rights Amendment in 1923, and while Minnesota ratified it in 1973,[189] it did not gain support nationally. As more women entered politics,[190] however, the state passed groundbreaking legislation in pay equity, domestic violence, and parental leave.[191]
In 1971 Baker v. Nelson the Minnesota Supreme Court affirmed that marriage licenses are available only to persons of the opposite sex.[192] In 2015, the US Supreme Court overruled the decision, legalizing same-sex marriage nationwide, and in 2018, Baker's marriage was explicitly recognized as valid in Minnesota.[192] The state protects against discrimination for sexual orientation and gender identity.[193]
According to the Minnesota Historical Society, there have been 20 lynchings in Minnesota, three of which were African Americans.[198][199]
Minnesota's first execution happened in St. Paul in 1860. A woman named Ann Bilansky was accused of poisoning her husband and sentenced to hang. Bilansky was the only woman hanged by the state of Minnesota, but 26 men were hanged after her.[200] (The federal government executed the 38 Sioux men hanged during the Dakota War.[200]) In 1906 the hanging of William Williams was botched in St. Paul, and ended up being a strangulation that took 14 minutes.[200] Capital punishment in Minnesota was abolished in 1911.[200]
Arts and culture
The
The Minnesota Orchestra dates back to 1903 when it was founded as the Minneapolis Symphony Orchestra.[203] It was renamed the Minnesota Orchestra in 1968 and moved into its own building, Orchestra Hall, in downtown Minneapolis in 1974.[204] Later the Saint Paul Chamber Orchestra became the second full-time professional orchestral ensemble in the Twin Cities.
The
State and national parks
Minnesota's first state park,
See also
- French language in Minnesota
- Geology of Minnesota
- Glacial history of Minnesota
- Maritime Heritage Minnesota
- Music of Minnesota
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Works cited
- Anderson, Gary Clayton (2019). Massacre in Minnesota: The Dakota War of 1862, the Most Violent Ethnic Conflict in American History. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 9780806164342.
- Anfinson, Scott F. (1997). Southwestern Minnesota Archaeology: 12,000 years in the Prairie Lakes Region. Minnesota Historical Society. ISBN 087351355X.
- Boatman, John (1998). Wisconsin American Indian History and Culture. Kendall/Hunt Publishing Co.
- Breen, Aviva (2006). "Progressive Minnesota – A Perspective on Women's Issues in the Legislature". Wm. Mitchell L. Rev. 33 (397).
- Cameron, Linda A. (Fall 2010). "Common Threads: The Minnesota Immigrant Experience" (PDF). Minnesota History. 62 (3): 96–106.
- Carley, Kenneth (2006). Minnesota in the Civil War: An Illustrated History. Minnesota Historical Society. ISBN 0873515641– via Google Books.
- Fowler, Loretta (1987). Shared Symbols, Contested Meanings: Gros Ventre Culture and History, 1778–1984. Cornell University Press. ISBN 0801494508.
- Gilman, Rhoda R. (1991). The Story of Minnesota's Past. Saint Paul, Minnesota: Minnesota Historical Society. ISBN 0873512677.
- Green, William D. (2015). Degrees of Freedom: The Origins of Civil Rights in Minnesota, 1865–1912. U of Minnesota Press. ISBN 978-1452944432.
- Hatle, Elizabeth Dorsey; Vaillancourt, Nancy M. (2009). "One Flag, One School, One Language: Minnesota's Ku Klux Klan in the 1920s" (PDF). Minnesota History. 61 (8): 360–371.
- Hofsommer, Don L. (2005). Minneapolis and the Age of Railways. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 0816645019.
- Holcombe, Return Ira (1908). "Stillwater Convention and other public meetings". In LCCN 08031149. Retrieved November 7, 2021.
- Holmquist, June D., ed. (1981). "Introduction". They Chose Minnesota: A Survey of the States Ethnic Groups. St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press. ISBN 0873512316.
- Lass, William E. (1998) [1977]. Minnesota: A History (2nd ed.). New York, NY: W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0393046281.
- Meinig, D.W. (1993). The Shaping of America: A Geographical Perspective on 500 Years of History, Volume 2: Continental America, 1800–1867. Yale University Press. ISBN 0300056583.
- Misa, Thomas J. (2013). Digital State: The Story of Minnesota's Computing Industry. University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 9780816683321.
- Murray, Charles J. (1997). The Supermen: The Story of Seymour Cray and the Technical Wizards behind the Supercomputer. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0471048852.
- Radzilowski, John (2006). Minnesota. Interlink Books. ISBN 1566565677.
- Risjord, Norman K. (2005). A Popular History of Minnesota. Saint Paul, MN: Minnesota Historical Society Press. ISBN 0873515323.
- Sommers, Barbara W. (2008). Hard Work and a Good Deal: The Civilian Conservation Corps in Minnesota. Minnesota Historical Society. ISBN 978-0873517355.
- Weber, Tom (2020). Minneapolis: An Urban Biography. Saint Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press. ISBN 9781681341613.
- Wingerd, Mary Lethert (2010). North Country: The Making of Minnesota. University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 978-0816648689.
- Yusuf, Ahmed I. (December 15, 2012). Somalis in Minnesota (The People of Minnesota). Minnesota Historical Society Press. ISBN 978-0873518673.
Further reading
- Anderson Philip J. and Blanck Dag, editors. Swedes in the Twin Cities: Immigrant Life and Minnesota's Urban Frontier (2001).
- Babcock, Willoughby M. Minnesota's Frontier: A Neglected Sector of the Civil War. Minnesota History, 38#6 (1963), pp. 274–86, online.
- Carroll, Jane Lamm. "Good Times, Eh? Minnesota's Territorial Newspapers". Minnesota History (1998): 222–234.
- George, Stephen. Enterprising Minnesotans: 150 Years of Business Pioneers (U of Minnesota Press, 2003)
- Gilman, Rhoda R. "Territorial Imperative: How Minnesota Became the 32nd State". Minnesota History (1998): 154–171. in JSTOR
- Gilman, Rhoda R. "The history and peopling of Minnesota: Its culture". Daedalus (2000): 1–29.
- Hatle, Elizabeth Dorsey. The Ku Klux Klan in Minnesota (The History Press, 2013).
- Meyer, Sabine N. We Are What We Drink: The Temperance Battle in Minnesota (U of Illinois Press, 2015)
- Nziramasanga, Caiphas T. "Minnesota: First State to Send Troops." Journal of the West 14 (1975): 42+.