History of New Orleans
The history of New Orleans, Louisiana traces the city's development from its founding by the French in 1718 through its period of Spanish control, then briefly back to French rule before being acquired by the United States in the Louisiana Purchase in 1803. During the War of 1812, the last major battle was the Battle of New Orleans in 1815. Throughout the 19th century, New Orleans was the largest port in the Southern United States, exporting most of the nation's cotton output and other farm products to Western Europe and New England. As the largest city in the South at the start of the Civil War (1861–1865), it was an early target for capture by Union forces. With its rich and unique cultural and architectural heritage, New Orleans remains a major destination for live music, tourism, conventions, and sporting events and annual Mardi Gras celebrations. After the significant destruction and loss of life resulting from Hurricane Katrina in 2005, the city would bounce back and rebuild in the ensuing years.
Pre-history through Native American era
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The land mass that was to become the city of New Orleans was formed around 2200 BCE when the Mississippi River deposited silt creating the delta region. Before Europeans colonized the area, it was inhabited by Native Americans for about 1300 years.[1] The Mississippian culture peoples built mounds and earthworks in the area. Later Native Americans created a portage between the headwaters of Bayou St. John (known to the natives as Bayouk Choupique) and the Mississippi River. The bayou flowed into Lake Pontchartrain. This became an important trade route. Archaeological evidence has shown settlement in New Orleans dating back to at least 400 C.E.[2] Bulbancha was one of the original names of New Orleans and it translates to "place of many tongues" in Choctaw,[3] Bulbancha was an important trading hub for thousands of years.[4][5]
Colonial era
First French colonial period
- State of Louisiana (1861)(1861–1862)
- Confederate States of America
- United States of America (1862–present)
French explorers,
New Orleans was founded in early 1718 by the
From its founding, the French intended New Orleans to be an important colonial city. The city was named in honor of the then Regent of France,
The priest-chronicler
In September 1722, a
Much of the colonial population in early days was of the wildest character: deported galley slaves, trappers, gold-hunters; the colonial governors' letters were full of complaints regarding the riffraff sent as soldiers as late as Kerlerec's administration (1753–1763).[12] Shortly after the founding, slaves were required to build the public works of the nascent city for thirty days when the crops had been harvested.[13]
Two large lakes (in reality
Spanish interregnum
This section needs additional citations for verification. (December 2016) |
In 1763 following
No Spanish governor came to take control until 1766. French and German settlers, hoping to restore New Orleans to French control, forced the Spanish governor to flee to Spain in the bloodless
It is a handsome town, the streets which are quite straight...the houses are all surrounded with canals, communicating with each other, and which were thought absolutely necessary for the times, along the quay, on the banks of the river.
— Thomas Kitchin, The Present State of the West-Indies: Containing an Accurate Description of What Parts Are Possessed by the Several Powers in Europe, 1778[15]
In the final third of the Spanish period, two massive fires burned the great majority of the city's buildings. The
In 1795 and 1796, the sugar processing industry was first put upon a firm basis. The last twenty years of the 18th century were especially characterized by the growth of commerce on the Mississippi, and the development of those international interests, commercial and political, of which New Orleans was the center.[12] Within the city, the Carondelet Canal, connecting the back of the city along the river levee with Lake Pontchartrain via Bayou St. John, opened in 1794, which was a boost to commerce.
Through Pinckney's Treaty signed on October 27, 1795, Spain granted the United States "Right of Deposit" in New Orleans, allowing Americans to use the city's port facilities.
Retrocession to France and Louisiana Purchase
In 1800, Spain and France signed the secret
In April 1803, Napoleon sold
19th century
In 1805, a census showed a heterogeneous population of 8,500, comprising 3,551 whites, 1,556 free blacks, and 3,105 slaves. Observers at the time and historians since believe there was an undercount and the true population was about 10,000.[19]
Early 19th century: a rapidly growing commercial center
The next dozen years were marked by the beginnings of self-government in city and state; by the excitement attending the Aaron Burr conspiracy (in the course of which, in 1806–1807, General James Wilkinson practically put New Orleans under martial law); and by the War of 1812.[12] From early days the city was noted for its cosmopolitan polyglot population and mixture of cultures. It grew rapidly, with influxes of Americans, African, French and Creole French (people of French descent born in the Americas) and Creoles of color (people of mixed European and African ancestry), many of the latter two groups fleeing from the violent revolution in Haiti.
The
Plantation slaves' rebellion
The Haitian Revolution also increased ideas of resistance among the slave population in the vicinity of New Orleans. Early in 1811, hundreds of slaves revolted in what became known as the
Between 64 and 125 enslaved men marched from sugar plantations near present-day
White men led by officials of the territory formed militia companies to hunt down and kill the insurgents, backed up by the United States Army under the command of Brigadier General Wade Hampton I, a slave owner himself, and by the United States Navy under Commodore John Shaw. Over the next two weeks, white planters and officials interrogated, sentenced, and carried out summary executions of an additional 44 insurgents who had been captured. The tribunals were held in three locations, in the two parishes involved and in Orleans Parish (New Orleans). Executions were by hanging, decapitation, or firing squad (St. Charles Parish). Whites displayed the bodies as a warning to intimidate the enslaved. The heads of some were put on pikes and displayed along the River Road and at the Place d'Armes in New Orleans.
Since 1995 the African American History Alliance of Louisiana has led an annual commemoration in January of the uprising, in which they have been joined by some descendants of participants in the revolt.[25]
War of 1812
During the War of 1812, the British sent a large force to conquer the city, but they were defeated early in 1815 by Andrew Jackson's combined forces some miles downriver from the city at Chalmette's plantation, during the Battle of New Orleans. The American government managed to obtain early information of the enterprise and prepared to meet it with forces (regular, militia, and naval) under the command of Jackson.[12] Privateers led by Jean Lafitte were also recruited for the battle.
The British advance was made by way of
General Jackson had arrived in New Orleans in early December 1814, having marched overland from Mobile in the Mississippi Territory. His final departure was not until mid-March 1815. Martial law was maintained in the city throughout the period of three and a half months.[26]
Antebellum New Orleans
The population of the city doubled in the 1830s with an influx of settlers. A few newcomers to the city were friends of the
By 1840, the city's population was approximately 102,000 and it was now the third-largest in the U.S., the largest city away from the Atlantic seaboard as well as the largest in the South.[29]
The introduction of
In 1836 the city was divided into three municipalities: the first being the French Quarter and Faubourg Tremé, the second being Uptown (then meaning all settled areas upriver from Canal Street), and the third being Downtown (the rest of the city from Esplanade Avenue on, downriver). For two decades the three Municipalities were essentially governed as separate cities, with the office of Mayor of New Orleans having only a minor role in facilitating discussions between municipal governments.
The importance of New Orleans as a commercial center was reinforced when the
The mint produced coins from 1838 until 1861, when Confederate forces occupied the building and used it briefly as their own coinage facility until it was recaptured by Union forces the following year.
On May 3, 1849, a Mississippi River levee breach upriver from the city (around modern River Ridge, Louisiana) created the worst flooding the city had ever seen. The flood, known as Sauvé's Crevasse, left 12,000 people homeless. While New Orleans has experienced numerous floods large and small in its history, the flood of 1849 was of a more disastrous scale than any save the flooding after Hurricane Katrina in 2005. New Orleans has not experienced flooding from the Mississippi River since Sauvé's Crevasse, although it came dangerously close during the Great Mississippi Flood of 1927.
The slave trade
New Orleans was the biggest slave trading center in the country. In the 1840s, there were about 50 people-selling companies. Some whites went to the slave auctions for entertainment. Especially for travelers, the markets were a rival to the French Opera House and the Théâtre d’Orléans. The St. Louis Hotel#slave market and New Orleans Exchange held important markets. There was great demand for "fancy girls": young, light-skinned, good looking, sexual toys for well-to-do gentlemen.[31]
The Civil War
Early in the American Civil War New Orleans was captured by the Union without a battle in the city itself, and hence was spared the destruction suffered by many other cities of the American South. It retains a historical flavor with a wealth of 19th century structures far beyond the early colonial city boundaries of the French Quarter.[32]: 1–6
The political and commercial importance of New Orleans, as well as its strategic position, marked it out as the objective of a
The commander, General
Late 19th century: Reconstruction and conflict
The city again served as capital of Louisiana from 1865 to 1880. Throughout the years of the Civil War and the Reconstruction period the history of the city is inseparable from that of the state. All the
There was a major street riot of July 30, 1866, at the time of the meeting of the radical constitutional convention.[35] Businessman Charles T. Howard began the Louisiana State Lottery Company in an arrangement which involved bribing state legislators and governors for permission to operate the highly lucrative outfit, as well as legal manipulations that at one point interfered with the passing of one version of the state constitution.[36]
During
In the 1850s white Francophones had remained an intact and vibrant community, maintaining instruction in French in two of the city's four school districts.[37] As the Creole elite feared, during the war, their world changed. In 1862, the Union general Ben Butler abolished French instruction in schools, and statewide measures in 1864 and 1868 further cemented the policy.[38] By the end of the 19th century, French usage in the city had faded significantly.[39]
New Orleans annexed the city of
On September 14, 1874, armed forces led by the
U.S. troops also blocked the White League Democrats in January 1875, after they had wrested from the Republicans the organization of the state legislature. Nevertheless, the revolution of 1874 is generally regarded as the independence day of
The New Orleans Mint was reopened in 1879, minting mainly silver coinage, including the famed Morgan silver dollar from 1879 to 1904.
The city suffered flooding in 1882.
The city hosted the 1884
An electric lighting system was introduced to the city in 1886; limited use of electric lights in a few areas of town had preceded this by a few years.
1890s
On October 15, 1890, Chief-of-Police
In the 1890s much of the city's public transportation system, hitherto relying on mule-drawn streetcars on most routes supplemented by a few steam locomotives on longer routes, was electrified.
With a relatively large educated black (including a self-described "Creole" or mixed-race) population that had long interacted with the white population, racial attitudes were comparatively liberal for the Deep South. For example, there was the
In 1892, the New Orleans political machine, "the Ring," won a sweeping victory over the incumbent reformers.
In the spring of 1896 Mayor Fitzpatrick, leader of the city's
In 1897 the quasi-legal
The
Epidemics
Yellow fever epidemics threatened New Orleans from 1817 through 1905. Striking hard in the summer and early autumn (between July and August), the worst of these epidemics killed about 8,000 people in 1853. Symptoms included chills, fever, nausea, and sometimes even more acute symptoms, such as delirium and vomiting blood. What was unknown through most of the nineteenth-century was the cause. Mosquitos spread yellow fever.[43]
The population of New Orleans and other settlements in south Louisiana suffered from epidemics of yellow fever, malaria, cholera, and smallpox, beginning in the late 18th century and periodically throughout the 19th century. Doctors did not understand how the diseases were transmitted; primitive sanitation and lack of a public water system contributed to public health problems, as did the highly transient population of sailors and immigrants. The city successfully suppressed a final outbreak of yellow fever in 1905. (See below, 20th century.)
Progressive era drainage
Until the early 20th century, construction was largely limited to the slightly higher ground along old natural river levees and bayous; the largest section of this being near the Mississippi River front. This gave the 19th-century city the shape of a crescent along a bend of the Mississippi, the origin of the
Following studies begun by the Drainage Advisory Board and the Sewerage and Water Board of New Orleans in the 1890s, in the 1900s and 1910s engineer and inventor A. Baldwin Wood enacted his ambitious plan to drain the city, including large pumps of his own design that are still used when heavy rains hit the city. Wood's pumps and drainage allowed the city to expand greatly in area.
It only became clear decades later that the problem of subsidence had been underestimated. Much of the land in what had been the old back swamp has continued to slowly sink, and many of the neighborhoods developed after 1900 are now below sea level.
20th century
In the early part of the 20th century the Francophone character of the city was still much in evidence, with one 1902 report describing "one-fourth of the population of the city speaks French in ordinary daily intercourse, while another two-fourths is able to understand the language perfectly."
In 1905,
In 1909, the New Orleans Mint ceased coinage, with active coining equipment shipped to Philadelphia.
New Orleans was hit by major storms in the 1909 Atlantic hurricane season and again in the 1915 Atlantic hurricane season.
In 1917 the Department of the Navy ordered the Storyville District closed, over the opposition of Mayor Martin Behrman.
In 1923 the Industrial Canal opened, providing a direct shipping link between Lake Pontchartrain and the Mississippi River.
In the 1920s an effort to "modernize" the look of the city removed the old cast-iron balconies from Canal Street, the city's commercial hub. In the 1960s another "modernization" effort replaced the Canal Streetcar Line with buses. Both of these moves came to be regarded as mistakes long after the fact, and the streetcars returned to a portion of Canal Street at the end of the 1990s, and construction to restore the entire line was completed in April 2004.
The city's river levees narrowly escaped being topped in the Great Mississippi Flood of 1927.
In 1927 a project was begun to fill in the shoreline of Lake Pontchartrain and create levees along the lake side of the city. Previously areas along the lakefront like Milneburg were built up on stilts, often over water of the constantly shifting shallow shores of the Lake.
There have often been tensions between the city, with its desire to run its own affairs, and the government of the State of Louisiana wishing to control the city. Perhaps the situation was never worse than in the early 1930s between Louisiana Gov.
During World War II, New Orleans was the site of the development and construction of Higgins boats under the direction of Andrew Higgins. General Dwight D. Eisenhower proclaimed these landing craft vital to the Allied victory in the war.
The
Mayor
The
In January 1961 a meeting of the city's white business leaders publicly endorsed
In 1965 the
In September 1965 the city was hit by
In 1978, City Councilman
While long one of the United States' most visited cities, tourism boomed in the last quarter of the 20th century, becoming a major force in the local economy. Areas of the French Quarter and Central Business District, which were long oriented towards local residential and business uses, increasingly catered to the tourist industry.
A century after the Cotton Centennial Exhibition, New Orleans hosted another World's Fair, the 1984 Louisiana World Exposition.
In 1986, Sidney Barthelemy was elected mayor of the Crescent City; he was re-elected in spring of 1990, serving two terms.
In 1994 and 1998, Marc Morial, the son of "Dutch" Morial, was elected to two consecutive terms as mayor.
The city experienced severe flooding in the May 8, 1995, Louisiana Flood when heavy rains suddenly dumped over a foot of water on parts of town faster than the pumps could remove the water. Water filled up the streets, especially in lower-lying parts of the city. Insurance companies declared more automobiles totaled than in any other U.S. incident up to that time. (See
On the afternoon of Saturday, December 14, 1996, the
21st century
In May 2002, businessman Ray Nagin was elected mayor. A former cable television executive, Nagin was unaligned with any of the city's traditional political blocks, and many voters were attracted to his pledges to fight corruption and run the city on a more business-like basis. In 2014 Nagin was convicted on charges that he had taken more than $500,000 in payouts from businessmen in exchange for millions of dollars' worth of city contracts. He received a 10-year sentence.[48]
Hurricane Katrina
On August 29, 2005, an estimated 600,000 people were temporarily evacuated from
The city suffered from the effects of a major hurricane on and after August 29, 2005, as Hurricane Katrina made landfall in the gulf coast near the city. In the aftermath of the storm, what has been called "the largest civil engineering disaster in the history of the United States" flooded the majority of the city when the levee and floodwall system protecting New Orleans failed.[49]
On August 26, tracks which had previously indicated the hurricane was heading towards the Florida Panhandle shifted 150 miles (240 km) westward, initially centering on Gulfport/Biloxi, Mississippi and later shifted further westward to the Mississippi/Louisiana state line. The city became aware that a major hurricane hit was possible and issued voluntary evacuations on Saturday, August 27. Interstate 10 in New Orleans East and Jefferson and St. Charles parishes was converted to all-outbound lanes heading out of the city as well as Interstates 55 and 59 in the surrounding area, a maneuver known as "contraflow."
In the
The eye of the storm missed the heart of the city by only 20–30 miles, and strong winds ravaged the city, shattering windows, spreading debris in many areas, and bringing heavy rains and flooding to many areas of the city.
The situation worsened when
The final death toll of Hurricane Katrina was 1,836 lives lost, primarily from Louisiana (1,577). Half of these were senior citizens.
On September 22, already devastated by Hurricane Katrina, the Industrial Canal in New Orleans was again flooded by Hurricane Rita as the recently-and-hurriedly-repaired levees were breached once more. Residents of Cameron Parish, Calcasieu Parish, and parts of Jefferson Davis Parish, Acadia Parish, Iberia Parish, Beauregard Parish, and Vermillion Parish were told to evacuate ahead of the storm. Cameron Parish was hit the hardest with the towns of Creole, Cameron, Grand Chenier, Johnson Bayou, and Holly Beach being totally demolished. Records around the Hackberry area show that wind gusts reached over 180 mph at a boat tied up to a dock. The people were told to be evacuated by Thursday, September 22, 2005, by 6:00 pm. Two days later, parish officials returned to the Gibbstown Bridge that crosses the Intracoastal Canal into Lower Cameron Parish. No one was known to be left in the parish as of that time on Thursday, September 22, 2005.
[needs update] It only became clear with investigations in the months after Katrina that flooding in the majority of the city was not directly due to the storm being more powerful than the city's defenses. Rather, it was caused by what investigators termed "the costliest engineering mistake in American history". The United States Army Corps of Engineers designed the levee and floodwall system incorrectly, and contractors failed to build the system in places to the requirements of the Corps of Engineers' contracts. The Orleans Levee Board made only minimal perfunctory efforts in their assigned task of inspecting the city's vital defenses. Legal investigations of criminal negligence are pending.[needs update]
Since 2005
While many residents and businesses returned to the task of rebuilding the city, the effects of the hurricane on the economy and demographics of the city are expected to be dramatic and long term. As of March 2006, more than half of New Orleanians had yet to return to the city, and there were doubts as to how many more would. By 2008, estimated repopulation had topped 330,000.[52][needs update]
The
In 2010 Louisiana Lieutenant Governor Mitch Landrieu won the mayor's race over ten other candidates with some 66% of the vote on the first round, with widespread support across racial, demographic, and neighborhood boundaries.[53]
The
In 2018 LaToya Cantrell took office as Mayor of New Orleans, the first woman to do so.
On the morning of October 12, 2019, a portion of the Hard Rock Hotel building at 1031 Canal Street collapsed during construction.[56]
On August 29, 2021, Hurricane Ida made landfall in Louisiana, passing through New Orleans on the 16th anniversary of Hurricane Katrina. A citywide power outage and significant damage was reported.[57] The post-Katrina levee system successfully defended the city, but some suburbs without levees or where levees were still under construction flooded.[58]
See also
- New Orleans#History
- Timeline of New Orleans
- List of mayors of New Orleans
- The Historic New Orleans Collection
- History of Louisiana
- Jacques Chirac's 1954 thesis was The Development of the Port of New-Orleans.
References
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{{cite web}}
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Welcome to what is called New Orleans and is Bulbancha, which means place of many tongues, unceded land of the Chitimacha, the Houma, the Chahta Yakni (Choctaw), the Atakapa Ishak Chawasha, and all Indigenous peoples of this region.
- ^ "Tulane Land Acknowledgement". tulane.edu. Tulane University. Retrieved April 14, 2023.
The city of New Orleans was not built upon virgin soil, but merely served as a continuation of a great indigenous trade hub known in Choctaw as Bulbancha,
- ^ Lu Baum, Jesse (2018-12-17). "Remembering Bulbancha, the place of many tongues: A tour of New Orleans Unlike any other". bigeasymagazine.com. Big Easy Magazine. Retrieved April 14, 2023.
The name itself honors the precolonial community that was at the site of New Orleans. Bulbancha is a Choctaw word which means "place of many tongues" because Bulbancha was, surprise surprise, a trading port for many different peoples, of distinct heritages and linguistic groups. Bulbancha was not necessarily a permanent residence for any one group of people, though it hosted peoples from the Chitimacha, Choctaw, Ishak, Tunica, and Natchez nations, to name just a few. (Comeaux herself is Acadian-Creole Métis of Ishak descent). The river was known by this community as Malboncha, which means "river of many tongues" ("Mississippi" is also a native word, but not one that comes from the Bulbancha area)
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Further reading
- Arnesen, Eric (1991). Waterfront Workers of New Orleans: Race, Class and Politics, 1863–1923. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. ISBN 978-0252063770.
- Berry, Jason (2018). City of a Million Dreams: A History of New Orleans at Year 300. Chapell Hill: University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-1450223942.
- Blassingame, John W. (1973). Black New Orleans, 1860–1880. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
- Brinkley, Douglas (2006). Deluge: Hurricane Katrina, New Orleans, and the Mississippi Gulf Coast. New York: Harper Perennial. ISBN 978-0061124235.
- Brown, Don (2015). Drowned city: Hurricane Katrina & New Orleans. Boston: Clarion Books. ISBN 978-0544586178.
- Burns, Peter F.; Thomas, Matthew O. (2015). Reforming New Orleans: The Contentious Politics of Change in the Big Easy. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-1501700446.
- Clark, John G. (1970). New Orleans, 1718-1812: An Economic History. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press.
- Cowen, Scott S. (2014). The Inevitable City: The Resurgence of New Orleans and the Future of Urban America. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1137278869.
- Dabney, Thomas Ewing (2013). One Hundred Great Years-The Story of the Times Picayune from Its Founding to 1940. Read Books Ltd.
- Dawdy, Shannon Lee (2008). Building the Devil's Empire: French Colonial New Orleans. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0226138428.
- Dessens, Nathalie (2015). Creole City: A Chronicle of Early American New Orleans. Gainesville: University Press of Florida. ISBN 978-0813062181.
- Devore, Donald E. (2015). Defying Jim Crow: African American Community Development and the Struggle for Racial Equality in New Orleans, 1900–1960. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press. ISBN 978-0807177365.
- Faber, Eberhard L. (2015). Building the Land of Dreams: New Orleans and the Transformation of Early America. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0691166896. covers 1790s to 1820s.
- Federal Writers' Project of the Works Project Administration (1938). New Orleans City Guide. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. Famous WPA guide.
- Fraiser, Jim (2012). The Garden District of New Orleans. University Press of Mississippi. ISBN 978-1934110683.
- Grosz, Agnes Smith (1944). "The Political Career of Pinckney Benton Stewart Pinchback". Louisiana Historical Quarterly. 27: 527–612.
- Guenin-Lelle, Dianne (2016). The Story of French New Orleans: History of a Creole City. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi. ISBN 978-1496804860.
- Haas, Edward F. (1988). Political Leadership in a Southern City: New Orleans in the Progressive Era, 1896–1902. New Orleans: McGinty Publications. ISBN 978-0940231047.
- Haskins, James (1973). Pinckney Benton Stewart Pinchback. New York: McMillan. ISBN 978-0025488908.
- Hirsch, Arnold R. "Fade to black: Hurricane Katrina and the disappearance of Creole New Orleans." Journal of American History 94.3 (2007): 752–761. https://doi.org/10.2307/25095136
- Holli, Melvin G.; Jones, Peter d'A. (1981). Biographical Dictionary of American Mayors, 1820–1980. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0313211348. Short scholarly biographies each of the city's mayors 1820 to 1980; see index at p. 409 for list.
- Ingersoll, Thomas N. (1999). Mammon and Manon in Early New Orleans: The First Slave Society in the Deep South, 1718–1819. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press. ISBN 978-1572330245.
- Jackson, Joy J. (1969). New Orleans in the Gilded Age: Politics and Urban Progress, 1880–1896. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press.
- Leavitt, Mel (1982). A Short History of New Orleans. San Francisco: Lexikos Publishing. ISBN 0-938530-03-8.
- Margavio, Anthony V.; Salomone, Jerome (2014). Bread and Respect: the Italians of Louisiana. Gretna, LA: Pelican Publishing. ISBN 9781455618729.
- Nystrom, Justin A. (2010). New Orleans After the Civil War: Race, Politics, and a New Birth of Freedom. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0801894343.
- Powell, Lawrence N. (2012). The Accidental City: Improvising New Orleans. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0674725904.
- Rankin, David C. "The origins of Negro leadership in New Orleans during Reconstruction," in Howard N. Rabinowitz, ed. Southern Black Leaders of the Reconstruction Era (1982) 155 – 90.
- Rasmussen, Hans C. (Spring 2014). "The Culture of Bullfighting in Antebellum New Orleans". Louisiana History. 55: 133–176.
- Ryan, Mary P. (1997). Civic Wars: Democracy and Public Life in the American City during the Nineteenth Century. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0520204417.
- Simmons, LaKisha Michelle (2015). Crescent City Girls: The Lives of Young Black Women in Segregated New Orleans. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-1469622804.
- Solnit, Rebecca; Snedeker, Rebecca (2013). Unfathomable City: A New Orleans Atlas. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 9780520274044.
- Sluyter, Andrew (2015). Hispanic and Latino New Orleans: Immigration and Identity since the Eighteenth Century. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press. ISBN 978-0807160879.
- Somers, Dale A. (1972). The Rise of Sports in New Orleans, 1850–1900. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press.
- Tyler, Pamela (1996). Silk Stockings & Ballot Boxes: Women and Politics in New Orleans, 1920–1963. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press. ISBN 082031790X.
In French
- Vandal, Gilles (1993-04-01). "Santé publique et développement urbain: les conditions sanitaires à la Nouvelle-Orléans, 1850-1885". .
Older histories
- Grace King: New Orleans, the Place and the People (1895)
- Henry Rightor: Standard History of New Orleans (1900)
- John Smith Kendall: History of New Orleans (1922)
External links
- Resources for research in New Orleans exhaustive list of local archives and research centers, on the Louisiana Historical Society (founded 1835) website
- History of New Orleans University of Chicago's online histories and source documents