History of NATO
The history of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) begins in the immediate aftermath of World War II when British diplomacy set the stage to contain the Soviet Union and to stop the expansion of Soviet power in Europe. The United Kingdom and France signed, in 1947, the Treaty of Dunkirk, a defensive pact, which was expanded in 1948 with the Treaty of Brussels to add the three Benelux countries (Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg) and committed them to collective defense against an armed attack for fifty years. The British worked with Washington to expand the alliance into NATO in 1949, adding the United States and Canada as well as Italy, Portugal, Norway, Denmark, and Iceland.[1] Greece and Turkey joined in 1952, West Germany joined in 1955, Spain joined in 1982, Czech Republic, Hungary and Poland joined in 1999, Bulgaria, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Romania, Slovakia, and Slovenia joined in 2004, Albania and Croatia joined in 2009, Montenegro joined in 2017, North Macedonia joined in 2020, Finland joined in 2023, and Sweden joined in 2024.
The
From the 1950s to 2003, the Strategic Commanders were the Supreme Allied Commander Europe (SACEUR) and the Supreme Allied Commander Atlantic (SACLANT).
Background
NATO has its roots in the Atlantic Charter, a 1941 agreement between the United States and United Kingdom. The Charter laid out a framework for international cooperation without territorial expansion after World War II.[3]
The Treaty of Brussels was a mutual defense treaty against the Soviet threat at the start of the Cold War. It was signed on 17 March 1948 by Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, France, and the United Kingdom and was the precursor to NATO. The Soviet threat became immediate with the Berlin Blockade in 1948, leading to the creation of a multinational defense organization, the Western Union Defence Organisation, in September 1948.[4] However, the parties were too weak militarily to counter the Soviet Armed Forces. In addition, the communist 1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état had overthrown a democratic government, and British Foreign Minister Ernest Bevin reiterated that the best way to prevent another Czechoslovakia was to evolve a joint Western military strategy. He got a receptive hearing in the United States, especially with the American anxiety over Italy and the Italian Communist Party.[5]
1949–1991: Cold War
1949–1962: Beginnings
In 1948, European leaders met with US defense, military, and diplomatic officials at the Pentagon, exploring a framework for a new and unprecedented association.[1] The talks resulted in the North Atlantic Treaty, and the United States signed on 4 April 1949. Participants included the five Treaty of Brussels states, as well as the United States, Canada, Portugal, Italy, Norway, Denmark and Iceland.[6] The first NATO Secretary General, Lord Ismay, stated in 1949 that the organization's goal was "to keep the Russians out, the Americans in, and the Germans down".[7] Popular support for the treaty was not unanimous, and some Icelanders participated in a pro-neutrality, anti-membership riot in March 1949. The formation of NATO can be seen as the primary institutional consequence of a school of thought called Atlanticism, which stressed the importance of trans-Atlantic cooperation.[8]
The members agreed that an armed attack against any of them in Europe or North America would be considered an attack against them all. Consequently, they agreed that if an armed attack occurred, each of them, in the exercise of the right of individual or collective self-defense, would assist the member being attacked and take such action as it deemed necessary, including the use of armed force, to restore and maintain the security of the North Atlantic area. The treaty does not require members to respond with military action against an aggressor. Although obliged to respond, they maintain the freedom to choose the method by which they do so. That differs from Article IV of the Treaty of Brussels, which clearly states that the response is military in nature. NATO members are nonetheless assumed to aid the attacked member militarily. The treaty was later clarified to include both the members' territory and their "vessels, forces or aircraft" north of the
The creation of NATO brought about some
The outbreak of the
In September 1952, the first major NATO
Greece and Turkey joined the alliance in 1952, which forced a series of controversial negotiations, mainly between United States and Britain, over how to bring both countries into the military command-structure.[14] While that overt military preparation was going on, covert stay-behind arrangements initially made by the Western European Union to continue resistance after an expected Soviet invasion - including Operation Gladio - were transferred to NATO control. Ultimately, unofficial bonds began to grow between the respective armed forces of NATO member-states. Such links included the NATO Tiger Association (established in 1961) and competitions such as the Canadian Army Trophy for tank gunnery,[20][21] instituted in 1963.
In 1954, the Soviet Union suggested that it might join NATO to preserve peace in Europe.[22][23] The NATO countries, fearing that the Soviet Union's motive was to weaken the alliance, ultimately[when?] rejected that proposal. On 17 December 1954, the North Atlantic Council approved MC 48, a key document in the evolution of NATO nuclear thought. MC 48 emphasized that NATO had to use atomic weapons from the outset of a war with the Soviet Union, whether or not the Soviets chose to use them first. That gave SACEUR the same prerogatives for automatic use of nuclear weapons that existed for the commander-in-chief of the US Strategic Air Command.
The incorporation of West Germany into the organization on 9 May 1955 was described as "a decisive turning point in the history of our continent" by Halvard Lange, then the Norwegian Foreign Affairs Minister.[24] The alliance saw German manpower as necessary to have enough conventional forces to resist a Soviet invasion.[25] One of the immediate results of West German entry was the creation of the Warsaw Pact, which was signed on 14 May 1955 by the Soviet Union, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Poland, Bulgaria, Romania, Albania, and East Germany, thereby delineating the two opposing sides of the Cold War in Europe.
Three major NATO exercises took place concurrently in the northern autumn of 1957. Operation Counter Punch,
Strained relations with France
NATO's unity was breached early in its history with a crisis occurring during
Considering the response to be unsatisfactory, de Gaulle began constructing an independent defense-force for his country. He wanted to give France, in the event of an
Though France showed solidarity with the rest of NATO during the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962, de Gaulle continued his pursuit of an independent defense by removing France's Atlantic and English Channel fleets from NATO command.[31] In 1966, all French armed forces were removed from NATO's integrated military command, and all non-French NATO troops were asked to leave France.[32] A "seething" U.S. Secretary of State Dean Rusk asked for "clarification" from De Gaulle about whether American soldiers buried in French cemeteries, having fallen in part to defend and liberate France in two world wars, would also have to leave.[33] The withdrawal forced the relocation of SHAPE from Rocquencourt, near Paris, to Casteau, Belgium, by 16 October 1967.[34] France remained a member of the alliance and committed to the defense of Europe from possible Warsaw Pact attack, with its own forces stationed in West Germany throughout the Cold War. A series of secret accords between the US and French officials, the Lemnitzer–Ailleret Agreements, detailed how French forces would dovetail back into NATO's command structure if East-West hostilities broke out.[35]
When de Gaulle announced his decision to withdraw from the integrated NATO command, US President
That vision came true when France announced its return to full participation at the 2009 Strasbourg–Kehl summit.[37]
1962–1991: Détente and escalation
During most of the Cold War, NATO's watch against the Soviet Union and Warsaw Pact did not actually lead to direct military action. On 1 July 1968, the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons opened for signature. NATO argued that its nuclear sharing arrangements did not breach the treaty since US forces controlled the weapons until a decision was made to go to war when the treaty would no longer be controlling. Few states then knew of the NATO nuclear sharing arrangements, which were not challenged. In May 1978, NATO countries officially defined two complementary aims of the Alliance: to maintain security and pursue détente. That was supposed to mean matching defenses at the level rendered necessary by the Warsaw Pact's offensive capabilities without spurring a further arms race.[38]
On 12 December 1979, in light of a build-up of Warsaw Pact nuclear capabilities in Europe, ministers approved the deployment of US GLCM cruise missiles and Pershing II theatre nuclear weapons in Europe.[39] The new warheads were also meant to strengthen the West's negotiating position regarding nuclear disarmament. That policy was called the Dual Track policy.[40] Similarly, in 1983 and 1984, responding to the stationing of Warsaw Pact SS-20 medium-range missiles in Europe, NATO deployed modern Pershing II missiles tasked to hit military targets such as tank formations in the event of war.[41] That action led to peace movement protests throughout Western Europe, and support for their deployment wavered, as many doubted whether the push for deployment could be sustained.
The membership of the organization was then largely static. In 1974, as a consequence of the Turkish invasion of Cyprus, Greece withdrew its forces from NATO's military command structure but, with Turkish co-operation, was readmitted in 1980.[42] The Falklands War between the United Kingdom and Argentina did not result in NATO involvement because Article 6 of the North Atlantic Treaty specifies that collective self-defense is applicable only to attacks on member state territories north of the Tropic of Cancer.[43]
On 30 May 1982, NATO gained a new member when the newly-democratic Spain joined the alliance, as was confirmed by referendum in 1986. At the peak of the Cold War, 16 member nations maintained an approximate strength of 5,252,800 active military personnel, including as many as 435,000 forward-deployed US forces, under a command structure that reached a peak of 78 headquarters, organized into four echelons.[44]
1991–present: Post-Cold War
1991–2001: Response to the Yugoslav Wars
The Revolutions of 1989 and the dissolution of the Warsaw Pact in 1991 removed the de facto main adversary of NATO and caused a strategic re-evaluation of NATO's purpose, nature, tasks, and focus on the continent of Europe. The shift started, with the 1990 signing in Paris of the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe between NATO and the Soviet Union, which mandated specific military reductions across the continent, which continued after the dissolution of the Soviet Union in December 1991.[45] European countries then accounted for 34 percent of NATO's military spending; by 2012, that had fallen to 21 percent.[46] NATO also began a gradual expansion to include countries of Central and Eastern Europe and extended its activities into political and humanitarian situations that had not been thought of as NATO concerns.
An expansion of NATO came with
As part of restructuring, NATO's military structure was cut back and reorganized, with new forces such as the
Between 1994 and 1997, wider forums for regional cooperation between NATO and its neighbors were set up, like the
Czech President
The expansion was criticized in the US by some policy experts as a "policy error of historic proportions."
Membership went on expanding with the accession of seven more Central and Eastern European countries to NATO: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Slovenia, Slovakia, Bulgaria, and Romania. They were first invited to start talks of membership during the 2002 Prague summit and joined NATO on 29 March 2004, shortly before the 2004 Istanbul summit. Slovenian membership was endorsed in a referendum in which 66.02% of voters supported joining.[citation needed] The entry of Romania into NATO is particularly notable as it put the strategic Focșani Gate under NATO control.[61]
New NATO structures were also formed while old ones were abolished. In 1997, NATO reached agreement on a significant downsizing of its command structure from 65 headquarters to 20.[62]
2001–2008: War on Terror
The NATO Response Force (NRF) was launched at the 2002 Prague summit on 21 November, the first summit in a former Comecon country. On 19 June 2003, a further restructuring of the NATO military commands began as the Headquarters of the Supreme Allied Commander, Atlantic were abolished and a new command, Allied Command Transformation (ACT), was established in Norfolk, Virginia, United States, and the Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (SHAPE) became the Headquarters of Allied Command Operations (ACO). ACT is responsible for driving transformation (future capabilities) in NATO while ACO is responsible for current operations.[63] In March 2004, NATO's Baltic Air Policing began, which supported the sovereignty of Latvia, Lithuania, and Estonia by providing jet fighters to react to any unwanted aerial intrusions. Eight multinational jet fighters are based in Lithuania, the number of which was increased from four in 2014.[64] Also at the 2004 Istanbul summit, NATO launched the Istanbul Cooperation Initiative with four Persian Gulf nations.[65]
The 2006 Riga summit was held in Riga, Latvia, and highlighted the issue of energy security. It was the first NATO summit to be held in a country that had been part of the old Soviet Union.
2008–present: Renewed focus on territorial defense
At the
In 2009, US President Barack Obama proposed using the ship-based Aegis Combat System, but the plan still includes stations being built in Turkey, Spain, Portugal, Romania, and Poland.[68] NATO will also maintain the "status quo" in its nuclear deterrent in Europe by upgrading the targeting capabilities of the "tactical" B61 nuclear bombs stationed there and deploying them on the stealthier Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II.[69][70] On 15 June 2016, NATO officially recognized cyberwarfare as an operational domain of war, just like land, sea, and aerial warfare. That means that any cyber attack on NATO members can trigger Article 5 of the North Atlantic Treaty.[71] Likewise, on 4 December 2019, NATO additionally recognized space warfare as an operational domain of war.[72]
Montenegro became the 29th member of NATO on 5 June 2017, amid strong objections from Russia.[73][74] On 27 March 2020, North Macedonia became the 30th member after a dispute about its name was resolved with Greece.[75][76]
The 2014 Russian annexation of Crimea led to strong condemnation by NATO nations, and Poland invoked Article 4 in meetings.[77] At the 2014 Wales summit, the leaders of NATO's member states formally committed for the first time spend the equivalent of at least 2% of their gross domestic product on defence by 2024, which was previously only an informal guideline.[78] In February 2015, NATO committed to forming a new "spearhead" force of 5000 troops at bases in Estonia, Lithuania, Latvia, Poland, Romania, and Bulgaria.[79][80]
NATO did not condemn the
The
Structural changes
The Defence Planning Committee was a former senior decision-making body on matters relating to the integrated military structure of the Alliance. It was dissolved after a major committee review in June 2010, with its responsibilities absorbed by the North Atlantic Council.
Civilian structure
In NATO: The First Five Years, Lord Ismay described the civilian structure as follows:[94]
The ..Office of the Secretary-General [is] directed by an Executive Secretary, Captain R.D. Coleridge (UK), who is also Secretary to the Council. He is responsible for supervising the general processing of the work of the Council and their committees, including the provision of all secretarial assistance, as well as supervision of the administrative services of the Staff/Secretariat itself. Thus the Secretariat provides secretaries to all the Council's principal committees and working groups - apart from those of a strictly technical nature - and ensures coordination between them... On the Staff side, there are three main divisions corresponding to the three principal aspects of NATO's work, each under an Assistant Secretary-General. Ambassador Sergio Fenoaltea (Italy) heads the Political Affairs Division, M. Rene Sergent (France) the Economics and Finance Division, and Mr. Lowell P. Weicker (USA) the Production and Logistics Division. The Divisions' tasks are to prepare, in close touch with delegations, proposed action in their respective fields for consideration by the appropriate committee or by the Council. In addition to the main divisions, there are three other offices working directly to the Secretary-General. These are the Office of Statistics (Mr. Loring Wood of the USA), the Financial Comptroller's Office (M. A. J. Bastin of Belgium), and the Division of Information (Mr. Geoffrey Parsons, Jr. of the USA). The Information Division, besides providing material about NATO for the use of member governments, (it does not engage in independent operations), is also the press and public relations branch of the civilian authority.
Military structure
The Strategic Commanders were the former Major NATO Commanders, who sat atop a command hierarchy consisting of Major Subordinate Commanders (MSCs), Principal Subordinate Commanders (PSCs), and Sub-PSCs.
-
Allied Command Europe: Supreme Headquarters
-
Allied Command Europe: Allied Forces Northern Europe
-
Allied Forces Central Europe
-
Allied Forces Southern Europe
-
Allied Command Atlantic
Beginnings
A key step in establishing the NATO Command Structure was the North Atlantic Council's selection of General
The British post of Commander in Chief
In 1952, after Greece and Turkey joined NATO
With the establishment of
In 1966, when French President
Structure in 1989
- NATO Military Committee, led by the
- Allied Command Europe (ACE), led by Supreme Allied Commander Europe (SACEUR), in Mons, Belgium
- ACE Mobile Force, in Seckenheim, Germany
- United Kingdom Air Forces, in High Wycombe, United Kingdom
- Maisieres, Belgium
- Allied Forces Northern Europe (AFNORTH), in Kolsås, Norway
- Allied Forces North Norway (NON), in Bodø, Norway
- Allied Forces South Norway (SONOR), in Stavanger, Norway
- Allied Forces Baltic Approaches (BALTAP), in Karup, Denmark
- Allied Forces Central Europe (AFCENT), in Brunssum, Netherlands
- Northern Army Group (NORTHAG), in Rheindahlen, West Germany
- Central Army Group (CENTAG), in Heidelberg, West Germany
- Allied Air Forces Central Europe (AAFCE), in Ramstein, West Germany
- Second Allied Tactical Air Force (2 ATAF), in Rheindahlen, West Germany
- Fourth Allied Tactical Air Force (4 ATAF), in Ramstein, West Germany
-
- Allied Land Forces Southern Europe (LANDSOUTH), in Verona, Italy
- Allied Air Forces Southern Europe (AIRSOUTH), in Naples, Italy
- Fifth Allied Tactical Air Force (5 ATAF), in Vicenza, Italy
- Sixth Allied Tactical Air Force (6 ATAF), in İzmir, Turkey
- Allied Naval Forces Southern Europe (NAVSOUTH), in Naples, Italy
- Naval Striking and Support Forces Southern Europe (STRIKFORSOUTH), afloat, centered around US Sixth Fleet
- Allied Command Atlantic (ACLANT), led by Supreme Allied Commander Atlantic (SACLANT), in Norfolk, United States[103]
- Eastern Atlantic Area (EASTLANT), in Northwood, United Kingdom
- Northern Sub-Area (NORLANT), in Rosyth, United Kingdom
- Central Sub-Area (CENTLANT), in Plymouth, United Kingdom
- Submarine Force Eastern Atlantic (SUBEASTLANT), in Gosport, United Kingdom
- Maritime Air Eastern Atlantic (MAIREASTLANT), in Northwood, United Kingdom
- Maritime Air Northern Sub-Area (MAIRNORLANT), in Rosyth, United Kingdom
- Maritime Air Central Sub-Area (MAIRCENTLANT), in Plymouth, United Kingdom
- Island Command Iceland (ISCOMICELAND), in Keflavík, Iceland
- Island Command Faroes (ISCOMFAROES), in Tórshavn, Faroe Islands
- Western Atlantic Area (WESTLANT), in Norfolk, United States
- Ocean Sub-Area (OCEANLANT), in Norfolk, United States
- Canadian Atlantic Sub-Area (CANLANT), in Halifax, Canada
- Island Command Bermuda (ISCOMBERMUDA), in Hamilton, Bermuda
- Island Command Azores (ISCOMAZORES), in Ponta Delgada, Azores
- Island Command Greenland (ISCOMGREENLAND), in Grønnedal, Greenland
- Submarine Force Western Atlantic (SUBWESTLANT), in Norfolk, United States
- Iberian Atlantic Area (IBERLANT), in Oeiras, Portugal
- Striking Fleet Atlantic (STRIKFLTLANT), in Norfolk, United States
- Carrier Striking Force (CARSTRIKFOR), in Norfolk, United States
- Carrier Striking Group One (CARSTRIKGRUONE), in Norfolk, United States
- Carrier Striking Group Two (CARSTRIKGRUTWO), in Plymouth, United Kingdom
- Carrier Striking Force (CARSTRIKFOR), in Norfolk, United States
- Submarines Allied Command Atlantic (SUBACLANT), in Norfolk, United States
- Allied Command Channel (ACCHAN), in Northwood, United Kingdom
- Nore Sub-Area Channel Command (NORECHAN), in Rosyth, United Kingdom
- Plymouth Sub-Area Channel Command (PLYMCHAN), in Plymouth, United Kingdom
- Benelux Sub-Area Channel Command (BENECHAN), in Den Helder, Netherlands
- Allied Maritime Air Force Channel (MAIRCHAN), in Northwood, United Kingdom
- Maritime Air Nore Sub-Area Channel Command (MAIRNORECHAN), in Rosyth, United Kingdom
- Maritime Air Plymouth Sub-Area Channel Command (MAIRPLYMCHAN), in Plymouth, United Kingdom
- Standing Naval Force Channel (STANAVFORCHAN), afloat
After Cold War
By June 1991, it was clear that Allied Forces Central Europe, a Major Subordinate Command, could be reduced, with the Soviet threat disappearing. Six multinational corps were to replace the previous eight.[104] Announcements in June 1991 presaged main defensive forces consisting of six multinational corps. Two were to be under German command, one with a US division, one under Belgian command with a pending offer of a U.S. brigade, one under U.S. command with a German division, one under joint German-Danish command (LANDJUT), and one under Dutch command. The new German IV Corps was to be stationed in eastern German and was not to be associated with the NATO structure.
On July 1, 1994, the Alliance disestablished
From 1994 to 1999, ACE had three Major Subordinate Commands, AFNORTHWEST, AFCENT, and AFSOUTH. In 1995 NATO began a Long Term Study to examine post-Cold War strategy and structure. Recommendations from the study for a new, streamlined structure emerged in 1996.[106] The European and Atlantic commands were to be retained, but the number of major commands in Europe was to be cut from three to two, Regional Command North Europe and Regional Command South Europe. Activation of the new RC SOUTH occurred in September 1999, and in March 2000 Headquarters AFNORTHWEST closed and the new RC NORTH was activated.[107] The headquarters of the two Regional Commands were known as Regional Headquarters South (RHQ South) and RHQ NORTH respectively. Each was to supervise air, naval, and land commands for their region as well as a number of Joint Subregional Commands (JSRCs). Among the new JSRCs was Joint Headquarters Southwest, which was activated in Madrid in September 1999.
Organizations and agencies
Prior to the reorganization, the NATO website listed 43 different agencies and organizations and five project committees/offices as of 15 May 2008.[108] including:
- Logistics committees, organizations and agencies, including:
- NATO Maintenance and Supply Agency
- Central Europe Pipeline System
- NATO Pipeline System
- Production Logistics organizations, agencies, and offices including the NATO Eurofighter and Tornado Management Agency
- Standardisation organization, committee, office, and agency including the NATO Standardization Agency which also plays an important role in the global arena of standards determination.
- Civil Emergency Planning committees and center
- Air Traffic Management and Air Defence committees, working groups organization and center including the:
- NATO ACCS Management Agency (NACMA), based in Brussels, manages around a hundred persons in charge of the Air Control and Command System (ACCS) due for 2009.
- NATO Programming Centre
- The NATO Airborne Early Warning and Control Programme Management Organisation (NAPMO)
- NATO Consultation, Command and Control Organisation (NC3O)
- NATO Consultation, Command and Control Agency (NC3A),[109] reporting to the NATO Consultation, Command and Control Organization (NC3O). This agency was formed when the SHAPE Technical Centre (STC) in The Hague (Netherlands) merged in 1996 with the NATO Communications and Information Systems Operating and Support Agency (NACISA) based in Brussels (Belgium). The agency comprises around 650 staff, of which around 400 are located in The Hague and 250 in Brussels.
- NATO Communications and Information Systems Services Agency (NCSA), based in Mons (BEL), was established in August 2004 from the former NATO Communications and Information Systems Operating and Support Agency (NACISA).[110]
- NATO Headquarters C3 Staff (NHQC3S), which supports the North Atlantic Council, Military Committee, International Staff, and the International Military Staff.
- NATO Electronic Warfare Advisory Committee (NEWAC)
- Military Committee Meteorological Group (MCMG)
- The Military Oceanography Group (MILOC)
- NATO Research and Technology Organisation (RTO),[111]
- Education and Training college, schools and group
- Project Steering Committees and Project Offices, including:
- Alliance Ground Surveillance Capability Provisional Project Office (AGS/PPO)
- Battlefield Information Collection and Exploitation System (BICES)
- NATO Continuous Acquisition and Life-Cycle Support Office (CALS)
- NATO FORACS Office
- Munitions Safety Information Analysis Center (MSIAC)
- COMEDS)
See also
- Pactomania
- Enlargement of NATO
- Foreign policy of the Harry S. Truman administration#NATO
- History of the Common Security and Defence Policy, of the European Union
- NATO open door policy
- Able Archer 83
- Warsaw Pact, the Soviet opposition
- Relations between France and NATO
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A month before [the alliance's summit in Riga in 2006], Victoria Nuland, then the US ambassador to NATO, called the 2 percent metric the "unofficial floor" on defense spending in NATO. But never had all governments of NATO's 28 nations officially embraced it at the highest possible political level – a summit declaration.
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General bibliography
- Isby, David C.; Kamps, Charles Jr. (1985). Armies of NATO's Central Front. ISBN 978-0-7106-0341-8.
- ISBN 978-0-8157-3041-5.
- ISBN 978-0-385-40668-0.
- ISBN 978-1-57906-033-6.
- ISBN 978-0-275-98006-1.
- ISBN 978-0-7146-8539-7.
- ISBN 9780226637822.
- Park, William (1986). Defending the West: a history of NATO. ISBN 978-0-8133-0408-3.
- ISBN 0-333-97380-1.
- ISBN 978-0-300-10562-9.
- Schoenbaum, Thomas J. (1988). Waging Peace and War: Dean Rusk in the Truman, Kennedy, and Johnson Years. ISBN 978-0-671-60351-9.
- van der Eyden, Ton (2003). Public management of society: rediscovering French institutional engineering in the European context. Vol. 1. IOS Press. ISBN 978-1-58603-291-3.
- Wenger, Andreas; Nuenlist, Christian; Locher, Anna (2007). Transforming NATO in the Cold War: Challenges beyond deterrence in the 1960s. ISBN 978-0-415-39737-7.
- Willbanks, James H. (2004). Machine Guns: An Illustrated History of Their Impact. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 1-8510-9480-6.
Further reading
- Asmus, Ronald D. (2008). "Europe's Eastern Promise: rethinking NATO and EU enlargement" (PDF). Foreign Affairs: 95–106.
- Asmus, Ronald D. (2002). Opening NATO's Door: How the Alliance Remade Itself for a New Era.
- S2CID 154373438.
- Baylis, John (1993). The Diplomacy of Pragmatism: Britain and the Formation of NATO, 1942-1949. Basingstoke: Macmillan.
- Caddis, John (2007). "History, grand strategy and NATO enlargement". .
- Chourchoulis, Dionysios (2014). The Southern Flank of NATO, 1951–1959: Military Strategy or Political Stabilization. Lexington Books.
- Colbourn, Susan (2020). "NATO as a political alliance: continuities and legacies in the enlargement debates of the 1990s". International Politics. 1 (18).
- Cornish, Paul (1997). Partnership in Crisis: The US, Europe and the Fall and Rise of NATO. Royal Institute of International Affairs.
- Gallagher, Tom (2004). "Balkan But Different: Romania and Bulgaria's Contrasting Paths to NATO Membership 1994–2002". S2CID 154481745.
- Grosser, Alfred (1980). The Western Alliance: European-American Relations Since 1945.
- Hanrieder, Wolfram F. (1989). Germany, America, Europe: Forty Years of German Foreign Policy. Yale University Press.
- Hatzivassiliou, Evanthis (2014). Nato and Western Perceptions of the Soviet Bloc: Alliance Analysis and Reporting, 1951-69. Routledge.
- Hawes, Derek (2019). "Enduring alliance: a history of NATO and the post-war global order". S2CID 203180787.
- Hendrickson, Ryan C. "NATO’s next secretary general: Rasmussen’s leadership legacy for Jens Stoltenberg." Journal of Transatlantic Studies 14.3 (2016): 237-251.
- St. Martin’s Press.
- Hofmann, Stephanie C. (2017). "Party preferences and institutional transformation: revisiting France's relationship with NATO (and the common wisdom on Gaullism)". .
- Johnston, Seth A. (2017). How NATO Adapts: Strategy and Organization in the Atlantic Alliance Since 1950. Johns Hopkins University Press.
- Kaplan, Lawrence S. (2004) NATO Divided, NATO United: The Evolution of an Alliance. Greenwood Publishing Group.
- Kaplan, Lawrence S. (2014). The United States and NATO: The Formative Years. S2CID 152269356.
- .
- March, Peter R. (1999). Freedom of the Skies: An Illustrated History of Fifty Years of NATO Airpower.
- Miles, Simon (Summer 2020). "The War Scare That Wasn't: Able Archer 83 and the Myths of the Second Cold War". .
- Milloy, John C. (2006). The North Atlantic Treaty Organization, 1948-1957: Community or Alliance?. McGill-Queen's Press-MQUP.
- Münch, Philipp (2021). "Creating common sense: getting NATO to Afghanistan". .
- NATO Office of Information and Press. NATO Handbook : Fiftieth Anniversary Edition (NATO, Brussels, 1998–99, Second Reprint), ISBN 92-845-0134-2
- “NATO at 70: Balancing Collective Defense and Collective Security,” Special issue of Journal of Transatlantic Studies 17#2 (June 2019) pp: 135–267.
- Norris, John (2005). Collision Course: NATO, Russia and Kosovo.
- Osgood, Robert E.(1962) NATO: The Entangling Alliance
- Park, W. H. (1986) Defending the West: A History of NATO. Wheatsheaf Books.
- Pedlow, Gregory W. (2011). "NATO and the Berlin Crisis of 1961: Facing the Soviets While Maintaining Unity" (PDF). US National Archives.
- Perot, Elie (2019). "The art of commitments: NATO, the EU, and the interplay between law and Politics within Europe's collective defence architecture". S2CID 159177913.
- Reid, Escott (1977). Time of Fear and Hope: The Making of the North Atlantic Treaty 1947-1949. McClelland & Stewart.
- Risso, Linda (2014). Propaganda and intelligence in the cold war: The NATO information service. Routledge.
- Riste, Olav, ed. (1985). Western Security. The Formative Years: European and Atlantic Defence 1947-1953. Norwegian University Press.
- Sayle, Timothy Andrews (2019). Enduring Alliance: A History of NATO and the Postwar Global Order. Cornell University Press. online review
- Schmidt, Gustav, ed. (2001). A History of NATO: The First Fifty Years (3 volumes). Palgrave Macmillan. With 60 contributors.
- Smith, E. Timothy (1991). The United States, Italy and NATO, 1947-52.
- Smith, Joseph (1990). The Origins of NATO. Liverpool University Press.
- S2CID 216087963.
Historiography
- Békés, Csaba . "The Bibliography of New Cold War History." (2nd ed.) Cold War History Research Center, Budapest, 2018) online, 350pp.
- Dülffer, Jost . "Cold War history in Germany." Cold War History 8.2 (2008): 135-156.
- Kaplan, Lawrence S. "The Cold War and European Revisionism." Diplomatic History11.2 (1987): 143-156.
- Mariager, Rasmus . "Danish Cold War Historiography." Journal of Cold War Studies 20.4 (2019): 180-211.
- Mastny, Vojtech. "The new history of Cold War alliances." Journal of Cold War Studies 4.2 (2002): 55-84.
- Olesen, Thorsten B., ed. The Cold War and the Nordic countries: Historiography at a crossroads (University Press of Southern Denmark, 2004).
Primary sources
External links
- Hastings Ismay, 1st Baron Ismay (1954). "NATO: The First Five Years". Paris: NATO. Retrieved 4 April 2017.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - Pedlow, Dr Gregory W. "Evolution of NATO's Command Structure 1951-2009" (PDF). aco.nato.int. Brussels(?): NATO ACO. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 March 2013. Retrieved 18 February 2015.
- Atlantic Council of the United States (August 2003). "Transforming the NATO Military Command Structure: A New Framework for Managing the Alliance's Future" (PDF). Archived from the original(PDF) on 3 October 2012.