History of New York City (1855–1897)
History of New York City |
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Lenape and New Netherland, to 1664 New Amsterdam British and Revolution, 1665–1783 Federal and early American, 1784–1854 Tammany and Consolidation, 1855–1897 (Civil War, 1861–1865) Early 20th century, 1898–1945 Post–World War II, 1946–1977 Modern and post-9/11, 1978–present |
See also |
Transportation Timelines: NYC • Bronx • Brooklyn • Queens • Staten Island Category |
The history of
Ocean-going steamships and steam railroads, developed in earlier decades, grew to take over most long-distance transport, bringing an ever-increasing stream of immigration and industrialization.[1]
Pre-Civil War
Police, gangs and violence
The
Historians such as Michael Kaplan and Elliott Gorn have argued that an intensifying highly masculine working-class male identity fostered gangs, brawling, and even homicide and rape, which was fueled by New York City taverns. The emerging male code emphasized physical courage, defiance of authority, and class pride. Irish and German immigrants brought European influences. Sexual harassment of women increased because women were more visible outside the home, as many worked in factories and shops. Women were regarded as depersonalized objects of lewd talk, and gang rapes became an opportunity for male bonding.[6][7][8]
Staten Island Quarantine War
From 1800 to 1858, Staten Island was the location of the largest quarantine facility in the United States. Angry residents burned down the hospital compound in 1858 in a series of attacks known as the Staten Island Quarantine War. Although there were no deaths as a result of the attack, the arsonists completely destroyed the hospital compound.[9]
Central Park
As the population grew explosively in
Several American influences came together in the design. Landscaped
Civil War
Prior to the Civil War, in 1861, Mayor Wood proposed
The city provided a major source of troops, supplies, equipment, and financing for the
In 1865 the Metropolitan Fire District united the fire departments of New York and
Tourism and entertainment
New York increasingly became the national capital for tourism and entertainment. Grand hotels were built for the upscale visitors
The first nightclubs appeared in New York City in the 1840s and 1850s, including McGlory's, and the Haymarket. They enjoyed a national reputation for live music, dance, and vaudeville acts. They tolerated unlicensed liquor, commercial sex, and gambling cards, chiefly
Gilded Age
The post-war period was noted for the corruption and graft for which Tammany Hall has become proverbial, but equally for the foundation of New York's pre-eminent cultural institutions, the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the Metropolitan Opera. The Brooklyn Museum was a major institution of New York's independent sister city. Various older institutions merged into the New York Public Library. The New York Academy of Sciences, founded early in the century, expanded and promoted other institutions such as the New York Botanical Garden and the American Museum of Natural History.[29]
New York newspapers were read across the nation, particularly, the New York Tribune, edited by Horace Greeley, the voice of the new Republican Party.[30]
As immigration increased in cities, poverty rose as well. The poorest crowded into low-cost housing such as the
Rapid outward expansion required longer journeys to work and shopping for the middle class office workers and housewives. The working class generally did not own automobiles until after 1945; they typically walked to nearby factories and patronized small neighborhood stores. The middle class demanded a better transportation system. Slow horse-drawn streetcars and faster electric trolleys were the rage in the 1880s.[33]
In the horse-drawn era, streets were unpaved and covered with dirt or gravel. However, this produced uneven wear, opened new hazards for pedestrians, and made for dangerous potholes for bicycles and for motor vehicles. Manhattan alone had 130,000 horses in 1900, pulling streetcars, delivery wagons, and private carriages, and leaving their waste behind. They were not fast, and pedestrians could dodge and scramble their way across the crowded streets.
In small towns people mostly walked to their destination, so they continued to rely on dirt and gravel into the 1920s. Larger cities had much more complex transportation needs. They wanted better streets, so they paved them with wood or granite blocks.[34]
By the end of the century, American cities boasted 30 million square yards of asphalt paving, followed by brick construction.[35] Street-level electric trolleys moved at 12 miles per hour, and became the main transportation service for middle class shoppers and office workers. Big-city streets became paths for faster and larger and more dangerous vehicles, the pedestrians beware. In the largest cities, street railways were elevated, which increased their speed and lessened their dangers. Boston built the first subway in the 1890s followed by New York a decade later.[36]
Immigration
The flood of immigration from Europe passed first through Castle Clinton (opened 1855) and then through Ellis Island (opened 1892) in New York Harbor, with the nearby Statue of Liberty opening in 1886. Most of the new arrivals headed to destinations across the north and west, but many made New York City their destination.
European immigration brought further social upheaval, and old world criminal societies rapidly exploited the already corrupt municipal machine politics of Tammany Hall. Housing, especially in the southern tip of Manhattan, became crowded with newly built
In the Orange Riots of July 1871 and 1872, Catholic Irish attempted to stop Protestant Irish from celebrating the anniversary of the Battle of the Boyne. These resulted in more than 33 deaths and many wounded.[37][38] Pioneering photojournalist Jacob Riis documented the poor conditions of immigrant tenement dwellers in his 1890 How the Other Half Lives; he was befriended by Republican reformer Theodore Roosevelt. Roosevelt lost his mayoral race in 1886. Reformers did win in 1894, and Roosevelt undertook a major reform of the New York City Police Department in 1895–97 during his term as President of the Police Commissioners.[39]
Public health
Epidemics (typhus, cholera, diphtheria, and tuberculosis) were rampant in the city's slums. Horse manure covered the streets. In winter, when all the grime froze, walking on the sidewalks was a challenge. Dead pigs and other carcasses remained on the street for weeks.[40] In 1894, Colonel George E. Waring Jr. introduced sanitary reforms using a large street cleaning force.[41][42]
Politics
Tammany Hall
Tammany did not take long to rebound from Tweed's fall. Reforms demanded a general housecleaning, and former county sheriff
Theodore Roosevelt, before he became president in 1901, was deeply involved in New York City politics. He explains how the machine worked:
- The organization of a party in our city is really much like that of an army. There is one great central boss, assisted by some trusted and able lieutenants; these communicate with the different district bosses, whom they alternately bully and assist. The district boss in turn has a number of half-subordinates, half-allies, under him; these latter choose the captains of the election districts, etc., and come into contact with the common healers.[45]
Reformers
Middle-class moral sensibilities were deeply opposed to prostitution and all forms of gambling. The reform movement was strongest in the 1890s.
Economy
In 1874, nearly 61% of all U.S. exports passed through New York harbor. In 1884, nearly 70% of U.S. imports came through New York. The eventual rise of ports on the Gulf of Mexico and on the Pacific coast reduced New York's share of imports and exports to about 47% in 1910. The city's banking resources grew 250% between 1888 and 1908, compared to the national increase of 26%. Between 1860 and 1907, the assessed value of the land and buildings on Manhattan rose from $1.7 billion to $6.7 billion.
The city and its suburbs, mainly Brooklyn and
Department stores
In modern major cities, the department store made a dramatic appearance in the middle of the 19th century and permanently reshaped shopping habits and the definition of service and luxury. Similar developments were underway in Paris and London.[49] New York became a regional and national destination for upscale shoppers, thanks to its development of the modern department store. London and Paris were developing department stores around the same time, and the leaders quickly adopted innovations. In 1846,
In 1862, Stewart built a new store on a full city block with eight floors and nineteen departments of dress goods and furnishing materials, carpets, glass and china, toys and sports equipment, ranged around a central glass-covered court. His innovations included buying from manufacturers for cash and in large quantities, keeping his markup small and prices low, truthful presentation of merchandise, the one-price policy (so there was no haggling), simple merchandise returns and cash refund policy, selling for cash and not credit, buyers who searched worldwide for quality merchandise, departmentalization, vertical and horizontal integration, volume sales, and free services for customers such as waiting rooms and free delivery of purchases. His innovations were quickly copied by other department stores.[52]
In 1858, Rowland Hussey Macy founded Macy's as a dry goods store. Benjamin Altman and Lord & Taylor soon competed with Stewart as New York's earliest department stores.
By the 1880s New York's retail center had moved uptown, forming a stretch of retail shopping from "Marble Palace" that was called the "Ladies' Mile". By 1894 the major stores competed in the Christmas season with elaborate Christmas window displays; in 1895 Macy's featured 13 tableaux, including scenes from Jack and the Beanstalk, Gulliver's Travels and other children's favorites.[53]
The department store was especially important for women; in middle-class families women took control of the purchasing, and the department stores catered to their tastes. Furthermore, ambitious young women from the middle class who wanted a career were welcomed into the clerical ranks, where they developed social skills to work with their upscale customers.[54][55]
Skyscrapers and apartment buildings
New inventions facilitated the emergence of the skyscraper in the 1880s—it was a characteristic American style that was not widely copied around the world until the late 20th century. Construction required several major innovations, including the elevator and structural steel. The steel skeleton, developed in the 1880s, replaced the heavy brick walls that were limited to 15 or so stories in height. The skyscraper also required a complex internal structure to solve issues of ventilation, steam heat, gas lighting (and later electricity), and plumbing.[56]
The city's housing involved a wide variety of styles, but most of the attention focused on the tenement house for the working class and the apartment building for the middle class. The apartment building came first, as middle-class professionals, businessmen, and white-collar workers realized they did not need and could scarcely afford
Starting with the luxurious Stuyvesant Apartments that opened in 1869, and the even more lavish The Dakota in 1884, affluent tenants hired full-time staff to handle the upkeep and maintenance, as well as security.[59][60]
The less-lavish middle-class apartment buildings provided gas lighting, elevators, good plumbing, central heating, and maintenance men on call. Apartment buildings were built along the paths of the street railways since the middle-class tenants rode the streetcar to work, while the working class saved a nickel each way and walked.[61]
The working class crowded into tenement houses, with far fewer features and amenities.[62] Novelist Stephen Crane in Maggie: A Girl of the Streets (1893) wrote of an Irish tenement neighborhood characterized by poverty and violence:
"Eventually they entered into a dark region where, from a careening building, a dozen gruesome doorways gave up loads of babies to the street and the gutter. A wind of early autumn raised yellow dust from cobble and swirled it against an hundred windows. Long streamers of garments fluttered from fire escapes. In all unhandy places there were buckets, brooms, rags, and bottles. In the street infants played or fought with other infants or sat stupidly in the way of vehicles. Formidable women, with uncombed hair and disordered dress, gossiped while leaning on railings, or screamed in frantic quarrels. Withered persons, in curious postures of submission to something, sat smoking pipes in obscure corners. A thousand odors of cooking food came forth to the street. The building quivered and creaked from the weight of humanity stamping about in its bowels."[63]
Tenements were cheap and easy to build, and filled up almost the entire lot. There were typically five story walk-ups, with four separate apartments on each floor. There was minimal air circulation and sunlight. Until the Tenement House Act of 1879, newly built tenements lacked running water or indoor toilets. A law in 1901 required indoor plumbing be retrofitted to older tenements. Garbage pickup was erratic until late in the 19th century. Rent was cheap for those who could endure the dust, clutter, smells and noises; the only cheaper alternatives were squalid basement rooms in older buildings. Most of the tenements survived until the urban renewal movement of the 1950s.[64][65]
Neighborhoods
Pre-war steam ferries had already made
In the late 19th century, the island's
Consolidation
In 1855, the
The modern city of Greater New York — the five boroughs — was created in 1898, with the consolidation of the cities of New York (then Manhattan and the Bronx) and Brooklyn with the largely rural areas of Queens and Staten Island.
See also
- Timeline of New York City, 1850s-1890s
- New York City Police Riot of 1857
- 1886 New York City mayoral election
References
- ^ For a visual overview of the era, see Eric Homberger, The historical atlas of New York City: A visual celebration of 400 years of New York City's history (Macmillan, 2005), pp 84-111
- ^ James F. Richardson, The New York Police, Colonial Times to 1901 (1970).
- ^ Christopher Adamson, "Tribute, turf, honor and the American street gang: patterns of continuity and change since 1820." Theoretical Criminology (1998) 2#1 pp: 57-84.
- ISBN 9780313354526.
- ^ Tyler Anbinder, Five Points: the 19th-century New York City neighborhood that invented tap dance, stole elections, and became the world's most notorious slum (2001) pp 285-86.
- JSTOR 3124015.
- ^ Peter Adams, The Bowery Boys: Street Corner Radicals and the Politics of Rebellion (2005).
- JSTOR 1900028.
- PMID 15147652.
- ^ Linda Fischer and Harrison Hunt, "Asher B. Durand, William Cullen Bryant, and the Origins of Central Park," New York Journal of American History (2007) 66#4 pp 93-100.
- ^ Burrows and Wallace, Gotham pp 790-95
- ISBN 0-8014-9751-5.
- S2CID 57567923.
- ^ Eugene P. Moehring, "Frederick Law Olmsted and the Central Park 'Revolution'" Halcyon: A Journal of the Humanities (1985) 7#1 pp 59-75.
- ^ Edward K. Spann, Gotham at War: New York City, 1860-1865 (2002)
- ^ Iver Bernstein, The New York City Draft Riots: Their Significance for American Society and Politics in the Age of the Civil War (1990); Barnet Schecter, The Devil's Own Work: The Civil War Draft Riots and the Fight to Reconstruct America (2007); Adrian Cook, The Armies of the Streets: The New York City Draft Riots of 1863 (1982)
- ^ Thomas L. Jones, "The Union League Club and New York's First Black Regiments in the Civil War," New York History (2006) 87#3 pp 313-343
- ^ William Seraile, New York's Black Regiments During the Civil War (2015)
- ^ E. H. Livingston, President Lincoln's Third Largest City: Brooklyn and The Civil War (1994)
- ^ Jackson, Encyclopedia of New Your City (2010) p 452
- ^ Justin Kaplan, When the Astors Owned New York: Blue Bloods and Grand Hotels in a Gilded Age (2006).
- ^ Lewis A. Erenberg, Steppin'Out: New York Nightlife and the Transformation of American Culture (1984)
- ^ Timothy J. Gilfoyle, City of eros: New York City, prostitution, and the commercialization of sex, 1790–1920 (1994).
- ^ Timothy J. Gilfoyle, "Scorsese's Gangs of New York: Why Myth Matters." Journal of Urban History 29.5 (2003): 620–630 at p. 624.
- ^ Burrows and Wallace, Gotham (1999) 1148
- ISBN 9781614233039.
- ^ Lewis A. Erenberg, Steppin' Out: New York Nightlife and the Transformation of American Culture, 1890–1930 (1981).
- ^ "Webster Hall Landmark Status Certification" (PDF). Greenwich Village Society for History Preservation.
The intact, elegantly detailed façade of Webster Hall has sheltered some of the Village's most infamous moments, and this first modern night club deserves to be an individual landmark
- S2CID 6588836.
- ^ Jeter Allen Isely, Horace Greeley and the Republican Party, 1853-1861: A Study of the New York Tribune (1947)
- ISBN 978-0684859958.
- ^ Tindall, George Brown and Shi, David E. America: A Narrative History (Brief 9th ed. 2012) vol 2 p. 590
- ISBN 978-0300098273.
- ^ David O. Whitten, "A Century of Parquet Pavements: Wood as a Paving Material in the United States And Abroad, 1840–1940." Essays in Economic and Business History 15 (1997): 209–26.
- ^ Arthur Maier Schlesinger, The Rise of the City: 1878–1898 (1933) pp. 88–93.[ISBN missing]
- S2CID 144312718.
- ^ Michael Gordon, The Orange riots: Irish political violence in New York City, 1870 and 1871 (1993)
- ^ Headley, Joel Tyler (2011-07-13) [1873]. "Orange Riots of 1870 and 1871". The great riots of New York, 1712 to 1873: including a full and complete account of the Four Days' Draft Riot of 1863. New York: E. B. Treat. Retrieved 2023-01-21 – via Access Genealogy.
- ^ Jay Stuart Berman, Police administration and progressive reform: Theodore Roosevelt as police commissioner of New York (1987).
- S2CID 162294790.
- ^ John Duffy, History of public health in New York City (2 vol. 1968, 1974)
- PMID 11610796.
- ^ Oliver E. Allen, The Tiger: The Rise and Fall of Tammany Hall (1993) online edition
- ^ Burrows & Wallace, Gotham p. 1027
- ^ Theodore Roosevelt (1897). The Works of Theodore Roosevelt: American ideals. Collier. pp. 132–33.
- ISBN 9780199729104.
- .
- ^ Mike Wallace, Greater Gotham: A history of New York City from 1898 to 1919 (2017), pp 615-618
- ^ Gunther Barth, "The Department Store," in City People: The Rise of Modern City Culture in Nineteenth-Century America. (Oxford University Press, 1980) pp 110-47,
- ^ Harry E. Resseguie, "A.T. Stewart's Marble Palace—The Cradle of the Department Store." New York Historical Society Quarterly (1964) 48#2: 131-162.
- ^ Gunther Barth, City People: The Rise of Modern City Culture in Nineteenth-Century America (1982) pp 110-147
- S2CID 154704872.
- ISBN 9781550225839.
- JSTOR 1901758.
- ^ Susan Benson, Counter cultures: Saleswomen, managers, and customers in American department stores, 1890-1940 (1987).
- ^ George H. Douglas, Skyscrapers: A social history of the very tall building in America (2004)
- ^ Amy Kallman Epstein, "Multifamily Dwellings and the Search for Respectability: Origins of the New York Apartment House," Urbanism Past & Present (1980) Issue 2, pp 29-39
- ^ Elizabeth Collins Cromley, Alone Together: A History of New York's Early Apartments (1990)
- ^ Stephen Birmingham, Life at the Dakota (1979)
- ^ Andrew Alpern, New York's Fabulous Luxury Apartments: With Original Floor Plans from the Dakota, River House, Olympic Tower and Other Great Buildings (1987) covers 75 famous buildings starting in 1869.
- ^ Elizabeth Blackmar, Manhattan for Rent, 1785-1850 (1989)
- ^ Andrew S. Dolkart, Biography of a Tenement House in New York City: An Architectural History of 97 Orchard Street (2006). Dolkart's Jewish tenement, while equally dark, airless, filthy, and crowded, appears far less threatening than those of Stephen Crane.
- ISBN 9780060726485.
- ^ Richard Plunz, A History of Housing in New York City: Dwelling Type and Social Change in the American Metropolis (1990).
- ^ Raymond A. Mohl, The New City: Urban America in the Industrial Age, 1860-1920 (1985) pp 47-52
Further reading
- Anbinder, Tyler. "From Famine to Five Points: Lord Lansdowne's Irish Tenants Encounter North America's Most Notorious Slum." American Historical Review 107.2 (2002): 351–387. in JSTOR
- Anbinder, Tyler. Five Points: the 19th-century New York City neighborhood that invented tap dance, stole elections, and became the world's most notorious slum (Simon and Schuster, 2001).
- Beckert, Sven. The Monied Metropolis: New York City and the Consolidation of the American Bourgeoisie, 1850–1896 (2001)
- Broxmeyer, Jeffrey D. Electoral Capitalism: The Party System in New York's Gilded Age . (U of Pennsylvania Press, 2020) covers city and state.
- Burns, Ric, and James Sanders. New York: An Illustrated History (2003), large-scale book version of Burns PBS documentary, PBS. It originally aired in 1999 with additional episodes airing in 2001 and 2003.
- Burrows, Edwin G., and Mike Wallace. Gotham: a history of New York City to 1898 (Oxford University Press, 1998), The standard scholarly survey; 1390 pages onlibe review
- Bernstein, Iver. The New York City Draft Riots: Their Significance for American Society and Politics in the Age of the Civil War (1990)
- Callow, Alexander B. The Tweed Ring (1966).
- Chernow, Ron. The house of Morgan: an American banking dynasty and the rise of modern finance (2001)
- Chernow, Ron. Titan: The Life of John D. Rockefeller, Sr.(2007)
- Ernst, Robert. Immigrant Life in New York City, 1825-1863 (Syracuse University Press, 1994)
- Fitzgerald, Maureen. Habits of Compassion: Irish Catholic Nuns and the Origins of New York's Welfare System, 1830-1920 (University of Illinois Press, 2006)
- Hershkowitz, Leo. Tweed's New York: Another Look. (New York: Anchor Press, 1977); scholarly study that argues Tweed was mostly innocent. online review
- Homberger, Eric. Mrs. Astor's New York: Money and Social Power in a Gilded Age (Yale University Press, 2004)
- Homberger, Eric. The historical atlas of New York City: A visual celebration of 400 years of New York City's history (Macmillan, 2005)
- Jackson, Kenneth D. Encyclopedia of New York City (2nd ed. 2010); a massive compendium of authoritative short articles
- Laster, Margaret R., and Chelsea Bruner, eds. New York: Art and Cultural Capital of the Gilded Age (2018)
- Livingston, E. H. President Lincoln's Third Largest City: Brooklyn and The Civil War (1994)
- McKay, Ernest A. The Civil War and New York City (Syracuse University Press, 1990)
- Quigley, David. Second Founding: New York City, Reconstruction, and the Making of American Democracy (Hill and Wang, 2004) excerpt
- Scherzer. Kenneth A. The unbounded community: Neighborhood life and social structure in New York City, 1830-1875 (Duke University Press, 1992)
- Spann, Edward K. Gotham at War: New York City, 1860-1865 (2002)
- Stern, Robert A. M.; Mellins, Thomas; Fishman, David (1999). New York 1880: Architecture and Urbanism in the Gilded Age. Monacelli Press. OCLC 40698653.
- Voorsanger, Catherine Hoover, & Howat, John K., eds. (2000). Art and the empire city: New York, 1825-1861. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 9780870999574.)
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Primary sources
- Gellman, David N. and David Quigley, eds. Jim Crow New York: A Documentary History of Race and Citizenship, 1777-1877 (2003)
- Jackson, Kenneth T. and David S. Dunbar, eds. Empire City: New York Through the Centuries (2005), 1015 pages of excerpts excerpt
- Still, Bayrd, ed. Mirror for Gotham: New York as Seen by Contemporaries from Dutch Days to the Present (New York University Press, 1956) online edition
- Stokes, I.N. Phelps. The Iconography of Manhattan Island, 1498-1909 compiled from original sources and illustrated by photo-intaglio reproductions of important maps plans views and documents in public and private collections (6 vols., 1915–28). A highly detailed, heavily illustrated chronology of Manhattan and New York City. see The Iconography of Manhattan Island All volumes are on line free at:
- I.N. Phelps Stokes; The Iconography of Manhattan Island Vol 1. 1915 v. 1. The period of discovery (1524-1609); the Dutch period (1609-1664). The English period (1664-1763). The Revolutionary period (1763-1783). Period of adjustment and reconstruction; New York as the state and federal capital (1783-1811)
- I.N. Phelps Stokes; The Iconography of Manhattan Island Vol 2. 1916 v. 2. Cartography: an essay on the development of knowledge regarding the geography of the east coast of North America; Manhattan Island and its environs on early maps and charts / by F.C. Wieder and I.N. Phelps Stokes. The Manatus maps. The Castello plan. The Dutch grants. Early New York newspapers (1725-1811). Plan of Manhattan Island in 1908
- I.N. Phelps Stokes; The Iconography of Manhattan Island Vol 3. 1918 v. 3. The War of 1812 (1812-1815). Period of invention, prosperity, and progress (1815-1841). Period of industrial and educational development (1842-1860). The Civil War (1861-1865); period of political and social development (1865-1876). The modern city and island (1876-1909)
- I.N. Phelps Stokes; The Iconography of Manhattan Island Vol 4. 1922; v. 4. The period of discovery (565-1626); the Dutch period (1626-1664). The English period (1664-1763). The Revolutionary period, part I (1763-1776)
- I.N. Phelps Stokes; The Iconography of Manhattan Island Vol 5. 1926; v. 5. The Revolutionary period, part II (1776-1783). Period of adjustment and reconstruction New York as the state and federal capital (1783-1811). The War of 1812 (1812-1815) ; period of invention, prosperity, and progress (1815-1841). Period of industrial and educational development (1842-1860). The Civil War (1861-1865) ; Period of political and social development (1865-1876). The modern city and island (1876-1909)
- I.N. Phelps Stokes; The Iconography of Manhattan Island Vol 6. 1928; v. 6. Chronology: addenda. Original grants and farms. Bibliography. Index.
Older books
- Trow's New York City Directory. John F. Trow. 1857.
- Charles Knight, ed. (1867). "City of New York". Geography. Vol. 3. London: Bradbury, Evans. )
- Redfield's Traveler's Guide to the City of New York, New York: J. S. Redfield, 1871, OL 23744341M
- Richard Edwards, ed. (1884), New York's Great Industries, New York: Historical Publishing Co., OL 24579141M
- Pictorial New York and Brooklyn. New York: Smith, Bleakley & Co. 1892. OL 23720975M.
- King's Handbook of New York City (2nd ed.). Moses King. 1893.
- "New York City". Columbian Cyclopedia. Vol. 21. Buffalo, NY: Garretson, Cox & Company. 1897. .
- "Check List of Directories of the City of New York", Bulletin of the New York Public Library, vol. 5, pp. 80 v, 1901, ,
Part 2: Chronological List
- JAMES D. MCCABE, JR.: LIGHTS AND SHADOWS OF NEW YORK LIFE; OR, THE SIGHTS AND SENSATIONS OF A GREAT CITY. illustrated with numerous fine engravings of noted places, life and scenes in New York. NATIONAL PUBLISHING COMPANY, PHILADELPHIA, Pa.; CINCINNATI, Ohio; CHICAGO, Ill.; ST. LOUIS, Mo. 1872 - A Project Gutenberg e-book