History of Poland during the Jagiellonian dynasty
Poland during Jagiellonian dynasty | |||
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1385–1572 | |||
Monarch(s) |
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Chronology
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History of Poland |
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The rule of the
In the
In the Jagiellonian period,
The 16th century saw
Late Middle Ages (14th–15th century)
Jagiellonian monarchy
In 1385, the
Vast expanses of
The intention of the union was to create a common state under Władysław Jagiełło, but the ruling oligarchy of Poland learned that their goal of incorporating Lithuania into Poland was unrealistic. Territorial disputes led to warfare between Poland and Lithuania or Lithuanian factions; the Lithuanians at times even found it expedient to conspire with the Teutonic Knights against the Poles.[7] Geographic consequences of the dynastic union and the preferences of the Jagiellonian kings instead created a process of orientating Polish territorial priorities to the east.[4]
Between 1386 and 1572, the Polish–Lithuanian union was ruled by a succession of constitutional monarchs of the Jagiellonian dynasty. The political influence of the Jagiellonian kings gradually diminished during this period, while the landed nobility took over an ever-increasing role in central government and national affairs.[a] The royal dynasty, however, had a stabilizing effect on Poland's politics. The Jagiellonian Era is often regarded as a period of maximum political power, great prosperity, and in its later stage, a Golden Age of Polish culture.[4]
Social and economic developments
The feudal rent system prevalent in the 13th and 14th centuries, under which each
Poland and Lithuania in personal union under Jagiełło
The first king of the new dynasty was Jogaila, the Grand Duke of Lithuania, who was known as
Struggle with the Teutonic Knights
The
The Hussite movement and the Polish–Hungarian union
During the
The Jagiellonian dynasty was not entitled to automatic hereditary succession, rather each new king had to be approved by nobility consensus. Władysław Jagiełło had two sons late in life from his last wife Sophia of Halshany. In 1430, the nobility agreed to the succession of the future Władysław III only after the king consented to a series of concessions. In 1434, the old monarch died and his minor son Władysław was crowned; the Royal Council led by Bishop Oleśnicki undertook the regency duties.[14]
In 1438, the Czech anti-Habsburg opposition, mainly Hussite factions, offered the Czech crown to Jagiełło's younger son Casimir. The idea, accepted in Poland over Oleśnicki's objections, resulted in two unsuccessful Polish military expeditions to Bohemia.[14]
After Vytautas' death in 1430, Lithuania became embroiled in internal wars and conflicts with Poland. Casimir, sent as a boy by King Władysław on a mission there in 1440, was surprisingly proclaimed by the Lithuanians as their Grand Duke, and he remained in Lithuania.[14]
Oleśnicki gained the upper hand again and pursued his long-term objective of Poland's union with Hungary. At that time, the Ottoman Empire embarked on a fresh round of European conquests and threatened Hungary, which needed the assistance of the powerful Polish–Lithuanian ally. In 1440, Władysław III assumed the Hungarian throne. Influenced by Julian Cesarini, the young king led the Hungarian army against the Ottomans in 1443 and again in 1444. Like Cesarini, Władysław III was killed at the Battle of Varna.[14]
Beginning near the end of Jagiełło's life, Poland was governed in practice by an oligarchy of magnates led by Bishop Oleśnicki. The rule of the dignitaries was actively opposed by various groups of szlachta. Their leader Spytek of Melsztyn was killed at the Battle of Grotniki in 1439, which allowed Oleśnicki to purge Poland of the remaining Hussite sympathizers and pursue his other objectives without significant opposition.[14]
The accession of Casimir IV Jagiellon
In 1445,
War with the Teutonic Order and its resolution
In 1454, the
Other territories recovered by the Polish Crown in the 15th-century include the
Turkish and Tatar wars
The influence of the
Poland was attacked in 1487–1491 by remnants of the
Invasions into Poland and Lithuania from the Crimean Khanate took place in 1502 and 1506 during the reign of King Alexander. In 1506, the Tatars were defeated at the Battle of Kletsk by Michael Glinski.[21]
Moscow's threat to Lithuania; accession of Sigismund I
Lithuania was increasingly threatened by the growing power of the
Culture in the Late Middle Ages
The culture of the 15th century Poland can be described as retaining typical medieval characteristics. Nonetheless, the crafts and industries in existence already in the preceding centuries became more highly developed under favorable social and economic conditions, and their products were much more widely disseminated. Paper production was one of the new industries that appeared, and printing developed during the last quarter of the century. In 1473, Kasper Straube produced the first Latin print in Kraków, whereas Kasper Elyan printed Polish texts for the first time in Wrocław (Breslau) in 1475. The world's oldest prints in Cyrillic script, namely religious texts in Old Church Slavonic, appeared after 1490 from the press of Schweipolt Fiol in Krakow.[23][24]
Luxury items were in high demand among the increasingly prosperous nobility, and to a lesser degree among the wealthy town merchants. Brick and stone residential buildings became common, but only in cities. The mature
John of Ludzisko and Archbishop
Early Modern Era (16th century)
Agriculture-based economic expansion
The
Mining and metallurgy developed further during the 16th century, and technical progress took place in various commercial applications. Great quantities of exported agricultural and forest products floated down the rivers to be transported through ports and land routes. This resulted in a positive trade balance for Poland throughout the 16th century. Imports from the West included industrial products, luxury products and fabrics.[26]
Most of the exported grain left Poland through Gdańsk (Danzig), which became the wealthiest, most highly developed, and most autonomous of the Polish cities because of its location at the mouth of the Vistula River and access to the Baltic Sea. It was also by far the largest center for manufacturing. Other towns were negatively affected by Gdańsk's near-monopoly in foreign trade, but profitably participated in transit and export activities. The largest of those were Kraków (Cracow), Poznań, Lwów (Lviv), and Warszawa (Warsaw), and outside of the Crown, Breslau (Wrocław). Thorn (Toruń) and Elbing (Elbląg) were the main cities in Royal Prussia after Gdańsk.[26][27]
Burghers and nobles
During the 16th century, prosperous
The nobility (or
16th-century Poland was officially a "republic of nobles", and the "middle class" of the nobility (individuals at a lower social level than "magnates") formed the leading component during the later Jagiellonian period and afterwards. Nonetheless, members of the magnate families held the highest state and church offices. At that time, the szlachta in Poland and Lithuania was ethnically diversified and represented several religious denominations. During this period of tolerance, such factors had little bearing on one's economic status or career potential. Jealous of their class privilege ("freedoms"), the Renaissance szlachta developed a sense of public service duties, educated their youth, took keen interest in current trends and affairs and traveled widely. The Golden Age of Polish Culture adopted western humanism and Renaissance patterns, and visiting foreigners often remarked on the splendor of their residencies and the conspicuous consumption of wealthy Polish nobles.[28]
Reformation
In a situation analogous with that of other European countries, the progressive internal decay of the
The teachings of Martin Luther were accepted most readily in the regions with strong German connections: Silesia, Greater Poland, Pomerania and Prussia. In Gdańsk (Danzig) in 1525 a lower-class Lutheran social uprising took place and was bloodily subdued by Sigismund I; after the reckoning he established a representation for the plebeian interests as a segment of the city government. Königsberg and the Duchy of Prussia under Albrecht Hohenzollern became a strong center of Protestant propaganda dissemination affecting all of northern Poland and Lithuania. Sigismund quickly reacted against the "religious novelties", issuing his first related edict in 1520, banning any promotion of the Lutheran ideology, or even foreign trips to the Lutheran centers. Such attempted (poorly enforced) prohibitions continued until 1543.[29]
Sigismund's son
In Royal Prussia, 41% of the parishes were counted as Lutheran in the second half of the 16th century, but that percentage kept increasing. According to Kasper Cichocki, who wrote in the early 17th century, only remnants of Catholicism were left there in his time. Lutheranism was strongly dominant in Royal Prussia throughout the 17th century, with the exception of Warmia (Ermland).[30]
Around 1570, of the at least 700 Protestant congregations in Poland–Lithuania, over 420 were Calvinist and over 140 Lutheran, with the latter including 30-40 ethnically Polish. Protestants encompassed approximately ½ of the magnate class, ¼ of other nobility and townspeople, and 1/20 of the non-Orthodox peasantry. The bulk of the Polish-speaking population had remained Catholic, but the proportion of Catholics became significantly diminished within the upper social ranks.[30]
Calvinism gained many followers in the mid 16th century among both the szlachta and the magnates, especially in
Among the Calvinists, who also included the lower classes and their leaders, ministers of common background, disagreements soon developed, based on different views in the areas of religious and social doctrines. The official split took place in 1562, when two separate churches were officially established: the mainstream Calvinist and the smaller, more reformist, Polish Brethren or Arians. The adherents of the radical wing of the Polish Brethren promoted, often by way of personal example, the ideas of social justice. Many Arians (such as Piotr of Goniądz and Jan Niemojewski) were pacifists opposed to private property, serfdom, state authority and military service; through communal living some had implemented the ideas of shared usage of the land and other property. A major Polish Brethren congregation and center of activities was established in 1569 in Raków near Kielce, and lasted until 1638, when Counter-Reformation had it closed.[32] The notable Sandomierz Agreement of 1570, an act of compromise and cooperation among several Polish Protestant denominations, excluded the Arians, whose more moderate, larger faction toward the end of the century gained the upper hand within the movement.[29]
The act of the
Culture of Polish Renaissance
Golden Age of Polish culture
The Polish "Golden Age", the period of the reigns of Sigismund I and Sigismund II, the last two Jagiellonian kings, or more generally the 16th century, is most often identified with the rise of the culture of
Literacy, education and patronage of intellectual endeavors
Beginning in 1473 in Cracow (Kraków), the printing business kept growing. By the turn of the 16th/17th century there were about 20 printing houses within the Commonwealth, 8 in Cracow, the rest mostly in Gdańsk (Danzig), Thorn (Toruń) and Zamość. The Academy of Kraków and Sigismund II possessed well-stocked libraries; smaller collections were increasingly common at noble courts, schools and townspeople's households. Illiteracy levels were falling, as by the end of the 16th century almost every parish ran a school.[35]
The
The university itself experienced a period of prominence at the turn of the 15th/16th century, when especially the mathematics, astronomy and geography faculties attracted numerous students from abroad.
Science
Polish science reached its culmination in the first half of the 16th century, in which the medieval point of view was criticized and more rational explanations were formulated. Copernicus' De revolutionibus orbium coelestium, published in Nuremberg in 1543, shook up the traditional value system extended into an understanding of the physical universe, doing away with its Christianity-adopted Ptolemaic anthropocentric model and setting free the explosion of scientific inquiry. Generally the prominent scientists of the period resided in many different regions of the country, and increasingly, the majority were of urban, rather than noble origin.[36]
Josephus Struthius became famous as a physician and medical researcher. Bernard Wapowski was a pioneer of Polish cartography. Maciej Miechowita, a rector at the Cracow Academy, published in 1517 Tractatus de duabus Sarmatiis, a treatise on the geography of the East, an area in which Polish investigators provided first-hand expertise for the rest of Europe.[36]
Historian Marcin Kromer wrote De origine et rebus gestis Polonorum (On the origin and deeds of Poles) in 1555 and in 1577 Polonia, a treatise highly regarded in Europe. Marcin Bielski's Chronicle of the Whole World, a universal history, was written ca. 1550. The chronicle of Maciej Stryjkowski (1582) covered the history of Eastern Europe.[36]
Literature
Modern Polish literature begins in the 16th century. At that time the Polish language, common to all educated groups, matured and penetrated all areas of public life, including municipal institutions, the legal code, the Church, and other official uses, coexisting for a while with Latin. Klemens Janicki, one of the Renaissance Latin language poets and a laureate of a papal distinction, was of peasant origin. Another plebeian author, Biernat of Lublin, wrote his own version of Aesop's fables in Polish, permeated with his socially radical views.[38]
A Literary Polish language breakthrough came under the influence of the
The poet Mikołaj Sęp Szarzyński, an intellectually refined master of small forms, bridges the late Renaissance and early Baroque artistic periods.[38]
Music
Following the European and Italian in particular musical trends, the
Architecture, sculpture and painting
Architecture, sculpture and painting developed also under Italian influence from the beginning of the 16th century. A number of professionals from
Between 1580 and 1600 Jan Zamoyski commissioned the Venetian architect Bernardo Morando to build the city of Zamość. The town and its fortifications were designed to consistently implement the Renaissance and Mannerism aesthetic paradigms.[41]
Tombstone sculpture, often inside churches, is richly represented on graves of clergy and lay dignitaries and other wealthy individuals.
Painted illuminations in Balthasar Behem Codex are of exceptional quality, but draw their inspiration largely from Gothic art. Stanisław Samostrzelnik, a monk in the Cistercian monastery in Mogiła near Kraków, painted miniatures and polychromed wall frescos.[41]
Republic of middle nobility; execution movement
The Polish political system in the 16th century was contested terrain as the middle gentry (szlachta) sought power. Kings Sigismund I the Old and Sigismund II Augustus manipulated political institutions to block the gentry. The kings used their appointment power and influence on the elections to the Sejm. They issued propaganda upholding the royal position and provided financing to favoured leaders of the gentry. Seldom did the kings resort to repression or violence. Compromises were reached so that in the second half of the 16th century—for the only time in Polish history—the "democracy of the gentry" was implemented.[42]
During the reign of Sigismund I, szlachta in the lower chamber of
After the
In 1518 Sigismund I married
The opposition middle szlachta movement came up with a constructive reform program during the Kraków sejm of 1538/1539. Among the movement's demands were termination of the kings' practice of alienation of royal domain, giving or selling land estates to great lords at the monarch' discretion, and a ban on concurrent holding of multiple state offices by the same person, both legislated initially in 1504.[45] Sigismund I's unwillingness to move toward the implementation of the reformers' goals negatively affected the country's financial and defensive capabilities.[44]
The relationship with szlachta had only gotten worse during the early years of the reign of Sigismund II Augustus and remained bad until 1562. Sigismund Augustus' secret marriage with Barbara Radziwiłł in 1547, before his accession to the throne, was strongly opposed by his mother Bona and by the magnates of the Crown. Sigismund, who took over the reign after his father's death in 1548, overcame the resistance and had Barbara crowned in 1550; a few months later the new queen died. Bona, estranged from her son returned to Italy in 1556, where she died soon afterwards.[44]
The
Mikołaj Sienicki, a Protestant activist, was a parliamentary leader of the execution movement and one of the organizers of the Warsaw Confederation.[44]
Resources and strategic objectives
Despite the favorable economic development, the military potential of 16th century Poland was modest in relation to the challenges and threats coming from several directions, which included the
Prussia; struggle for Baltic area domination
The
In reality the House of Hohenzollern, of which Albrecht was a member, the ruling family of the Margraviate of Brandenburg, had been actively expanding its territorial influence; for example already in the 16th century in Farther Pomerania and Silesia. Motivated by a current political expediency, Sigismund Augustus in 1563 allowed the Brandenburg elector branch of the Hohenzollerns, excluded under the 1525 agreement,[49] to inherit the Prussian fief rule. The decision, confirmed by the 1569 sejm, made the future union of Prussia with Brandenburg possible. Sigismind II, unlike his successors, was however careful to assert his supremacy. The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, ruled after 1572 by elective kings, was even less able to counteract the growing importance of the dynastically active Hohenzollerns.[48]
In 1568 Sigismund Augustus, who had already embarked on a war fleet enlargement program, established the Maritime Commission. A conflict with the City of Gdańsk (Danzig), which felt that its monopolistic trade position was threatened, ensued. In 1569 Royal Prussia had its legal autonomy largely taken away, and in 1570 Poland's supremacy over Danzig and the Polish King's authority over the Baltic shipping trade were regulated and received statutory recognition (Karnkowski's Statutes).[50]
Wars with Moscow
In the 16th century the
Under
The Jagiellons and the Habsburgs; Ottoman Empire expansion
In 1515, during a
The Jagiellon rivalry with the House of Habsburg in central Europe was ultimately resolved to the Habsburgs' advantage. The decisive factor that damaged or weakened the monarchies of the last Jagiellons was the Ottoman Empire's Turkish expansion. Hungary's vulnerability greatly increased after Suleiman the Magnificent took the Belgrade fortress in 1521. To prevent Poland from extending military aid to Hungary, Suleiman had a Tatar-Turkish force raid southeastern Poland–Lithuania in 1524. The Hungarian army was defeated in 1526 at the Battle of Mohács, where the young Louis II Jagiellon, son of Vladislas II, was killed. Subsequently, after a period of internal strife and external intervention, Hungary was partitioned between the Habsburgs and the Ottomans.[53]
The 1526 death of
From the early 16th century the
Livonia; struggle for Baltic area domination
In the 16th century the Grand Duchy of Lithuania became increasingly interested in extending its territorial rule to Livonia, especially to gain control of Baltic seaports, such as Riga, and for other economic benefits. Livonia was by the 1550s largely Lutheran,[55] traditionally ruled by the Brothers of the Sword knightly order. This put Poland and Lithuania on a collision course with Moscow and other regional powers, which had also attempted expansion in that area.[56]
Soon after the Treaty of Kraków of 1525, Albrecht (Albert) of Hohenzollern planned a Polish–Lithuanian fief in Livonia, seeking a dominant position for his brother Wilhelm, the Archbishop of Riga. What happened instead was the establishment of a Livonian pro-Polish–Lithuanian party or faction. Internal fighting in Livonia took place when the Grand Master of the Brothers concluded a treaty with Moscow in 1554, declaring his state's neutrality regarding the Russian–Lithuanian conflict. Supported by Albrecht and the magnates, Sigismund II declared a war on the Order. Grand Master Wilhelm von Fürstenberg accepted the Polish–Lithuanian conditions without a fight, and according to the 1557 Treaty of Pozvol, a military alliance obliged the Livonian state to support Lithuania against Moscow.[56]
Other powers aspiring to the Livonian Baltic access responded by partitioning the
The Baltic region policies of the last Jagiellon king and his advisors were the most mature of 16th-century Poland's strategic programs. The outcome of the efforts in that area was to a considerable extent successful for the Commonwealth. The wars concluded during the reign of King Stephen Báthory.[56]
Poland and Lithuania in real union under Sigismund II
Sigismund II's childlessness added urgency to the idea of turning the personal union between Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania into a more permanent and tighter relationship; it was also a priority for the execution movement. Lithuania's laws were codified and reforms enacted in 1529, 1557, 1565–1566 and 1588, gradually making its social, legal and economic system similar to that of Poland, with the expanding role of the middle and lower nobility.[57] Fighting wars with Moscow under Ivan IV and the threat perceived from that direction provided additional motivation for the real union for both Poland and Lithuania.[58]
The process of negotiating the actual arrangements turned out to be difficult and lasted from 1563 to 1569, with the Lithuanian magnates, worried about losing their dominant position, being at times uncooperative. It took Sigismunt II's unilateral declaration of the incorporation into the Polish Crown of substantial disputed border regions, including most of Lithuanian Ukraine, to make the Lithuanian magnates rejoin the process, and participate in the swearing of the act of the Union of Lublin on July 1, 1569. Lithuania for the near future was becoming more secure on the eastern front. Its increasingly Polonized nobility made in the coming centuries great contributions to the Commonwealth's culture, but at the cost of Lithuanian national development.[58]
The Lithuanian language survived as a peasant vernacular and also as a written language in religious use, from the publication of the Lithuanian Catechism by Martynas Mažvydas in 1547.[59] The Ruthenian language was and remained in the Grand Duchy's official use even after the Union, until the takeover of Polish.[60]
The Commonwealth: multicultural, magnate dominated
By the Union of Lublin a unified
One of the most salient characteristics of the newly established Commonwealth was its
Jewish settlement
Poland had become the home to
See also
- History of Lithuania
- History of Poland during the Piast dynasty
- History of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (1569–1648)
- Kingdom of Poland (1385–1569)
Notes
a.^ This is true especially regarding legislative matters and legal framework. Despite the restrictions the nobility imposed on the monarchs, the Polish kings had never become figureheads. In practice they wielded considerable executive power, up to and including the last king, Stanisław August Poniatowski. Some were at times even accused of absolutist tendencies, and it may be for the lack of sufficiently strong personalities or favorable circumstances that none of the kings had succeeded in significant and lasting strengthening of the monarchy.[72]
b.^ 13 in Greater Poland, 59 in Lesser Poland, 32 in Mazovia, and 153 in Red Ruthenia.[73]
References
- Latin: Rex Poloniæ) in 1384.
- ^ a b c d Wyrozumski 1986
- ^ a b c d Gierowski 1986
- ^ a b c Wyrozumski 1986, pp. 178–180
- ^ Davies 1998, pp. 392, 461–463
- ISBN 83-85719-40-7
- ISBN 1-56656-655-X, p. 63-65
- ISBN 0-521-61857-6, p. 68-69
- ^ Wyrozumski 1986, pp. 180–190
- ^ A Concise History of Poland, by Jerzy Lukowski and Hubert Zawadzki, p. 41
- ^ Stopka 1999, p. 91
- ^ Wyrozumski 1986, pp. 190–195
- ^ Wyrozumski 1986, pp. 195–198, 201–203
- ^ a b c d e f Wyrozumski 1986, pp. 198–206
- ^ Wyrozumski 1986, pp. 206–207
- ^ a b c Wyrozumski 1986, pp. 207–213
- ^ 'Stopka 1999, p. 86
- ^ "Russian Interaction with Foreign Lands". Strangelove.net. 2007-10-06. Archived from the original on 2009-01-18. Retrieved 2009-09-19.
- ^ "List of Wars of the Crimean Tatars". Zum.de. Retrieved 2009-09-19.
- ^ Wyrozumski 1986, pp. 213–215
- ^ Krzysztof Baczkowski – Dzieje Polski późnośredniowiecznej (1370–1506) (History of Late Medieval Poland (1370–1506)), p. 302
- ^ Wyrozumski 1986, pp. 215–221
- ^ a b c d Wyrozumski 1986, pp. 221–225
- ^ A Concise History of Poland, by Jerzy Lukowski and Hubert Zawadzki, p. 73
- ^ Gierowski 1986, pp. 24–38
- ^ a b Józef Andrzej Gierowski – Historia Polski 1505–1764 (History of Poland 1505–1764), p. 24-38
- ^ A Concise History of Poland, by Jerzy Lukowski and Hubert Zawadzki, p. 65, 68
- ^ a b c Gierowski 1986, pp. 38–53
- ^ a b c d e f Gierowski 1986, pp. 53–64
- ^ ISBN 83-03-02501-5.
- ISBN 83-7384-018-4.
- ^ A Concise History of Poland, by Jerzy Lukowski and Hubert Zawadzki, p. 104
- ^ a b Davies 2005, pp. 118
- ^ Gierowski 1986, pp. 67–71
- ^ a b c d Gierowski 1986, pp. 71–74
- ^ a b c d e Gierowski 1986, pp. 74–79
- ISBN 83-85719-48-2
- ^ a b c d Gierowski 1986, pp. 79–84
- ISBN 0-333-97253-8, p. 84
- ^ Gierowski 1986, pp. 84–85
- ^ a b c d Gierowski 1986, pp. 85–88
- ISSN 0260-6755, not online
- ^ A Concise History of Poland, by Jerzy Lukowski and Hubert Zawadzki, p. 61
- ^ a b c d e f g Gierowski 1986, pp. 92–105
- ^ Basista 1999, p. 104
- ^ Gierowski 1986, pp. 116–118
- ^ A Concise History of Poland, by Jerzy Lukowski and Hubert Zawadzki, p. 48, 50
- ^ a b Gierowski 1986, pp. 119–121
- ^ Basista 1999, p. 109
- ^ Gierowski 1986, pp. 104–105
- ^ a b Gierowski 1986, pp. 121–122
- ^ Andrzej Romanowski, Zaszczuć osobnika Jasienicę (Harass the Jasienica individual). Gazeta Wyborcza newspaper wyborcza.pl, 2010-03-12
- ^ a b c Gierowski 1986, pp. 122–125, 151
- ^ Basista 1999, pp. 109–110
- ^ A Concise History of Poland, by Jerzy Lukowski and Hubert Zawadzki, p. 58
- ^ a b c d Gierowski 1986, pp. 125–130
- ^ Basista 1999, pp. 115, 117
- ^ a b c d Gierowski 1986, pp. 105–109
- ^ Davies 1998, p. 228
- ^ Davies 1998, pp. 392
- ^ A Concise History of Poland, by Jerzy Lukowski and Hubert Zawadzki, p. 81
- ^ Gierowski 1986, pp. 38–39
- ISBN 83-7384-018-4.
- ISBN 83-7212-020-X.
- ^ A Traveller's History of Poland, by John Radzilowski, p. 44–45
- ^ Davies 1998, pp. 409–412
- ^ Krzysztof Baczkowski – Dzieje Polski późnośredniowiecznej (1370–1506) (History of Late Medieval Poland (1370–1506)), p. 274–276
- ^ a b Gierowski 1986, p. 46
- ^ ISBN 978-0-00-788089-8.
- ^ "European Jewish Congress – Poland". Eurojewcong.org. Archived from the original on 2008-12-11. Retrieved 2009-09-19.
- ^ A Traveller's History of Poland, by John Radzilowski, p. 100, 113
- ^ Gierowski 1986, pp. 144–146, 258–261
- ^ A. Janeczek. "Town and country in the Polish Commonwealth, 1350-1650." In: S. R. Epstein. Town and Country in Europe, 1300-1800. Cambridge University Press. 2004. p. 164.
- ISBN 83-01-03732-6.
- Wyrozumski, Jerzy (1986). Historia Polski do roku 1505 (History of Poland until 1505). Warszawa: Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe (ISBN 83-01-03732-6.
- Stopka, Krzysztof (1999). ISBN 83-08-02855-1.
- Basista, Jakub (1999). ISBN 83-08-02855-1.
- ISBN 0-06-097468-0.
- Davies, Norman (2005). God's Playground: A History of Poland, Volume I. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-12817-9.
Further reading
- The Cambridge History of Poland (two vols., 1941–1950) online edition vol 1 to 1696
- Butterwick, Richard, ed. The Polish-Lithuanian Monarchy in European Context, c. 1500-1795. Palgrave, 2001. 249 pp. online edition
- Davies, Norman. Heart of Europe: A Short History of Poland. Oxford University Press, 1984.
- Davies, Norman. God's Playground: A History of Poland. 2 vol. Columbia U. Press, 1982.
- Pogonowski, Iwo Cyprian. Poland: A Historical Atlas. Hippocrene, 1987. 321 pp.
- Sanford, George. Historical Dictionary of Poland. Scarecrow Press, 2003. 291 pp.
- Stone, Daniel. The Polish-Lithuanian State, 1386-1795. U. of Washington Press, 2001.
- Zamoyski, Adam. The Polish Way. Hippocrene Books, 1987. 397 pp.