History of Ohio
The history of Ohio as a
By the mid-18th century, a few American and French fur traders engaged historic
Settlement of Ohio was chiefly by migrants from
After the Civil War, Ohio developed as a major industrial state. Ships traveled the
The cultures of Ohio's major cities became much more diverse with the blend of traditions, cultures, foods, and music from new arrivals. Ohio's industries were integral to American industrial power in the 20th century. In the late 20th century, economic restructuring in steel, railroads, and other heavy manufacturing, cost the state many jobs as heavy industry declined. The economy in the 21st century has gradually shifted to depend on service industries such as medicine and education.
Prehistoric period
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A fossil which dated between 11,727 and 11,424 B.C. indicated that Paleo-Indians hunted large animals, including
The Late Archaic period featured the development of focal subsistence economies and regionalization of cultures. Regional cultures in Ohio include the
About 800 BC, Late Archaic cultures were supplanted by the
After the Hopewell collapsed, though, there was little to nothing left but small, unaffiliated farming villages until after 900 AD, when new cultures slowly began to emerge. Sometime, presumably between the years 1100 and 1300 AD, Iroquoian people's began to aggressively expand their influence, conquering into Ohio from the northeast and displacing many of the preexisting cultures in the Great Lakes Region.
When modern Europeans began to arrive in North America, they traded with numerous Native American (also known as American Indian) tribes for
When the
During the war, the Sauk and Meskwaki tribes, who were Algonquian peoples displaced from the Ottawa River valley in Canada, migrated into Ohio and Michigan before the Iroquois quickly drove them all the way to Minnesota. After the war, Ohio mainly belonged to only Iroquoians and Algonquians- the Mingo/ Seneca, the Shawnee, the Lenape/ Delaware, the Miami, the Ottawa/ Mississauga/ Chippewa (not to be confused with the Ottawa who were still a part of the Anishinaabe of Lake Superior, or the Algonquians of the Ottawa River), the Wyandot and the Guyandotte/ Little Mingo. The Shawnee migrated from the southeast and were sometimes known as the Savannah, the Lenape had relocated from New Jersey and the Ottawa and Wyandot seem to have been formed from Algonquian, Huron and Anishinaabe captured by the Iroquois during the war, who broke free of their control. The Guyandotte may have been related to a small Iroquoian tribe called the Petun, which had also been destroyed in the war.
From the time of the Hopewells until sometime in the 14th century, the Native peoples of the Eastern United States had seemingly domesticated and traded several food crops amongst themselves in what is referred to as the Eastern Agricultural Complex, but once corn arrived and for reasons unknown, the peoples of the east allowed several of these domesticated and/ or semi-domesticated species to go extinct, and, to our knowledge, never ate even the wild versions of these plants ever again. This, despite Quinoa still being farmed in South America and wild buckwheat still being commonly harvested on the west coast. The main plants were beans, squash and pumpkin, quinoa, little barley grass, buckwheat and sunflower, domesticated from plants available in the Ohio River Valley, while some others, like White Alder Grass and maygrass originated from Missouri and the Deep South, respectively. Some of the wild varieties of these plants were very different, such as wild kidney bean and a rare variant of cucurbita pepo, ozarkana, which grows at the confluence of the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers.[5] Squash and Pumpkins may be the oldest domesticated crop, having been grown by the Indian Knoll People of western Kentucky, who formed a complex society as far back as 8000 years ago.[6][7]
Beaver Wars
In 1608,
With these more sophisticated weapons, the Five Nations nearly exterminated[
About 1664, the Five Nations officially became trading partners with the British, who conquered New Netherland (renamed New York) from the Dutch.
The Five Nations enlarged their territory by
Dunmore's War
After the French-Indian Wars, one final war occurred immediately before the Revolutionary War. Dunmore's War was fought between the English and Shawnee roughly between Yellow Creek in Columbiana County and the West Virginia- Kentucky border. The English locals claimed that the Shawnee had been rustling cattle, but it was later concluded that they had lied to facilitate a war. Of the two Shawnee chiefs who fought in the war, Chief Logan's family were all hunted down and assassinated and Chief Cornstalk was said to have cursed the land where his village had once stood.[11]
Among the Mingo Seneca, the brother of Chief Cornplanter, a high ranking False Face (Iroquois Shaman) reworked the old Iroquois religion into the Longhouse Church while in Ohio. This version of Iroquois religion took on various Christian elements (belief in hell, downgrading of all deities aside the Creator to something akin to angels/ demons and regular Church meetings) while keeping alive most of the old holidays and ceremonies and is still practiced by most members of the Iroquois Confederacy today.[12]
European colonization
New France
In the 17th century, the French were the first modern Europeans to explore what became known as
During the 18th century, the French set up a system of trading posts to control the fur trade in the region, linked to their settlements in present-day Canada and what they called the Illinois Country along the Mississippi River. Fort Miami on the site of present-day St. Joseph, Michigan was constructed in 1680 by New France Governor-General Louis de Buade de Frontenac.[15] They built Fort Sandoské by 1750 (and perhaps a fortified trading post at Junundat in 1754).[15]
By the 1730s, population pressure from expanding European colonies on the Atlantic coast compelled several groups of Native Americans to relocate to the
Christopher Gist was one of the first English-speaking explorers to travel through and write about the Ohio Country in 1749. When British traders such as George Croghan started to do business in the Ohio Country, the French and their northern Indian allies drove them out. In 1752 the French raided the Miami Indian town of Pickawillany (modern Piqua, Ohio). The French began military occupation of the Ohio Valley in 1753.
French and Indian War
By the mid-18th century, British traders were rivaling French traders in the area.
British Empire
Prior to the American Revolution, Britain thinly exercised sovereignty over Ohio Country by lackadaisical garrisoning of the French forts.
American Revolution
As a result of the exploits of George Rogers Clark in 1778, Ohio Country (including the territory of the future state of Ohio) as well as eastern Illinois Country, became Illinois County, Virginia by claim of conquest under the Virginia Colony charter. The county was dissolved in 1782 and ceded to the United States.
Early in the American Revolutionary War, the Continental Congress signed the Treaty of Fort Pitt with the Lenape people, which should have guaranteed that all Native lands of Ohio, excepting the Western Reserve, would become a state explicitly under control of the Native peoples who inhabited it in return for their supporting the patriot cause, however a breakdown in communication led to the Ohio Natives' not properly responding and the Continental Congress's assumption that they wanted no part in the union, but to maintain their own sovereignty, therefore the treaty was never fulfilled and many of Ohio's Native peoples were left in confusion as to who to support during the war, leading to their people's being regularly victimized by both sides. [2] For example, the Shawnee leader Blue Jacket and the Delaware leader Buckongahelas sided with the British. Cornstalk (Shawnee) and White Eyes (Delaware) sought to remain friendly with the rebellious colonists. There was major fighting in 1782.[19] American colonial frontiersmen often did not differentiate between friendly and hostile Indians, however. Cornstalk was killed by American militiamen, and White Eyes may have been. One of the most tragic incidents of the war—the killing of 96 Christian Munsee and Christian Mahicans by U.S. militiamen from Pennsylvania on March 8, 1782, at the Moravian Christian missionary village of Gnadenhutten, known as the Gnadenhutten massacre—took place in northeast Ohio.[20][21] In May of that year, George Washington's close friend William Crawford was captured while leading an expedition against Lenape at Upper Sandusky, Ohio. Though Crawford was not at Gnadenhutten, in revenge, he was tortured for hours then burned at the stake.
With the American victory in the Revolutionary War, the British ceded Ohio and its territory in the West as far as the Mississippi River to the new nation. Between 1784 and 1789, the states of Virginia, Massachusetts and Connecticut ceded their earlier land claims in Ohio Country to Congress, but Virginia and Connecticut maintained reserves.[22] These areas were known as the Virginia Military District and Connecticut Western Reserve.[23][24]
Territory and statehood
Rufus Putnam, the "Father of Ohio"
Rufus Putnam served in important capacities in both the French and Indian War and the American Revolutionary War. He was one of the most highly respected men in the early years of the United States.[25]
In 1776, the Continental Army had encircled the British Army in Boston, but could not dislodge it, and a long stalemate ensued. Putnam created a method of building portable fortifications, which were put in place under cover of darkness, along with cannon. This then drove the British from Boston. George Washington was so impressed that he made Putnam his chief engineer. After the war, Putnam and Manasseh Cutler were instrumental in creating the Northwest Ordinance, which opened up the Northwest Territory for settlement. This land was used to serve as compensation for what was owed to Revolutionary War veterans. It was also at Putnam's recommendation that the land would be surveyed and laid out in townships of six miles square. Putnam organized and led the first group of veterans to the territory. They settled at Marietta, Ohio, where they built a large fort called Campus Martius.[26][27][28]
Putnam and Cutler insisted that the Northwest Territory would be free territory - no slavery. They were both from
Putnam, in the Puritan tradition, was influential in establishing education in the Northwest Territory. Substantial amounts of land were set aside for schools. Putnam had been one of the primary benefactors in the founding of Leicester Academy in Massachusetts, and similarly, in 1798, he created the plan for the construction of the Muskingum Academy (now Marietta College) in Ohio. In 1780, the directors of the Ohio Company appointed him superintendent of all its affairs relating to settlement north of the Ohio River. In 1796, he was commissioned by President George Washington as Surveyor-General of United States Lands. In 1788, he served as a judge in the Northwest Territory's first court. In 1802, he served in the convention to form a constitution for the State of Ohio.[32][33][34]
Northwest Territory
Starting even before the war, and accelerating with the establishment of Fort Henry across the Ohio River in West Virginia, numerous settlers encroached on Indian lands west of the Ohio River in a broad arc from west of Fort Henry as far upriver as where Fort Steuben (today Steubenville) was later established. That there was continuous occupation of such lands is certain, though the location and continuity of any particular settlement, at least a few of which were referred to loosely as "towns" is very much in doubt. Most prominent among these were a series of squatters settlements with various names circa 1774 to 1795 in the area of what is today Martin's Ferry, directly across river from Fort Henry. European settlement of Ohio may fairly be said to have been in progression before establishment of the Northwest Territory and the first generally recognized town of Marietta.[35]
In 1787, the United States created the
Colonel Sproat, was a notable member of the pioneer settlement of Marietta. He greatly impressed the local Indians, who in admiration dubbed him "Hetuck", meaning "eye of the buck deer" "Big Buckeye".[43][44][45] Historians believe this is how Ohio came to be known as the Buckeye State and its residents as Buckeyes.[46]
The
American settlement of the Northwest Territory was resisted by Native Americans in the Northwest Indian War. Two years after the Revolution, the US had begun offering people subsidies to move into the Ohio and Tennessee River Valleys to establish farms and, in an attempt to facilitate this, tried to force the Natives to sign a treaty in 1785 [47] that would strip all of Ohio from them, excepting the Northwestern corner. Virtually all Native people's in the threatened territories joined forces and fought back. In Ohio, the Miami, Wyandot, Shawnee, Lenape, Seneca, Ottawa, Wabash, Illinois, Hochunk, Sauk and Fox nations joined under a Miami warrior who had been asked to fight as their War Chief, Little Turtle. They were eventually conquered by General Anthony Wayne at the Battle of Fallen Timbers in 1794. They ceded much of present-day Ohio to the United States by the Treaty of Greenville, concluded in 1795, which renegotiated to take even more land than the prior treaty. Oddly, though, most of the Natives stayed put, despite a handful of eviction attempts by the US military, leading to many communities establishing their own local boundaries between white and Native land, and later the formation of a few reservations in the western part of the state for the Shawnee, Lenape, Ottawa and Wyandot. The Lenape were pretty much all experimentally removed to Missouri around 1809, but when this went poorly, the government deigned not to remove any others, for the time being, other than most of the Shawnee over the Shawnee War. This was later undone after the Trail of Tears, which led the government into a scramble to convince all the remaining Natives in Ohio to relocate west peacefully. The last known full blood Wyandot to live in Ohio was Bill Moose (1836–1937). He gave a list of 12 individuals/families who remained behind removal. Draper Manuscripts also show that a few Shawnee, Mingo (mainly Seneca-Cayuga), and Lenape remained behind to. Also Mohawk and Brotherton (Narragansett) families as well.
Starting in the early 19th century, after the acquisition of the Louisiana Purchase, Congress began investing heavily in trying to convince Natives in the East to relocate west of the Mississippi. The Lenape were a test, and were removed in 1809, but when they complained that the natives of that region were being aggressive towards them and there wasn't enough to hunt and forage, the project was scrapped for several more decades.[48]
The U.S. Congress prohibited slavery in the territory. (Once the population grew and the territory achieved statehood, the citizens could have legalized slavery, but chose not to do so.) The states of the Midwest would be known as Free States, in contrast to those states south of the Ohio River. Migrants to the latter came chiefly from Virginia and other slave-holding states, and brought their culture and slaves with them.
As Northeastern states abolished slavery in the coming two generations, the free states would be known as Northern States. The Northwest Territory originally included areas previously called Ohio Country and Illinois Country. As Ohio prepared for statehood, Indiana Territory was carved out, reducing the Northwest Territory to approximately the size of present-day Ohio plus the eastern half of Michigan's lower peninsula and a sliver of land in southeastern Indiana along Ohio's western border called "The Gore".
Statehood
With Ohio's population reaching 45,000 in December 1801, Congress determined that the population was growing rapidly and Ohio could begin the path to statehood. The assumption was the territory would have in excess of the required 60,000 residents by the time it became a state. Congress passed the Enabling Act of 1802 that outlined the process for Ohio to seek statehood. The residents convened a constitutional convention. They used numerous provisions from other states and rejected slavery.
On February 19, 1803, President Jefferson signed the act of Congress that approved Ohio's boundaries and constitution. Congress did not pass a specific resolution formally admitting Ohio as the 17th state. The current custom of Congress' declaring an official date of statehood did not begin until 1812, when Louisiana was admitted as the 18th state.
Shawnee War and War of 1812
Starting around 1809, the Shawnee began to feel restless again. Under Chief Tecumseh, the Shawnee War officially began in Ohio in 1811. When the war of 1812 began, the English decided to attack from Canada into Ohio and merge their forces with the Shawnee. This continued until Tecumseh was killed at the Battle of the Thames in 1813. While most of the Shawnee fought, many stayed out of the conflict- particularly in the groups referred to as the Piqua and Makojay, due to the influence of a Chief Black Hoof.[49] As a result, Piqua and Makojay both remained in Ohio after the rest were removed to the Missouri-Arkansas-Texas area. The Piqua would later be removed during the Indian Removals following the Trail of Tears, however the Makojay vanished into thin air after Blackhoof's death.[50]
In 1812, the United Kingdom and the United States got into a dispute because the UK kept invading American ships, claiming random people to be English draft dodgers and taking them away to fight in the British Royal Navy in the Napoleonic Wars. In addition, British officials operating from Canada harbored and armed the Native Indians into attacking American settlers mainly in an effort to establish a pro-British Indian barrier state in U.S. territory south of the Great Lakes region. After several requests to stop these activities went unanswered, the US invaded Canada, laying siege to the cities of Montreal and Quebec, prompting a British military response
Ohio played a key role in the War of 1812, as it was on the front line in the Western theater and the scene of several notable battles both on land and in Lake Erie. On September 10, 1813, the Battle of Lake Erie, one of the major battles, took place in Lake Erie near Put-in-Bay, Ohio. The British eventually surrendered to Oliver Hazard Perry.
The outcome of the Shawnee War also caused the Red Stick War in Alabama in 1813. Tecumseh had approached several tribes for help beforehand, but all had ignored his pleas, despite support. The Red Sticks, a faction of Shawnee supporters among the Muscogee, or Creek Confederacy, broke loose and began attacking military installations in retaliation to his death. Other Muscogee Creeks who didn't support war took care of the problem themselves before it got out of hand.[51]
Indian Removals
Ultimately, after the United States government used the Indian Removal Act of 1830 to force countless Native American tribes on the Trail of Tears, where all the southern states except for Florida were successfully emptied of Native peoples, the US government panicked because a majority of tribes did not want to be forced out of their own lands. Fearing further wars between Native tribes and American settlers, they pushed all remaining Native tribes in the East to migrate west against their own will, including all remaining tribes in Ohio. It is said that Ohio may actually have been a part of the Trail of Tears, according to The Other Trail of Tears: The Removal of the Ohio Indians by Mary Stockwell.[52][53]
In 1838, the United States sent 7,000 soldiers to remove 16,000 Cherokee by force. Whites looted their homes. The largest Trail of Tears began, eventually taking 4,000 Indian lives. The Removal Act opened 25 million acres to white settlement and slavery. Upper Sandusky's traditionalist Wyandot go to Washington, D.C. to try to promote a separate removal agreement, but they are rejected. They return home, and their chief pulls a knife at a tribal council and lands in jail.[54] The final tribe to leave were the Wyandot in 1843.[55]
Industrialization
Throughout much of the 19th century, industry was rapidly introduced to complement an existing agricultural economy. One of the first iron manufacturing plants opened near Youngstown in 1804 called Hopewell Furnace. By the mid-19th century, 48 blast furnaces were operating in the state, most in the southern portions of the state.
Tobacco processing plants were founded in
By the late 19th century, Ohio had become a global industrial center.[60] Natural resources contributed to the industrial growth, including salt, iron ore, timber, limestone, coal, and natural gas, and the discovery of oil in northwestern Ohio led to the growth of the port of Toledo.[60] By 1908, the state had 9,581 miles of railroad linking coal mines, oil fields, and industries with the world.[60] Commercial enterprise began to prosper around towns with banks.[60]
Innovation
In 1955, Joseph McVicker tested a wallpaper cleaner in Cincinnati schools, eventually becoming known as the product
African American inventors based in Ohio achieved prominence. After witnessing a car and carriage crash,
Infrastructure
Ohio's economic growth was aided by their pursuit of infrastructure. By the late 1810s, the National Road crossed the Appalachian Mountains, connecting Ohio with the east coast. The Ohio River aided the agricultural economy by allowing farmers to move their goods by water to the southern states and the port of New Orleans. The construction of the Erie Canal in the 1820s allowed Ohio businesses to ship their goods through Lake Erie and to the east coast, which was followed by the completion of the Ohio and Erie Canal and the connection of Lake Erie with the Ohio River. This gave the state complete water access to the world within the borders of the United States. Other canals included Miami and Erie Canal.[57] The Welland Canal would eventually give the state alternative global routes through Canada.
The first railroad in Ohio was a 33-mile line completed in 1836 called the
The investment in infrastructure complemented Ohio's central location and put it at the heart of the nation's transportation system traveling north and south and east and west, and also gave the state a headstart during the national industrialization process which occurred between 1870 and 1920.[58]
Water ports sprang up along
Following the commercialization of air travel, Ohio became a key route for east to west transportation. The
The Interstate Highway System brought new travel routes to the state in the mid-20th century, further making Ohio a transportation hub.
Urbanization and commercialization
With the rapid increase of industrialization in the country in the late 19th century, Ohio's population swelled from 2.3 million in 1860 to 4.2 million by 1900. By 1920, nine Ohio cities had populations of 50,000 or more.[58]
The rapid urbanization brought about a growth of commercial industries in the state, including many financial and insurance institutions. The
Major retail operations emerged in the state, including
Education
Education has been an integral part of Ohio culture since its early days of statehood. In the beginning, mothers usually educated their children at home or paid for their children to attend smaller schools in villages and towns.[63] Early on, the US was interested in creating a national public schooling system, but the irony came to be that, in Ohio, the various religious groups who had settled here refused to allow one another any say in what their own children would be taught, causing the issue to be constantly put on hold. In 1821 the state passed a tax to finance local schools.[64] In 1822, Caleb Atwater lobbied the legislature and Governor Allen Trimble to establish a commission to study the possibility of initiating public, common schools. Atwater modeled his plan after the New York City public school system. After public opinion in 1824 forced the state to find a resolution to the education problem, the legislature established the common school system in 1825 and financed it with a half-million property levy.[63]
They ultimately chose to relax state authority over school curriculum and gave Ohio schools regional authority over the matter. It would remain as such until the 20th century, but has caused a fairly erratic, confusing and sometimes lacking schooling experience in some subjects, even if generally adequate to get by.
School districts formed, and by 1838 the first direct tax was levied allowing access to school for all.
Original universities and colleges in the state included the Ohio University, founded in Athens, in 1804, the first university in the old Northwest Territory and ninth-oldest in the United States. Miami University in Oxford, Ohio was founded in 1809, the University of Cincinnati in 1819, Kenyon College in Gambier in 1824, Western Reserve University in Cleveland in 1826, Capital University in Columbus in 1830, Xavier University in Cincinnati and Denison University in Granville in 1831, Oberlin College in 1833, Marietta College in 1835, the Ohio Wesleyan University in Delaware in 1842, and the University of Dayton in 1850. Wilberforce University was founded in 1856 and the University of Akron and Ohio State University followed in 1870, with the University of Toledo in 1872.
The
After 2000, Ohio State government began experimentally exerting more control over schools, as they attempted to help the state's education system evolve with the times. As of 2020, it largely seems to have done just as much harm as good and re-exposed a lot of the issues inherent in how Ohio schooling was originally organized, which they are now desperately trying to solve.[66][67]
In 2007, Governor Ted Strickland signed legislation organizing the University System of Ohio, the nation's largest comprehensive public system of higher education.
Social history
Religion
Rural Ohio in the 19th century was noted for its religious diversity, tolerance and pluralism, according to Smith (1991). With so many active denominations, no one dominated and, increasingly, tolerance became the norm. Germans from Pennsylvania and from Germany brought Lutheran and Reformed churches and numerous smaller sects such as the Amish. Yankees brought Presbyterians and Congregationalists. Revivals during the Second Great Awakening spurred the growth of Methodist, Baptist and Christian (Church of Christ) churches. The building of many denominational liberal arts colleges was a distinctive feature of the 19th century. By the 1840s German and Irish Catholics were moving into the cities, and after the 1880s Catholics from eastern and southern Europe arrived in the larger cities, mining camps, and small industrial centers. Jews and Eastern Orthodox settlements added to the pluralism, as did the building of black Baptists and Methodist churches in the cities.[68]
During the Progressive Era, Washington Gladden was a leader of the Social Gospel movement in Ohio. He was the editor of the influential national magazine the Independent after 1871, and as pastor of the First Congregational Church of Columbus, Ohio from 1882 to his death in 1918. Gladden crusaded for Prohibition, resolving conflicts between labor and capital; he often denounced racial violence and lynching.[69]
Ethnic groups
Early Ohio state culture was a product of Native American cultures, which were pushed away between 1795 and 1843. Many of Native American descent did remain, but had often converted to some form of Christianity, and/ or married into European descended families, so the cultures themselves did not last here. This was especially exasperated in the late 19th century, when racial violence against all sorts of people- including Native Americans- reached such a horrifying peak nationwide, that most such people went out of their ways to seem as white as possible.[70]
It was easier for people who were only part Native, as most Ohioans no longer knew what such people really looked like and their skin was fair enough that they could claim Italian, Hispanic or Greek descent and disappear into those communities. Still, Ohio does have plenty today who claim Iroquoian, Lenape, Chippewa, Shawnee, Cherokee (usually Shattara/ Shenandoah, not really Cherokee) or Blackfoot (Saponi-Tutelo and Manahoac) descent and are proud of it.
The northeastern part of Ohio was settled by
Other early pioneers came from the Mid-Atlantic states, especially
Ohio was largely agricultural before 1850, although gristmills and local forges were present. Clear-cut gender norms prevailed among the farm families who settled in the Midwestern region between 1800 and 1840. Men were the breadwinners and financial providers for their families, who considered the profitability of farming in a particular location – or "market-minded agrarianism". They had an almost exclusive voice regarding public matters, such as voting and handling the money. During the migration westward, women's diaries show little interest in and financial problems, but great concern with the threat of separation from family and friends. Furthermore, women experienced a physical toll because they were expected to have babies, supervise the domestic chores, care for the sick, and take control of the garden crops and poultry. Outside the German American community, women rarely did fieldwork on the farm. The women set up neighborhood social organizations, often revolving around church membership, or quilting parties. They exchanged information and tips on child-rearing, and helped each other in childbirth.[75]
Large numbers of
By the last half of the 19th century, the state became more diverse culturally with new immigrants from Europe, including Ireland and Germany. The
After 1880, the coal mines and steel plants attracted families from southern and eastern Europe. A large influx of people moving into Ohio from neighboring West Virginia and Kentucky also occurred. The sparsely populated regions of Appalachia had largely been stripped of resources by logging and mining companies, leaving little and few prospects for the locals. Steel and rubber manufacturers were even known to scout these regions for new workers and invested in infrastructure and the building of new suburbs to lure them in. Places like Akron, OH were almost single-handedly built this way, as the modern city was only a small town prior to the early-mid 20th century.
By 1901, the Midwest (Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, Michigan, and Ohio) had absorbed 5.8 million foreign immigrants and another million by 1912.[80]
Immigration was cut off by the World War in 1914, allowing the ethnic communities to Americanize, grow much more prosperous, served in the military, and abandon possible plans to return to the old country.[81] Flows were very low between 1925 and 1965, then began to increase again, this time with many arrivals from Asia and Mexico.
Since then, there were larger influxes from the Jewish community, following World War II and a spike in the numbers of Middle Easterners following successive conflicts in the region during the late 20th and early 21st centuries. Ohio has also become a common destination for foreign college students worldwide, with many choosing to remain in the state after.
Popular culture
Industrialization brought a shift culturally as urbanization and an emerging middle class changed society. Athletics became increasingly popular as the first professional baseball team, the
The
Perhaps the biggest invention in Ohio and the US was the invention of flight by Dayton's
Depression years
During the 1930s, the
Artists, writers, musicians and actors developed in the state and often moved to other cities which were larger centers for their work. They included
The NFL was originally founded in Ohio and the state has since given us many famous stars across various sports. Other famous individuals- native Ohioans and those who were just later associated with the state- include Annie Oakley, Clarence Darrow, Thomas Edison, Neil Armstrong and less beloved figures, like President William McKinley and General George Custer.
Civil War
During the Civil War (1861–65) Ohio played a key role in providing troops, military officers, and supplies to the
The third most populous state in the Union at the time, Ohio raised nearly 320,000 soldiers for the Union army, third behind only New York and Pennsylvania. Nearly 7,000 Buckeye soldiers were killed in action.
Only two minor battles were fought within its borders. Morgan's Raid in the summer of 1863 alarmed the populace.[89] Ohio troops fought in nearly every major campaign during the war.
Prison camps
Its most significant Civil War site is Johnson's Island, located in Sandusky Bay of Lake Erie. Barracks and outbuildings were constructed for a prisoner of war depot, intended chiefly for officers. Over three years more than 15,000 Confederate soldiers were held there. The island includes a Confederate cemetery where about 300 soldiers were buried.[90]
Camp Chase Prison was a Union Army prison in Columbus. There was a plot among prisoners to revolt and escape in 1863. The prisoners expected support from Copperheads and Vallandigham, but never did revolt.[91]
Veterans
Ohio has been involved in regional, national, and global wars since statehood, and veterans have been a powerful social and political force at the local and state levels. The organization of Civil War veterans, the
In 1886, the state authorized the creation of the Ohio Veterans Home in Sandusky and a second one created in 2003 in Georgetown to provide for soldiers facing economic hardship. Over 50,000 veterans have lived at the Sandusky location as of 2005.[93] Since World War I, the state has paid stipends to veterans of wars, including in 2009, authorizing funds for soldiers of the Gulf and Afghanistan wars.[94] The state also provides free in-state tuition to any veteran regardless of state origin at their colleges.[95]
Ohio politics
Rebellion of 1820
In 1820, the legislature then passed legislation which nullified the federal court order as well as the operations of the
Although the nullification of 1820 in Ohio was inspired by resolutions passed in Virginia and Kentucky in 1798 and 1800, the language of their resolution from 1820 would find its place in South Carolina's nullification of 1832 and secession articles of southern states in 1861.[99][100]
Sovereignty
The rebellion of 1820 firmly rooted the tradition of sovereignty in the state. In 1859, Governor
As recently as 2009, the tradition re-emerged, with an Ohio sovereignty resolution[103] passing in the state senate,[104] and signatures being collected to place a state sovereignty amendment on the ballot in 2011.[105]
Anti-slavery
Ohio's roots as an anti-slavery and abolitionist state go back to its territorial days in the Northwest Territory, which forbade the practice. When it became a state, the constitution expressly outlawed slavery.[106] Many Ohioans were members of anti-slavery organizations, including the American Anti-Slavery Society and American Colonization Society.[107] Ohioan Charles Osborn published the first abolitionist newspaper in the country, The Philanthropist, and in 1821, the father of abolition Benjamin Lundy began publishing his newspaper the Genius of Universal Emancipation.[107]
Ohio was a key stop on the Underground Railroad where prominent abolitionists played a role, including John Rankin. Ohio resident Harriet Beecher Stowe wrote the famous book Uncle Tom's Cabin, which was largely influential in shaping the opinion of the north against slavery.
Ohio in national politics
As a closely contested state, Ohio was the top choice of Republicans, and often also as Democrats, for place on the national ticket as candidate for president or vice president.
Between Lincoln and Hoover, every Republican president who did not gain the office by the death of his predecessor was born in Ohio; Ulysses Grant, although born in Ohio, was legally a residence of Illinois when he was elected.[108]
By electing so many of her sons to the presidency, Ohio gained a role in politics disproportionate to its size. Several reasons came together. Ohio was a microcosm of the United States, balanced closely between the parties, and at the crossroads of America: between the South, the Northeast, and the developing West, and influenced by each. Its ethnic, religious, and cultural elements were a microcosm of the North. Its cutthroat politics trained candidates in how to win. A leading Ohio politician was "Available"—that is, well-suited and electable. Thus, in most presidential years, the governor of Ohio was deemed more available than the governor of the larger states of New York or Pennsylvania.[109]
This legend built on itself as the state sent seven men to the White House and four more became vice president. Many others won major patronage plums. Between 1868 and 1924, not only did Ohio supply the most presidents, it supplied the most Cabinet members, and the most federal officeholders. Ohio-born Rutherford B. Hayes (1876), James A. Garfield (1880) and Benjamin Harrison (1888) were each nominated from a convention that had deadlocked, and where the delegates chose to turn to a candidate who could carry Ohio. In each case they did, and won the presidency. According to historian Andrew Sinclair, "the potency of the Ohio myth gave its favorite sons a huge advantage in a deadlocked convention".[110]
Progressive era
The Progressive Era brought about change in the state, although the state had been at the forefront of the movement decades before. In 1852, Ohio passed its first child labor laws, and in 1885 adopted prosecution powers for violations.[111] In 1886, the American Federation of Labor was formed in Columbus, culminating in the passage of workers' compensation laws by the early 20th century.[112]
Women's rights
The Anti-Saloon League was founded in 1893 in Oberlin, which saw political success with the passage of the Volstead Act in 1918.
Early through mid-20th century
Progressive movement
Ohio was active in the Progressive movement in the early 20th century. It was notable for the high level of municipal activism. The key leaders included Samuel "Golden Rule" Jones in Toledo, Tom L. Johnson in Cleveland, Washington Gladden in Columbus, and James M. Cox in Cincinnati. They combined a commitment to popular rule to neutralize machine bosses, opposition to monopolistic trusts and railroads, and a quest to reduce waste and inefficiency.[114][115]
Constitutional Convention of 1912
In 1912 a Constitutional Convention was held with
Ku Klux Klan
In the early 1920s the Ku Klux Klan attracted tens of thousands of Protestants into membership. Its organizers warned of the need to purify America, especially against the influence of Catholics, bootleggers, and corrupt politicians. There were no dues but there was a large membership fee and expensive white constumes. The chapters were set up for the financial benefit of the organizers, and once it was set up, they moved on leaving the chapter without an agenda or money. It typically accomplished very little.[117] The Klan collapsed and virtually disappeared after 1925.[118]
Great Depression
Ohio was hit very hard by the Great Depression in the 1930s. In 1932, unemployment for the state reached 37.3%. By 1933, 40% of factory workers and 67% of construction labor were unemployed.[119] The voters supported Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1932, 1936, and 1940, with large margins in the cities. Roosevelt's New Deal had provided hundreds of thousands of jobs for the unemployed and their sons. By 1944 the depression was gone, relief had ended and Republican Governor John W. Bricker was running for vice-president. Roosevelt lost the state but still won reelection.[120]
World War II
Ohio played a major role in World War II, especially in providing manpower, food, and munitions to the Allied cause. Ohio manufactured 8.4 percent of total United States military armaments produced during World War II, ranking fourth among the 48 states.[121]
Cold War
Ohio became heavily anti-Communist during the
Ohio became an industrial magnet in the 1950s. By 1960, 10% of the population had been born in nearby Kentucky, West Virginia or Tennessee.[124]
Ohio was an important state in the developing ties between the United States and the People's Republic of China in the late 1970s and early 1980s.[125]: 59 Relations between the two countries normalized in 1979, during the second term of Ohio governor Jim Rhodes.[125]: 112 Rhodes sought to encourage U.S.-China economic ties, viewing China as a potential market for Ohio machinery exports for companies like Timken Company and Parker Hannifin.[125]: 112 In July 1979, Rhodes led State of Ohio Trade Mission to China.[125]: 112 The trip resulted in developing economic ties, a sister state-province relationship with Hubei province, long-running Chinese exhibitions at the Ohio State Fair, and major academic exchanges between Ohio State University and Wuhan University.[125]: 113
Un-American activities
The
Late 20th century to present
Ohioans have supported movie making. Five Academy Award-winning films of the late 20th century were partly produced in the state, including The Deer Hunter, Rain Man, Silence of the Lambs, Terms of Endearment, and Traffic.
In the 21st century, Ohio remains connected to the regional, national, and global economies. According to U.S. Census Bureau statistics, the foreign-born share of Ohio's population increased from 2.4% in 1990, to 3.0% in 2000, to 4.1% in 2013.[130] As of 2015, 49.7% of immigrants to Ohio had become naturalized U.S. citizens.[130] Immigrants have substantial economic importance to Ohio, as taxpayers, entrepreneurs, consumers, and workers.[130][131] A 2016 study on immigrants in Ohio concluded that immigrants make up 6.7% of all entrepreneurs in Ohio although they are just 4.2% of Ohio's population, and that these immigrant-owned businesses generated almost $532 million in 2014. The study also showed that "immigrants in Ohio earned $15.6 billion in 2014 and contributed $4.4 billion in local, state and federal taxes that year".[131]
In 2015, Ohio
Ohio had become nicknamed the "fuel cell corridor"[133] in being a contributing anchor for the region now called the "Green Belt", in reference to the growing renewable energy sector.[134] Although the state experienced heavy manufacturing losses around the start of the 20th century and suffered from the Great Recession, it was rebounding by the second decade in being the country's 6th-fastest-growing economy through the first half of 2010.[135] Politically the state has demonstrated its importance in modern presidential elections, signed international cooperation treaties with foreign provinces and northern American states, has become involved in heated national disputes with southern American states, while producing national leadership. Its athletic teams are among some of the nation's best, and culturally the state continues to produce notable artists while building institutions enshrining its past. Educationally the schools are among the nation's top performers, and militarily Ohio's legacy continues into the present era.
Ohio's transition into the 21st century is symbolized by the Third Frontier program, spearheaded by Governor Bob Taft around the start of the 20th century. This built on the agricultural and industrial pillars of the economy, the first and second frontiers, by aiding the growth of advanced technology industries, the third frontier.[136] It has been widely hailed as one of the nation's most successful government bureaucracies,[137] attracting 637 new high-tech companies to the state and 55,000 new jobs, with an average of salary of $65,000,[138] while having a $6.6 billion economic impact with an investment return ratio of 9:1.[138] In 2010 the state won the International Economic Development Council's Excellence in Economic Development Award, celebrated as a national model of success.[citation needed]
The state's cities have become hubs of modern industry, including
In both the
Beginning in the 1980s, the state entered into international economic and resource cooperation treaties and organizations with other
Ohio sports teams are among the nation's best, with a strong fan base that promotes local and regional pride.
In 1995 the
Overall, in 2010 the state's schools were ranked 5th in the country by Education Week.[149]
Militarily, Ohio's legacy continues into the modern era. It has contributed over 200,000 soldiers to the Gulf, Afghanistan, and Iraq wars.[150]
See also
- Historical outline of Ohio
- History of the Midwestern United States
- Ohio Lands
- Women's suffrage in Ohio
City histories
City timelines
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Bibliography
Surveys and textbooks
- Cayton. Andrew R. L. Ohio: The History of a People (2002)
- Kern, Kevin F., and Gregory S. Wilson. Ohio: A History of the Buckeye State (Wiley-Blackwell, 2013), 544pp
- Knepper, George W. Ohio and Its People. Kent State University Press, 3rd edition 2003, ISBN 0-87338-791-0
- Murdock, Eugene C. and Jeffrey Darbee. Ohio: The Buckeye State, An Illustrated History (2007). popular
- Roseboom, Eugene H.; Weisenburger, Francis P. A History of Ohio. (The Ohio Historical Society, 1967). a standard scholarly history
- Wittke, Carl, ed. History of Ohio 5 vol online
- Bond, Beverley W. Jr.; The Foundations of Ohio. Volume 1. 1941. detailed history to 1802. online
- Jordan, Philip D. Ohio Comes of Age: 1873–1900 Volume 5 (1968) online
- Roseboom, Eugene. The Civil War Era, 1850–1873, Volume 4 (1944) online
- Utter, William T. The Frontier State 1803–1825, Volume 2 online
- Weisenburger, Francis P. The Passing of the Frontier, Volume 3 (1941), detailed history of the 1830s and 1840s online
- "Timeline of Ohio"[1]
Specialized studies
- Blue, Frederick J. Salmon P. Chase: A Life in Politics (1987)
- Booth, Stephane Elise. Buckeye Women: The History of Ohio's Daughters (2001) [ online review]
- Buley, R. Carlyle. The Old Northwest (1950), Pulitzer Prize winner
- Booraem V. Hendrick. The Road to Respectability: James A. Garfield and His World, 1844–1852 Bucknell University Press (1988)
- Carr, Carolyn Kinder, ed. (1980). Ohio: A Photographic Portrait, 1935-1941. Akron, OH: Akron Art Institute. ISBN 9780873382441.
- Coffey, by Daniel J. Buckeye Battleground: Ohio, Campaigns, and Elections in the Twenty-First Century (University of Akron Press; 2011) 210 pages; studies the politics of five distinct regions in the state, esp. the 2004 and 2008 presidential elections and the 2006 gubernatorial campaign.
- Curtin, Michael, and Joe Hallett. The Ohio Politics Almanac (3rd ed. 2015) 609pp; with lots of history
- Hurt, R. Douglas. The Ohio Frontier: Crucible of the Old Northwest, 1720–1830. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1996. ISBN 0-253-21212-X(1998 paperback).
- Jensen, Richard. The Winning of the Midwest: Social and Political Conflict, 1888–1896 (1971)
- Kondik, Kyle. The Bellwether: Why Ohio Picks the President (Ohio University Press, 2016)
- Lamis, Alexander, and Brian Usher. Ohio Politics (2007) 544pp.
- Maizlish, Stephen E. The Triumph of Sectionalism: The Transformation of Ohio Politics, 1844–1856 (1983)
- Miller, Richard F. States at War, Volume 5: A Reference Guide for Ohio in the Civil War (2015).
- O'Donnell, James H. Ohio's First Peoples. Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press, 2004. ISBN 0-8214-1524-7
- Parker, Geoffrey Parker, Richard Sisson, and William Coil, eds. Ohio and the World, 1753–2053: Essays Toward a New History of Ohio (2005)
- Ratcliffe, Donald J. The Politics of Long Division: The Birth of the Second Party System in Ohio, 1818–1828. Ohio State U. Press, 2000.
- Rodabaugh, James H. "The Negro in Ohio", Journal of Negro History, Vol. 31, No. 1 (Jan., 1946), pp. 9–29 in JSTOR
- Sisson, Richard, ed. The American Midwest: An Interpretive Encyclopedia (2006)
- Teaford, Jon C. Cities of the Heartland: The Rise and Fall of the Industrial Midwest (Indiana University Press, 1993). online
- Trefousse, Hans. Benjamin Franklin Wade, Radical Republican from Ohio (Twayne, 1963).
- Warner, Hoyt L. Progressivism in Ohio, 1897-1917 (Ohio State University Press, 1964). online
Local history
- Hardy, Irene (March 20, 1980). An Ohio Schoolmistress: The Memoirs of Irene Hardy. Kent, OH: Kent State University Press. ISBN 9780873382427.
- Profiles of Ohio: History, Statistics, Demographics for All 1,339 Populated Places in Ohio, With Detailed State and Government Histories, Plus Comparative Statistics & Rankings. (6th ed. Grey House Publishing, 2021). 828pp ISBN 1642658278; covers 88 counties, 248 cities and 689 villages.
- Sealander, Judith. Grand Plans: Business Progressivism and Social Change in Ohio's Miami Valley, 1890-1929 (1988) excerpt; on region surrounding Dayton
- Van Tassel, David D., and John J. Grabowski, eds. The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History (1987), also online
- Van Tassel, David D., and John J. Grabowski, eds. Cleveland: A Tradition of Reform (1986)
- Wheeler, Kenneth H. "Local Autonomy and Civil War Draft Resistance: Holmes County, Ohio" Civil War History, Vol. 45, 1999
Primary sources
- Johnson, Tom L. My Story Kent State University Press, 1993
- Shriver Jr., Phillip R., and Clarence E. Wunderlin. eds. Documentary Heritage Of Ohio (2001)
- Smith, Thomas H. ed. An Ohio Reader: 1750 to the Civil War (1975) and An Ohio Reader: Reconstruction to the Present (1975), dozens of well-selected short excerpts from primary sources
External links
- Ohio Historical Society
- Ohio History Central – an online encyclopedia by the Ohio Historical Society
- Ohio in The Civil War
- Ohio: A Sentimental Journey, WBGU-PBS collaborative documentary
- Ohio State Information – Symbols, Capital, Constitution, Flags, Maps, Songs
- ISBN 9781603540346– via Google Books