History of Niger
This is the history of Niger. See also the history of Africa and the history of West Africa.
Prehistoric Niger
Humans have lived in what is now Niger from the earliest of times. 2 to 3.5 million-year-old Australopithecus bahrelghazali remains have been found in neighboring Chad. Little is known of the prehistory of the societies that inhabited the south, the home of the vast majority of modern Nigeriens.[1] The deserts and the mountains of the north, though, have garnered attention for the ancient abandoned cities and prehistoric rock carvings found in the Aïr Mountains and the Ténéré desert.
Considerable evidence indicates that about 60,000 years ago, humans inhabited what has since become the desolate
One discovery suggests what is now the Sahara of northeast Niger was home to a succession of
As the Sahara dried after 2000 BCE, the north of Niger became the desert it is today, with settlements and trade routes clinging to the Air in the north, the Kaouar and shore of Lake Chad in the west, and (apart for a scattering of oases) most people living along what is now the southern border with Nigeria and the southwest of the country.
Probable ancient regional ecology
North Africa enjoyed a fertile climate during the subpluvial era; what is now the Sahara supported a savanna type of ecosystem, with elephant, giraffe, and other grassland and woodland animals now typical of the Sahel region south of the desert. Historian and Africanist Roland Oliver has described the scene as follows:
[In] the highlands of the central Sahara beyond the
Aleppo pine. In the valleys, perennially flowing rivers teemed with fish and were bordered by seed-bearing grasslands.[5]
Metalworking technology
A 2002 UNESCO published study suggested that iron smelting at Termit, in eastern Niger may have begun as early as 1500 BC.[6] This finding, which would be of great importance to both the history of Niger and the history of the diffusion of Iron Age metalworking technology in all of sub-Saharan Africa, is as yet contentious.[1] Older accepted studies place the spread of both copper and Iron technology to date from the early first Millennium CE: 1500 years later than the Termit Massif finds.[7]
Ancient history
By at least the 5th century BCE,
Trade continued into
Recent archaeological discoveries at Bura (in southwest Niger) and in adjacent southeast Burkina Faso have documented the existence of the iron-age Bura culture from the 3rd century CE to the 13th century CE. The Bura-Asinda system of settlements apparently covered the lower Niger River valley. But further research is needed to understand the role this early civilization played in the ancient and medieval history of West Africa.[citation needed]
Introduction of the camel
The earliest evidence for domesticated
Imperial Niger
The Sultanate of Agadez was founded in 1449 and became a trading and religious center of the region. It was later conquered by the Songhai Empire in 1500.[11]
During the late 16th century, the
Niger was an important economic crossroads, and the empires of
The Ottoman Empire claimed nominal rule of the Agadez region; it became the furthest point of the empire in Africa and remained under nominal control until the French invasion of the late 19th century.[11]
-
The main trans-Saharan caravan routes, c. 1400
-
The Songhai Empire at its greatest extent, c. 1500
Colonization
In the 19th century, contact with
Niger's colonial history and development parallel that of other French West African territories. France administered her West African colonies through a governor general at Dakar, Senegal, and governors in the individual territories, including Niger. In addition to conferring a limited form of French citizenship on the inhabitants of the territories, the 1946 French constitution provided for decentralization of power and limited participation in political life for local advisory assemblies.[14]
Towards independence
A further revision in the organization of overseas territories occurred with the passage of the
After the establishment of the
The 4 December elections (on whether to remain in the French Community, followed shortly by those for the Nigerien territorial assembly) were contested by the two political blocks of the Territorial Assembly. The
While there have always been questions about French influence in the voting[16] The results of both elections were confirmed on the 16th. The PPN led UCFA (yes 358,000) defeated Sawaba (no 98,000), winning 54 seats to 4 in the 60 seat assembly.[17] On the 18th Niger declared itself a republic within the French Community and the Territorial Assembly became the Constituent Assembly. This date (18 December 1958) is celebrated as Republic Day, the national holiday of Niger, and considered the date of the founding of the nation. In March 1959 this became the Legislative Assembly.[18]
In 1958 Diori became president of the provisional government, and then became
Independence
On 11 July 1960 France agreed to Niger becoming fully independent.
Links with France remained, with Diori allowing the development of French-led uranium mining in Arlit and supporting France in the
Diori gained worldwide respect for his role as a spokesman for African affairs and as a popular arbitrator in conflicts involving other African nations. Domestically, however, his administration was rife with
The PPN functioned as a platform for a handful of Politburo leaders grouped around Diori and his advisors Boubou Hama and Diamballa Maiga, who were largely unchanged from their first election in 1956. By 1974 the party had not held a congress since 1959 (one was scheduled for late 1974 during the famine induced political crisis, but never held). The PPN election lists were made up of traditional rulers from the main ethnic regions who, upon election to the Assembly, were given only ceremonial power. Ethnic tensions, too, mounted during Diori's regime. The Politburo and successive cabinets were made up almost exclusively of Djerma, Songhai and Maouri ethnic groups from the west of the country, the same ethnic base the French had relied on during colonial rule. No Politburo ever contained a member of Hausa or Fula groups, even though the Hausa were the plurality of the population, forming over 40% of Nigeriens.[20]
Widespread civil disorder followed allegations that some government ministers were misappropriating stocks of food aid and accused Diori of consolidating power. Diori limited cabinet appointments to fellow Djerma, family members, and close friends. In addition, he acquired new powers by declaring himself the minister of foreign and defense affairs.[21]
1974 to 1990
Upon Kountché's death in November 1987, he was succeeded by his Chief of Staff and cousin, Col. Ali Saibou. Saibou liberalized some of Niger's laws and policies, and promulgated a new constitution. He released political prisoners, including Diori and his old political nemesis Djibo Bakary. However, President Saibou's efforts to control political reforms failed in the face of union and student demands to institute a multi-party democratic system. The Saibou regime acquiesced to these demands by the end of 1990. New political parties and civic associations sprang up, and a National Conference was convened in July 1991 to prepare the way for the adoption of a new constitution and the holding of free and fair elections. The debate was often contentious and accusatory, but under the leadership of Prof. André Salifou, the conference developed consensus on the modalities of a transitional government.
1990s
Since 1990, Tuareg and Toubou groups that had been leading the Tuareg Rebellion claiming they lacked attention and resources from the central government. As the culmination of an initiative started in 1991, the government signed peace accords in April 1995 with these groups. The government agreed to absorb some former rebels in the military and, with French assistance, help others return to a productive civilian life.
The paralysis of government between the President and the Prime Minister who no longer agreed gave Col. Ibrahim Baré Maïnassara a rationale to overthrow the Third Republic and depose the first democratically elected president of Niger, on 27 January 1996. While leading a military authority that ran the government (Conseil de Salut National) during a six-month transition period, Baré enlisted specialists to draft a new constitution for a Fourth Republic announced in May 1996.
Baré organized a presidential election in June 1996. He ran against four other candidates, including Ousmane. Before voting had finished, Baré dissolved the national electoral committee and appointed another, which announced him the winner with over 50% of the votes cast. When his efforts to justify his coup and subsequent questionable election failed to convince donors to restore multilateral and bilateral economic assistance, a desperate Baré ignored the international embargo on Libya seeking funds for Niger's economy. In repeated violations of basic civil liberties by the regime, opposition leaders were imprisoned; journalists often arrested, beaten, and deported by an unofficial militia composed of police and military; and independent media offices were looted and burned with impunity.
In April 1999, Baré was assassinated in a coup led by Maj.
2000s
In July 2004, Niger held municipal elections nationwide as part of its decentralization process. Some 3,700 people were elected to new local governments in 265 newly established communes. The ruling MNSD party won more positions than any other political party; however, opposition parties made significant gains.[23]
In November and December 2004, Niger held presidential and legislative elections. Mamadou Tandja was elected to his second five-year presidential term with 65% of the vote in an election that international observers called generally free and fair. This was the first presidential election with a democratically elected incumbent and a test to Niger's young democracy.[23]
In the 2004 legislative elections, the MNSD, the CDS), the Rally for Social Democracy (RSD), the Rally for Democracy and Progress (RDP), the Nigerien Alliance for Democracy and Progress (ANDP), and the Social Party for Nigerien Democracy (PSDN) coalition, which backed Tandja, won 88 of the 113 seats in the National Assembly.[23]
The
On 26 May 2009, President Tandja dissolved parliament after the country's constitutional court ruled against plans to hold a
The military kept their promise to return the country to democratic civilian rule. A constitutional referendum and national elections were held. A presidential election was held on 31 January 2011, but as no clear winner emerged, run-off elections were held on 12 March 2011. Mahamadou Issoufou of the Nigerien Party for Democracy and Socialism was elected president. A parliamentary election was held at the same time.[25][26][27]
An attempted coup d'état took place on the night of March 30 to 31, 2021, a few days before the inauguration of president-elect
See also
- Niamey history and timeline (capital and largest city)
- List of heads of government of Niger
- List of heads of state of Niger
- Politics of Niger
- Green Sahara
References
Citations
- ^ a b Anne C. Haour. One Hundred Years of Archaeology in Niger. Journal of World Prehistory. Volume 17, Number 1, June 2003, pp. 181–234(54)
- ^ Shillington, Kevin (1989, 1995). History of Africa, Second Edition. St. Martin's Press, New York. Page 32.
- ^ Peter Gwin. "Lost Tribes of the Green Sahara." Archived 3 September 2010 at the Wayback Machine National Geographic Magazine (September 2008) Accessed 28 June 2010.
- ^ Sereno PC, Garcea EAA, Jousse H, Stojanowski CM, Saliège J-F, et al. (2008) Lakeside Cemeteries in the Sahara: 5000 Years of Holocene Population and Environmental Change. PLOS One 3(8): e2995. Archived 16 December 2008 at the .
- ^ Oliver, Roland (1999), The African Experience: From Olduvai Gorge to the 21st Century (Series: History of Civilization), London: Phoenix Press, revised edition, pg 39.
- ^ Iron in Africa: Revisiting the History Archived 25 October 2008 at the Wayback Machine – Unesco (2002)
- ^ Duncan E. Miller and N.J. Van Der Merwe, 'Early Metal Working in Sub Saharan Africa' Journal of African History 35 (1994) 1–36; Minze Stuiver and N.J. Van Der Merwe, 'Radiocarbon Chronology of the Iron Age in Sub-Saharan Africa' Current Anthropology 1968.
- ^ Daniels, Charles (1970). The Garamantes of Southern Libya. Oleander, North Harrow, Middlesex. Page 22.
- ^ a b Masonen, P: "Trans-Saharan Trade and the West African Discovery of the Mediterranean World. Archived 8 October 2006 at the Wayback Machine"
- ISBN 92-3-601709-6.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-61069-954-9.
- ^ "Central African History: The Kanem/Kanem-Bornu Empire (700 AD – 1893 AD) - Right for Education". 14 August 2017. Archived from the original on 17 January 2023. Retrieved 7 September 2022.
- ^ "RÉPUBLIQUE DU NIGER | INDÉPENDANCE !". independance.africamuseum.be. Retrieved 15 December 2022.
- )
- ^ The other was Guinea's Ahmed Sékou Touré, which won a no vote.
- ^ Fuglestad (1983), the major English language history on this says the election was rigged.
- ^ Decalo (1979) p.201
- ^ Decalo (1979) pp.36–37, 189
- ^ https://select.nytimes.com/mem/archive/pdf?res=F70F1FFD385A1A7A93C0A8178CD85F448685F9 [dead link]
- ^ Decalo (1979) p. 180-82. Entry on the "Parti Progressiste Nigerien (PPN)"
- ^ for details on this section, see: James Decalo (1979), and especially, Finn Fuglestad (1983) who describes the process of party formation and political horse-trading in the 1950s in great detail
- ^ For a detailed account in English of the inner workings of the military regime, see Samuel Decalo (1990), pp.241–285.
- ^ a b c "US State Dept".
- ^ "Africa – Niger leader dissolves parliament". Al Jazeera English. 26 May 2009. Archived from the original on 7 February 2011. Retrieved 3 May 2010.
- ^ Ahmad, Romoke W. "West Africa: Ecowas, EU Say Niger Elections Satisfactory" Archived 29 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine, Daily Trust (republished at AllAfrica.com), 3 February 2011.
- ^ Saidou, Djibril. Niger’s Presidential Election Heads to March Runoff" Archived 28 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine, Bloomberg Businessweek, 4 February 2011.
- ^ Look, Anne. "Niger Politicians Forge Alliances Before March Election" Archived 7 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine, Voice of America, 14 February 2011.
- ^ "Niger's Mohamed Bazoum sworn in as president after failed coup". BBC. 2 April 2021.
- ^ Presse, AFP-Agence France. "ECOWAS Head Says Benin President On Mediation Mission To Niger". www.barrons.com. Retrieved 26 July 2023.
- ^ Mednick, Sam (27 July 2023). "Mutinous soldiers claim to have overthrown Niger's president". AP. Retrieved 27 July 2023.
- ^ Peter, Laurence (27 July 2023). "Niger soldiers announce coup on national TV". BBC. Retrieved 27 July 2023.
- ^ "Niger general Tchiani named head of transitional government after coup". Aljazeera. 28 July 2023. Retrieved 28 July 2023.
Bibliography
- James Decalo. Historical Dictionary of Niger. Scarecrow Press/ Metuchen. NJ – London (1979) ISBN 0-8108-1229-0
- Finn Fuglestad. A History of Niger: 1850–1960. Cambridge University Press (1983) ISBN 0-521-25268-7
Further reading
- Chafer, Tony. The End of Empire in French West Africa: France's Successful Decolonization. Berg (2002). ISBN 1-85973-557-6
External links
- Background Note: Niger
- Lydia Samarbakhsh-Liberge (ed.). "Chronologie: Niger". Histoire-afrique.org (in French). Archived from the original on 14 November 2007. Initiated by Agence universitaire de la Francophonie