History of Russia

A major factor in the ascendancy of Moscow was the cooperation of its rulers with the Mongol overlords, who granted them the title of Grand Prince of Moscow and made them agents for collecting the Tatar tribute from the Russian principalities. The principality's prestige was further enhanced when it became the center of the Russian Orthodox Church. Its head, the Metropolitan, fled from Kiev to Vladimir in 1299 and a few years later established the permanent headquarters of the Church in Moscow under the original title of Kiev Metropolitan.

By the middle of the 14th century, the power of the Mongols was declining, and the Grand Princes felt able to openly oppose the

In the 15th century, the grand princes of Moscow continued to consolidate Russian land to increase their population and wealth. The most successful practitioner of this process was

Under Ivan III, the first central government bodies were created in Russia: Prikaz. The Sudebnik was adopted, the first set of laws since the 11th century. The double-headed eagle was adopted as the coat of arms of Russia.

Ivan proclaimed his absolute sovereignty over all Russian princes and nobles. Refusing further tribute to the Tatars, Ivan initiated a series of attacks that opened the way for the complete defeat of the declining

In this way, internal consolidation accompanied outward expansion of the state. By the 16th century, the rulers of Moscow considered the entire Russian territory their collective property. Various semi-independent princes still claimed specific territories,

Ivan IV, the Terrible

The development of the Tsar's autocratic powers reached a peak during the reign of

At the end of Ivan IV's reign the Polish–Lithuanian and Swedish armies carried out a powerful intervention in Russia, devastating its northern and northwest regions.[74]

Time of Troubles

Main article: Time of Troubles

Prince Pozharsky

in 1612

The death of Ivan's childless son Feodor was followed by a period of civil wars and foreign intervention known as the Time of Troubles (1606–13).^[51] Extremely cold summers (1601–1603) wrecked crops,^[75] which led to the Russian famine of 1601–1603 and increased the social disorganization. Boris Godunov's reign ended in chaos, civil war combined with foreign intrusion, devastation of many cities and depopulation of the rural regions. The country rocked by internal chaos also attracted several waves of interventions by the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.^[76] During the

Vasily Shuysky on 27 July [O.S. 17 July] 1610, and recognized the Polish prince Władysław IV Vasa as the Tsar of Russia on 6 September [O.S. 27 August] 1610.^[77][78] The Poles occupied Moscow on 21 September [O.S. 11 September] 1610. Moscow revolted but riots there were brutally suppressed and the city was set on fire.^[79][80][81]

The crisis provoked a patriotic national uprising against the invasion, both in 1611 and 1612. A volunteer army, led by the merchant Kuzma Minin and prince Dmitry Pozharsky, expelled the foreign forces from the capital on 4 November [O.S. 22 October] 1612.^[82][83][84]

The Russian statehood survived the "Time of Troubles" and the rule of weak or corrupt Tsars because of the strength of the government's central bureaucracy. Government functionaries continued to serve, regardless of the ruler's legitimacy or the faction controlling the throne.

the Russo-Polish war, as well as to the Swedish Empire in the Ingrian War

.

Accession of the Romanovs and early rule

Romanov dynasty

In February 1613, after the chaos and expulsion of the Poles from Moscow, a

Romanov

dynasty ruled Russia until 1917.

The immediate task of the new monarch was to restore peace. Fortunately for Moscow, its major enemies, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and Sweden, were engaged in a bitter conflict with each other, which provided Russia the opportunity to make peace with Sweden in 1617 and to sign a truce with the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1619.

Recovery of lost territories began in the mid-17th century, when the

Kiev and Smolensk.^[51]

The

Qing China. After the war between Russia and China, the Treaty of Nerchinsk

was signed, delimiting the territories in the Amur region.

Rather than risk their estates in more civil war, the boyars cooperated with the first Romanovs, enabling them to finish the work of bureaucratic centralization. Thus, the state required service from both the old and the new nobility, primarily in the military. In return, the tsars allowed the boyars to complete the process of enserfing the peasants.

In the preceding century, the state had gradually curtailed peasants' rights to move from one landlord to another. With the state now fully sanctioning

serfdom, runaway peasants became state fugitives, and the power of the landlords over the peasants "attached" to their land had become almost complete. Together, the state and the nobles placed an overwhelming burden of taxation on the peasants, whose rate was 100 times greater in the mid-17th century than it had been a century earlier. Likewise, middle-class urban tradesmen and craftsmen were assessed taxes, and were forbidden to change residence. All segments of the population were subject to military levy and special taxes.^[85]

Riots among peasants and citizens of Moscow at this time were endemic and included the

Moscow Uprising (1682).^[87] By far the greatest peasant uprising in 17th-century Europe erupted in 1667. As the free settlers of South Russia, the Cossacks, reacted against the growing centralization of the state, serfs escaped from their landlords and joined the rebels. The Cossack leader Stenka Razin led his followers up the Volga River, inciting peasant uprisings and replacing local governments with Cossack rule.^[51] The tsar's army finally crushed his forces in 1670; a year later Stenka was captured and beheaded. Yet, less than half a century later, the strains of military expeditions produced another revolt in Astrakhan

, ultimately subdued.

Russian Empire (1721–1917)

Main article: Russian Empire

Population

Much of Russia's expansion occurred in the 17th century, culminating in the first Russian colonisation of the Pacific in the mid-17th century, the Russo-Polish War (1654–1667) that incorporated left-bank Ukraine, and the Russian conquest of Siberia. Poland was divided in the 1790–1815 era, with much of the land and population going to Russia. Most of the 19th century growth came from adding territory in Asia, south of Siberia.^[88]

Year	Population of Russia (millions)[89]	Notes
1720	15.5	includes new Baltic & Polish territories
1795	37.6	includes part of Poland
1812	42.8	includes Finland
1816	73.0	includes Congress Poland, Bessarabia
1914	170.0	includes new Asian territories

Peter the Great

Peter the Great (Peter I, 1672–1725) brought centralized autocracy into Russia and played a major role in bringing his country into the European state system.^[90] Russia was now the largest country in the world, stretching from the Baltic Sea to the Pacific Ocean. The vast majority of the land was unoccupied, and travel was slow. Much of its expansion had taken place in the 17th century, culminating in the first Russian settlement of the Pacific in the mid-17th century, the reconquest of Kiev, and the pacification of the Siberian tribes.^[91] However, a population of only 14 million was stretched across this vast landscape. With a short growing season, grain yields trailed behind those in the West and potato farming was not yet widespread. As a result, the great majority of the population workforce was occupied with agriculture. Russia remained isolated from the sea trade and its internal trade, communication and manufacturing were seasonally dependent.^[92]

Peter reformed the Russian army and created the Russian navy. Peter's first military efforts were directed against the Ottoman Turks. His aim was to establish a Russian foothold on the Black Sea by taking the town of Azov.^[93] His attention then turned to the north. Peter still lacked a secure northern seaport except at Archangel on the White Sea, whose harbor was frozen nine months a year. Access to the Baltic was blocked by Sweden, whose territory enclosed it on three sides. Peter's ambitions for a "window to the sea" led him in 1699 to make a secret alliance with the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and Denmark against Sweden resulting in the Great Northern War.

The war ended in 1721 when an exhausted Sweden sued for peace with Russia. Peter acquired four provinces situated south and east of the Gulf of Finland, thus securing his coveted access to the sea. There, in 1703, he had already founded the city that was to become Russia's new capital, Saint Petersburg. Russian intervention in the Commonwealth marked, with the Silent Sejm, the beginning of a 200-year domination of that region by the Russian Empire. In celebration of his conquests, Peter assumed the title of emperor, and the Russian Tsardom officially became the Russian Empire in 1721.

Peter re-organized his government based on the latest Western models, molding Russia into an

provinces and districts. Peter told the senate that its mission was to collect taxes. In turn tax revenues tripled over the course of his reign.^[94]

Administrative

Table of ranks. As part of the government reform, the Orthodox Church was partially incorporated into the country's administrative structure, in effect making it a tool of the state. Peter abolished the patriarchate and replaced it with a collective body, the Holy Synod

, led by a lay government official. Peter continued and intensified his predecessors' requirement of state service for all nobles.

By then, the once powerful Persian

Safavid Empire to the south was heavily declining. Taking advantage, Peter launched the Russo-Persian War (1722–1723), known as "The Persian Expedition of Peter the Great" by Russian histographers, in order to be the first Russian emperor to establish Russian influence in the Caucasus and Caspian Sea region. After considerable success and the capture of many provinces and cities in the Caucasus and northern mainland Persia, the Safavids were forced to hand over the territories to Russia. However, by 12 years later, all the territories were ceded back to Persia, which was now led by the charismatic military genius Nader Shah, as part of the Treaty of Resht and Treaty of Ganja and the Russo-Persian alliance against the Ottoman Empire,^[95]

the common neighbouring rivalling enemy.

Peter the Great died in 1725, leaving an unsettled succession, but Russia had become a great power by the end of his reign. Peter I was succeeded by his second wife,

Ivan V. The heir to Anna was soon deposed in a coup and Elizabeth, daughter of Peter I, ruled from 1741 to 1762. During her reign, Russia took part in the Seven Years' War

.

Catherine the Great

Nearly 40 years passed before a comparably ambitious ruler appeared.

enlightened despot. She patronized the arts, science and learning.^[98] She contributed to the resurgence of the Russian nobility that began after the death of Peter the Great. Catherine promulgated the Charter to the Gentry reaffirming rights and freedoms of the Russian nobility and abolishing mandatory state service. She seized control of all the church lands, drastically reduced the size of the monasteries, and put the surviving clergy on a tight budget.^[99]

Catherine spent heavily to promote an expansive foreign policy. She extended Russian political control over the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth with actions, including the support of the Targowica Confederation. The cost of her campaigns, plus the oppressive social system that required serfs to spend almost all their time laboring on the land of their lords, provoked a major peasant uprising in 1773. Inspired by a Cossack named Yemelyan Pugachev, with the emphatic cry of "Hang all the landlords!", the rebels threatened to take Moscow until Catherine crushed the rebellion. Like the other enlightened despots of Europe, Catherine made certain of her own power and formed an alliance with the nobility.^[100]

Catherine successfully waged two wars (

annexed Crimea in 1783 and created the Black Sea fleet. Then, by allying with the rulers of Austria and Prussia, she incorporated the territories of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, where after a century of Russian rule non-Catholic, mainly Orthodox population prevailed^[102] during the Partitions of Poland, pushing the Russian frontier westward into Central Europe.^[103]

In accordance to Russia's

against Persia in 1796 after they had again invaded Georgia and established rule over it about a year prior, and had expelled the newly established Russian garrisons in the Caucasus

.

In 1798–1799, Russian troops participated in the

defeated the French in Northern Italy

.

Ruling the Empire (1725–1825)

Russian emperors of the 18th century professed the ideas of Enlightened absolutism. However, Westernization and modernization affected only the upper classes of Russian society, while the bulk of the population, consisting of peasants, remained in a state of serfdom. Powerful Russians resented their privileged positions and alien ideas. The backlash was especially severe after the Napoleonic wars. It produced a powerful anti-western campaign that "led to a wholesale purge of Western specialists and their Russian followers in universities, schools, and government service".^[104] The mid-18th century was marked by the emergence of higher education in Russia. The first two major universities

Russian America). In the early 19th century, Alaska was used as a base for the First Russian circumnavigation. In 1819–1821, Russian sailors discovered Antarctica during an Antarctic expedition

.

Russia was in a continuous state of financial crisis. While revenue rose from 9 million rubles in 1724 to 40 million in 1794, expenses grew more rapidly, reaching 49 million in 1794. The budget was allocated 46% to the military, 20% to government economic activities, 12% to administration, and 9% for the Imperial Court in St. Petersburg. The deficit required borrowing, primarily from Amsterdam; 5% of the budget was allocated to debt payments. Paper money was issued to pay for expensive wars, thus causing inflation. 18th-century Russia remained "a poor, backward, overwhelmingly agricultural, and illiterate country".[105]

Alexander I and victory over Napoleon

By the time of her death in 1796, Catherine's expansionist policy had made Russia a major European power. Alexander I continued this policy, wresting Finland from the weakened kingdom of Sweden in 1809 and Bessarabia from the Ottomans in 1812. His key advisor was a Polish nobleman Adam Jerzy Czartoryski.^[106]

After Russian armies liberated allied Georgia from Persian occupation in 1802, they clashed with Persia over control and consolidation over Georgia, as well as the Iranian territories that comprise modern-day Azerbaijan and Dagestan. They also became involved in the Caucasian War against the Caucasian Imamate and Circassia. In 1813, the war with Persia concluded with a Russian victory, forcing Qajar Iran to cede swaths of its territories in the Caucasus to Russia,^[107] which drastically increased its territory in the region. To the south-west, Russia tried to expand at the expense of the Ottoman Empire, using Georgia at its base for the Caucasus and Anatolian front.

In European policy, Alexander I switched Russia back and forth four times in 1804–1812 from neutral peacemaker to anti-Napoleon to an ally of Napoleon, winding up in 1812 as Napoleon's enemy. In 1805, he joined Britain in the

Treaty of Tilsit (1807) and joined Napoleon's Continental System. He fought a small-scale naval war against Britain, 1807–1812

.

The alliance collapsed by 1810. Russia's economy had been hurt by Napoleon's Continental System, which cut off trade with Britain. As Esdaile notes, "Implicit in the idea of a Russian Poland was, of course, a war against Napoleon".[108] Schroeder says Poland was the root cause of the conflict but Russia's refusal to support the Continental System was also a factor.^[109]

The

Battle of the Nations and finally captured Paris.^[110][111] Of a total population of around 43 million people,^[112] Russia lost about 1.5 million in the year 1812; of these about 250,000 to 300,000 were soldiers and the rest peasants and serfs.^[113]

After the defeat of Napoleon, Alexander presided over the redrawing of the map of Europe at the Congress of Vienna (1814–1815), which made him the king of Congress Poland. He formed the Holy Alliance with Austria and Prussia, to suppress revolutionary movements in Europe that he saw as immoral threats to legitimate Christian monarchs. He helped Austria's Klemens von Metternich in suppressing all national and liberal movements.^[114]

Although the Russian Empire would play a leading role on behalf of conservatism as late as 1848, its retention of serfdom precluded economic progress of any significant degree. As West European economic growth accelerated during the Industrial Revolution, sea trade and colonialism which had begun in the second half of the 18th century, Russia began to lag ever farther behind, undermining its ability to field strong armies.

Nicholas I and the Decembrist Revolt

Senate Square

Russia's great power status obscured the inefficiency of its government, the isolation of its people, and its economic backwardness.^[115] Following the defeat of Napoleon, Alexander I was willing to discuss constitutional reforms, and though a few were introduced, no thoroughgoing changes were attempted.^[116]

The tsar was succeeded by his younger brother,

Decembrist Revolt (December 1825), the work of a small circle of liberal nobles and army officers who wanted to install Nicholas' brother as a constitutional monarch. But the revolt was easily crushed, leading Nicholas to turn away from liberal reforms and champion the reactionary doctrine "Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and Nationality".^[117]

In 1826–1828, Russia fought another war

Greek Orthodox population, received extensive support from the region's Pontic Greeks. After a brief occupation, the Russian imperial army withdrew into Georgia. By the 1830s, Russia had conquered all Persian territories and major Ottoman territories in the Caucasus.^[119]

In 1831, Nicholas crushed the November Uprising in Poland. The Russian autocracy gave Polish artisans and gentry reason to rebel in 1863 by assailing the national core values of language, religion, and culture.^[120] The resulting January Uprising was a massive Polish revolt, which also was crushed. France, Britain and Austria tried to intervene in the crisis but were unable. The Russian patriotic press used the Polish uprising to unify the Russian nation, claiming it was Russia's God-given mission to save Poland and the world.^[121] Poland was punished by losing its distinctive political and judicial rights, with Russianization imposed on its schools and courts.^[122]

Russian Army

St. Isaac's Square

, Saint Petersburg

Tsar Nicholas I (reigned 1825–1855) lavished attention on his army.^[123] In a nation of 60–70 million people, it included a million men. They had outdated equipment and tactics, but the tsar took pride in its smartness on parade. The cavalry horses, for example, were only trained in parade formations, and did poorly in battle. He put generals in charge of most of his civilian agencies regardless of their qualifications. The Army became the vehicle of upward social mobility for noble youths from non-Russian areas, such as Poland, the Baltic, Finland and Georgia.^[124] On the other hand, many miscreants, petty criminals and undesirables were punished by local officials by enlisting them for life in the Army. Village oligarchies controlled employment, conscription for the army, and local patronage; they blocked reforms and sent the most unpromising peasant youth to the army. The conscription system was unpopular with people, as was the practice of forcing peasants to house the soldiers for six months of the year.^[125]

Finally the Crimean War at the end of his reign showed the world that Russia was militarily weak, technologically backward, and administratively incompetent. Despite his ambitions toward the south and Ottoman Empire, Russia had not built its railroad network in that direction, and communications were poor. The bureaucracy was riddled with corruption and inefficiency and was unprepared for war. The Navy was weak and technologically backward; the Army, although very large, was good only for parades, suffered from colonels who pocketed their men's pay, poor morale, and was even more out of touch with the latest technology. The nation's leaders realized that reforms were urgently needed.^[126]

Russian society in the first half of 19th century

Gnedich

The early 19th century is the time when Russian literature becomes an independent and very striking phenomenon.

Since the war against Napoleon, Russia had become deeply involved in the affairs of Europe, as part of the "Holy Alliance." The Holy Alliance was formed to serve as the "policeman of Europe." However, to maintain the alliance required large armies. Prussia, Austria, Britain and France (the other members of the alliance) lacked large armies and needed Russia to supply the required numbers, which fit the philosophy of Nicholas I. The Tsar sent his army into Hungary in 1849 at the request of the Austrian Empire and broke the revolt there, while preventing its spread to Russian Poland.^[132] The Tsar cracked down on any signs of internal unrest.^[133]

Russia expected that in exchange for supplying the troops to be the policeman of Europe, it should have a free hand in dealing with the decaying Ottoman Empire—the "sick man of Europe." In 1853, Russia invaded Ottoman-controlled areas leading to the Crimean War. Britain and France came to the rescue of the Ottomans. After a grueling war fought largely in Crimea, with very high death rates from disease, the allies won.^[134][135]

Historian Orlando Figes points to the long-term damage Russia suffered:

The demilitarization of the Black Sea was a major blow to Russia, which was no longer able to protect its vulnerable southern coastal frontier against the British or any other fleet.... The destruction of the Russian Black Sea Fleet, Sevastopol and other naval docks was a humiliation. No compulsory disarmament had ever been imposed on a great power previously.... The Allies did not really think that they were dealing with a European power in Russia. They regarded Russia as a semi-Asiatic state....In Russia itself, the Crimean defeat discredited the armed services and highlighted the need to modernize the countries defenses, not just in the strictly military sense, but also through the building of railways, industrialization, sound finances and so on....The image many Russians had built up of their country – the biggest, richest and most powerful in the world – had suddenly been shattered. Russia's backwardness had been exposed....The Crimean disaster had exposed the shortcomings of every institution in Russia – not just the corruption and incompetence of the military command, the technological backwardness of the army and navy, or the inadequate roads and lack of railways the accounted for the chronic problems of supply, but the poor condition and illiteracy of the serfs who made up the armed forces, the inability of the serf economy to sustain a state of war against industrial powers, and the failures of autocracy itself.^[136]

Alexander II and the abolition of serfdom

When

Alexander was responsible for numerous reforms besides abolishing serfdom. He reorganized the judicial system, setting up elected local judges, abolishing capital punishment, promoting local self-government through the zemstvo system, imposing universal military service, ending some of the privileges of the nobility, and promoting the universities.^[141]

In foreign policy, he sold Alaska to the United States in 1867. He modernized the military command system. He sought peace, and joined with Germany and Austria in the League of the Three Emperors that stabilized the European situation. The Russian Empire expanded in Siberia and in the Caucasus and made gains at the expense of China. Faced with an uprising in Poland in 1863, he stripped that land of its separate Constitution and incorporated it directly into Russia. To counter the rise of a revolutionary and anarchistic movements, he sent thousands of dissidents into exile in Siberia and was proposing additional parliamentary reforms when he was assassinated in 1881.^[142]

In the late 1870s Russia and the Ottoman Empire again clashed in the Balkans. The Russo-Turkish War was popular among the Russian people, who supported the independence of their fellow Orthodox Slavs, the Serbs and the Bulgarians. Russia's victory in this war allowed a number of Balkan states to gain independence: Romania, Serbia, Montenegro. In addition, Bulgaria de facto became independent. However, the war increased tension with Austria-Hungary, which also had ambitions in the region. The Tsar was disappointed by the results of the Congress of Berlin in 1878, but abided by the agreement.^[143]

During this period Russia expanded its empire into Central Asia, conquering the khanates of Kokand, Bukhara, and Khiva, as well as the Trans-Caspian region.^[144] Russia's advance in Asia led to British fears that the Russians planned aggression against British India. Before 1815 London worried Napoleon would combine with Russia to do that in one mighty campaign. After 1815 London feared Russia alone would do it step by step. However historians report that the Russians never had any intention to move against India.^[145]

Russian society in the second half of 19th century

In the 1860s, a movement known as Nihilism developed in Russia. A term originally coined by Ivan Turgenev in his 1862 novel Fathers and Sons, Nihilists favoured the destruction of human institutions and laws, based on the assumption that they are artificial and corrupt. At its core, Russian nihilism was characterized by the belief that the world lacks comprehensible meaning, objective truth, or value. For some time, many Russian liberals had been dissatisfied by what they regarded as the empty discussions of the intelligentsia. The Nihilists questioned all old values and shocked the Russian establishment.^[146] They became involved in the cause of reform and became major political forces. Their path was facilitated by the previous actions of the Decembrists, who revolted in 1825, and the financial and political hardship caused by the Crimean War, which caused many Russians to lose faith in political institutions.^[147] Russian nihilists created the manifesto Catechism of a Revolutionary.

After the Nihilists failed to convert the aristocracy and landed gentry to the cause of reform, they turned to the peasants.

The end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th is known as the

The tsar's most influential adviser was Konstantin Pobedonostsev, tutor to Alexander III and his son Nicholas, and procurator of the Holy Synod from 1880 to 1895. He taught his royal pupils to fear freedom of speech and press and to hate democracy, constitutions, and the parliamentary system.^[152] Under Pobedonostsev, revolutionaries were hunted down^[153] and a policy of Russification was carried out.^[154]

Nicholas II and new revolutionary movement

Alexander was succeeded by his son

At the beginning of the 20th century, Russia continued its expansion in the Far East; Chinese Manchuria was in the zone of Russian interests. Russia took an active part in the intervention of the great powers in China to suppress the Boxer rebellion. During this war, Russia occupied Manchuria, which caused a clash of interests with Japan. In 1904, the Russo-Japanese War began, which ended extremely unfavourably for Russia.

Revolution of 1905

The disastrous performance of the Russian armed forces in the Russo-Japanese War was a major blow to the Russian State and increased the potential for unrest.^[157]

In January 1905, an incident known as "

In October 1905, Nicholas reluctantly issued the October Manifesto, which conceded the creation of a national Duma (legislature) to be called without delay.^[157] The right to vote was extended, and no law was to go into force without confirmation by the Duma. The moderate groups were satisfied;^[157] but the socialists rejected the concessions as insufficient and tried to organize new strikes. By the end of 1905, there was disunity among the reformers, and the tsar's position was strengthened.^[159]

World War I

On 28 June 1914, Bosnian Serbs

The very large but poorly led and under-equipped Russian army fought tenaciously. Casualties were enormous. In the 1914 campaign, Russian forces defeated Austro-Hungarian forces in the Battle of Galicia. The success of the Russian army forced the German army to withdraw troops from the western front to the Russian front. However, defeats in Poland by the Central Powers in the 1915 campaign, led to a major retreat of the Russian army. In 1916, the Russians again dealt a powerful blow to the Austrians during the Brusilov offensive.

By 1915, morale was worsening.^[163] Many recruits were sent to the front unarmed. Nevertheless, the Russian army fought on, and tied down large numbers of Germans and Austrians. When the homefront showed an occasional surge of patriotism, the tsar and his entourage failed to exploit it for military benefit. The Russian army neglected to rally the ethnic and religious minorities that were hostile to Austria, such as Poles. The tsar refused to cooperate with the national legislature, the Duma, and listened less to experts than to his wife, who was in thrall to her chief advisor, the holy man Grigori Rasputin.^[164] More than two million refugees fled.^[165] Repeated military failures and bureaucratic ineptitude soon turned large segments of the population against the government.^[157] The German and Ottoman fleets prevented Russia from importing urgently needed supplies through the Baltic and Black seas.^[157] By mid-1915 the impact of the war was demoralizing. Food and fuel were in short supply, casualties kept occurring, and inflation was mounting. Strikes increased among factory workers, and the peasants, who wanted land reforms, were restless.^[166] Meanwhile, elite distrust of the regime was deepened by reports that Rasputin was gaining influence; his assassination in late 1916 ended the scandal but did not restore the autocracy's prestige.^[157]

Russian Civil War (1917–1922)

Russian Revolution

Bolshevik party.

Leon Trotsky, founder of the Red Army and a key figure in the October Revolution

.

To fill the vacuum of authority, the Duma declared a Provisional Government, headed by Prince Lvov, which was collectively known as the Russian Republic.^[169] Meanwhile, the socialists in Petrograd organized elections among workers and soldiers to form a soviet (council) of workers' and soldiers' deputies, as an organ of popular power that could pressure the "bourgeois" Provisional Government.^[169]

In July, following a series of crises that undermined their authority with the public, the head of the Provisional Government resigned and was succeeded by Alexander Kerensky, who was more progressive than his predecessor but not radical enough for the Bolsheviks or many Russians discontented with the deepening economic crisis and the war. The socialist-led soviet in Petrograd joined with soviets that formed throughout the country to create a national movement.^[170]

The German government provided over 40 million gold marks to subsidize Bolshevik publications and activities subversive of the tsarist government, especially focusing on disgruntled soldiers and workers.^[171] In April 1917 Germany provided a special sealed train to carry Vladimir Lenin back to Russia from his exile in Switzerland. After many behind-the-scenes maneuvers, the soviets seized control of the government in November 1917 and drove Kerensky and his moderate provisional government into exile, in the events that would become known as the October Revolution.^[172]

When the

The Bolshevik grip on power was by no means secure, and a lengthy struggle broke out between the new regime and its opponents, which included the Socialist Revolutionaries, the anti-Bolshevik

Estimates for the total number of people killed during the Red Terror carried out by the Bolsheviks vary widely. One source asserts that the total number of victims could be 1.3 million,^[176] whereas others give estimates ranging from 10,000 in the initial period of repression^[177] to 140,000^[178][179] and an estimate of 28,000 executions per year from December 1917 to February 1922.^[180] The most reliable estimations for the total number of killings put the number at about 100,000,^[181] whereas others suggest a figure of 200,000.^[182]

The Russian economy was devastated by the war, with factories and bridges destroyed, cattle and raw materials pillaged, mines flooded and machines damaged. The droughts of 1920 and 1921, as well as the

Soviet Union (1922–1991)

Creation of the Soviet Union

The

The period from the consolidation of the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917 until 1921 is known as the period of war communism.^[186] Land, all industry, and small businesses were nationalized, and the money economy was restricted. Strong opposition soon developed.^[186] The peasants wanted cash payments for their products and resented having to surrender their surplus grain to the government as a part of its civil war policies. Confronted with peasant opposition, Lenin began a strategic retreat from war communism known as the New Economic Policy (NEP).^[186] The peasants were freed from wholesale levies of grain and allowed to sell their surplus produce in the open market. Commerce was stimulated by permitting private retail trading. The state continued to be responsible for banking, transportation, heavy industry, and public utilities.

Although the left opposition among the Communists criticized the rich peasants, or kulaks, who benefited from the NEP, the program proved highly beneficial and the economy revived.^[186] The NEP would later come under increasing opposition from within the party following Lenin's death in early 1924.^[186]

Changes to Russian society

As the Russian Empire included during this period not only the region of Russia, but also today's territories of Ukraine, Belarus, Poland, Lithuania, Estonia, Latvia, Moldavia and the Caucasian and Central Asian countries, it is possible to examine the firm formation process in all those regions. One of the main determinants of firm creation for given regions of Russian Empire might be urban demand of goods and supply of industrial and organizational skill.^[187]

While the Russian economy was being transformed, the social life of the people underwent equally drastic changes. The Family Code of 1918 granted women equal status to men, and permitted a couple to take either the husband or wife's name.^[188] Divorce no longer required court procedure,^[189] and to make women completely free of the responsibilities of childbearing, abortion was made legal as early as 1920.^[190] As a side effect, the emancipation of women increased the labor market. Girls were encouraged to secure an education and pursue a career. Communal nurseries were set up for child care, and efforts were made to shift the center of people's social life from the home to educational and recreational groups, the soviet clubs.

The Soviet government pursued a policy of eliminating illiteracy (

The years from 1929 to 1939 comprised a tumultuous decade in Soviet history—a period of massive industrialization and internal struggles as

The deteriorating conditions in the countryside drove millions of desperate peasants to the rapidly growing cities, fueling industrialization, and vastly increasing Russia's urban population.

Stalinist repression

Further information:

Great Purges

Alexander Ilyich Yegorov, Kliment Voroshilov, and Mikhail Tukhachevsky. Only Budyonny and Voroshilov would survive Stalin's Great Purge

.

The

Great Purges.^[194]

Purges in other Soviet republics also helped centralize control in the USSR.

Stalin destroyed the opposition in the party consisting of the old Bolsheviks during the Moscow trials. The NKVD under the leadership of Stalin's commissar Nikolai Yezhov carried out a series of massive repressive operations against the kulaks and various national minorities in the USSR. During the Great Purges of 1937–38, about 700,000 people were executed.

Penalties were introduced, and many citizens were prosecuted for fictitious crimes of sabotage and espionage. The labor provided by convicts working in the labor camps of the Gulag system became an important component of the industrialization effort, especially in Siberia.^[195][196] An estimated 18 million people passed through the Gulag system, and perhaps another 15 million had experience of some other form of forced labor.^[197][198]

After the partition of Poland in 1939, the NKVD executed 20,000 captured Polish officers in the Katyn massacre. In the late 30s - first half of the 40s, the Stalinist government carried out massive deportations of various nationalities. A number of ethnic groups were deported from their settlement to Central Asia.

Soviet Union on the international stage

Main articles:

Soviet imperialism

The Soviet Union viewed the 1933 accession of fervently

Imperial Japan in the Soviet–Japanese border conflicts in the Russian Far East, which led to Soviet-Japanese neutrality and the tense border peace that lasted until August 1945.^[202][203]

In 1938, Germany

Western Betrayal led to the end of Czechoslovakia and further increased fears in the Soviet Union of a coming German attack. This led the Soviet Union to rush the modernization of its military industry and to carry out its own diplomatic maneuvers. In 1939, the Soviet Union signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact: a non-aggression pact with Nazi Germany dividing Eastern Europe into two separate spheres of influence.^[204] Following the pact, the USSR normalized relations with Nazi Germany and resumed Soviet–German trade.^[205]

World War II

Main articles: World War II and Eastern Front (World War II)

On 17 September 1939, the

formerly independent Baltic states (Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania).^{[212][213][214]}

The peace with Germany was tense, as both sides were preparing for the military conflict,

moved into Belarus.^[221] During the 1944 campaign, the Red Army defeated German forces in a series of offensive campaigns known as Stalin's ten blows. By the end of 1944, the front had moved beyond the 1939 Soviet frontiers into eastern Europe. Soviet forces drove into eastern Germany, capturing Berlin in May 1945.^[222]

The war with Germany thus ended triumphantly for the Soviet Union.

As agreed at the

Victory Day in Europe the USSR launched the Soviet invasion of Manchuria, defeating the Japanese troops in neighboring Manchuria, the last Soviet battle of World War II.^[223]

Although the Soviet Union was victorious in World War II, the war resulted in around 26–27 million Soviet deaths (estimates vary)

prisoners of war (of 5.5 million) died in German camps.^{[235][236][237]}

Cold War

Main article: Cold War

Collaboration among the major Allies had won the war and was supposed to serve as the basis for postwar reconstruction and security. USSR became one of the founders of the

UN and a permanent member of the UN Security Council. However, the conflict between Soviet and U.S. national interests, known as the Cold War

, came to dominate the international stage.

The Cold War emerged from a conflict between Stalin and U.S. President

Harry Truman over the future of Eastern Europe during the Potsdam Conference in the summer of 1945.^[238] Stalin's goal was to establish a buffer zone of states between Germany and the Soviet Union.^[239] Truman charged that Stalin had betrayed the Yalta agreement.^[240] With Eastern Europe under Red Army occupation, Stalin was also biding his time, as his own atomic bomb project was steadily and secretly progressing.^[241][242]

In April 1949 the United States sponsored the

Communist takeover in China

.

The foremost objectives of Soviet foreign policy were the maintenance and enhancement of national security and the maintenance of

proxy conflicts all over the world, including the Korean War and Vietnam War

.

As the Soviet Union continued to maintain tight control over its sphere of influence in Eastern Europe, the Cold War gave way to

SALT II, and the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty

.

U.S.–Soviet relations deteriorated following the beginning of the nine-year

communist bloc

started to unravel in the late 1980s. With the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, Russia lost the superpower status that it had won in the Second World War.

De-Stalinization and the era of stagnation

Main articles: Khrushchev Thaw, History of the Soviet Union (1953–1964), History of the Soviet Union (1964–1982), and Era of Stagnation

Nikita Khrushchev solidified his position in a speech before the Twentieth Congress of the Communist Party in 1956 detailing Stalin's atrocities.^[247]

In 1964, Khrushchev was

Baikal Amur Mainline was built. In the 1950s the USSR became a leading producer and exporter of petroleum and natural gas.^[251] In 1980 Moscow hosted the Summer Olympic Games

.

While all modernized economies were rapidly moving to computerization after 1965, the USSR fell behind. Moscow's decision to copy the IBM 360 of 1965 proved a decisive mistake for it locked scientists into an antiquated system they were unable to improve. They had enormous difficulties in manufacturing the necessary chips reliably and in quantity, in programming workable and efficient programs, in coordinating entirely separate operations, and in providing support to computer users.[252]^[253]

One of the greatest strengths of Soviet economy was its vast supplies of oil and gas; world oil prices quadrupled in 1973–1974, and rose again in 1979–1981, making the energy sector the chief driver of the Soviet economy, and was used to cover multiple weaknesses. At one point, Soviet Premier Alexei Kosygin told the head of oil and gas production, "things are bad with bread. Give me 3 million tons [of oil] over the plan."^[254] Former prime minister Yegor Gaidar, an economist looking back three decades, in 2007 wrote:

The hard currency from oil exports stopped the growing food supply crisis, increased the import of equipment and consumer goods, ensured a financial base for the arms race and the achievement of nuclear parity with the United States, and permitted the realization of such risky foreign-policy actions as the war in Afghanistan.^[255]

Soviet space program

The

Salyut, which in 1986 was replaced by Mir

, the first consistently inhabited long-term space station, that served from 1986 to 2001.

Perestroika and breakup of the Union

Main articles: History of the Soviet Union (1982–1991) and Dissolution of the Soviet Union

Two developments dominated the decade that followed: the increasingly apparent crumbling of the Soviet Union's economic and political structures, and the patchwork attempts at reforms to reverse that process. After the rapid succession of

price control

, there were shortages of almost all products. Control over the constituent republics was also relaxed, and they began to assert their national sovereignty.

The tension between Soviet Union and Russian SFSR authorities came to be personified in the power struggle between Gorbachev and

Belavezha Accords, the Supreme Soviet of Russia withdrew Russia from the Soviet Union on 12 December. The Soviet Union officially ended on 25 December 1991,^[261] and the Russian Federation (formerly the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic)^[262] took power on 26 December.^[261]

The Russian government lifted price control in January 1992. Prices rose dramatically, but shortages disappeared.

Russian Federation (1991–present)

Main article: History of the Russian Federation

Liberal reforms of the 1990s

Although Yeltsin came to power on a wave of optimism, he never recovered his popularity after endorsing Yegor Gaidar's "shock therapy" of ending Soviet-era price controls, drastic cuts in state spending, and an open foreign trade regime in early 1992 (see Russian economic reform in the 1990s). The reforms immediately devastated the living standards of much of the population. In the 1990s Russia suffered an economic downturn that was, in some ways, more severe than the United States or Germany had undergone six decades earlier in the Great Depression.^[263] Hyperinflation hit the ruble, due to monetary overhang from the days of the planned economy.

Meanwhile, the profusion of small parties and their aversion to coherent alliances left the legislature chaotic. During 1993, Yeltsin's rift with the parliamentary leadership led to the

current Russian constitution with strong presidential powers, which was approved by referendum in December 1993. The cohesion of the Russian Federation was also threatened when the republic of Chechnya attempted to break away, leading to the First and Second Chechen Wars

.

Economic reforms also consolidated a semi-criminal oligarchy with roots in the old Soviet system. Advised by Western governments, the

hostile takeovers

of corrupt corporations by the mid-1990s.

By the mid-1990s Russia had a system of multiparty electoral politics.[265] But it was harder to establish a representative government because of the struggle between president and parliament and the anarchic party system.

Meanwhile, the central government had lost control of the localities, bureaucracy, and economic fiefdoms, and tax revenues had collapsed. Still in a deep depression, Russia's economy was hit further by the financial crash of 1998. At the end of 1999, Yeltsin made a surprise announcement of his resignation, leaving the government in the hands of the Prime Minister Vladimir Putin.^[266]

Era of Putin

See also: Russia under Vladimir Putin and Opposition to Vladimir Putin in Russia

Treaty on Accession of the Republic of Crimea to Russia

in 2014.

In 2000, the new acting president won the presidential election on 26 March and won in a landslide four years later.^[267] The Second Chechen war ended with the victory of Russia. After the 11 September terrorist attacks, there was a rapprochement between Russia and the United States. Putin created a system of guided democracy in Russia by subjugating parliament, suppressing independent media and placing major oil and gas companies under state control.

International observers were alarmed by moves in late 2004 to further tighten the presidency's control over parliament, civil society, and regional officeholders.

Dmitri Medvedev, Putin's head of staff, was elected President. In 2012, Putin became president again, prompting massive protests in Moscow

.

Russia's long-term problems include a shrinking workforce, rampant corruption, and underinvestment in infrastructure.

Siloviki

and government agencies.

Due to high oil prices, from 2000 to 2008, Russia's GDP at PPP doubled.

2014 Winter Olympic Games in Sochi.^[273]

In 2014, following a controversial

war in eastern Ukraine, international sanctions were imposed on Russia.^[276]

On 4 December 2011, elections to the State Duma were held, as a result of which United Russia won for the third time in a row. The official voting results caused significant protests in the country; a number of political scientists and journalists noted various falsifications on election day.^[277] In 2012, according to another pre-election agreement, a "castling" took place;^[278] Vladimir Putin again became president and Dmitry Medvedev took over as chairman of the government, after which the protests acquired an anti-Putin orientation, but soon began to decline.^[279]

Since 2015, Russia has been conducting

military intervention in Syria in support of the Bashar al-Assad regime.^[280]

In 2018, Vladimir Putin was re-elected for a fourth presidential term.[281]

In 2022, Russia launched the

war crimes during the invasion.^[286]

On 23 June 2023, the Wagner Group, a Russian paramilitary organization led by Yevgeny Prigozhin, rebelled against the government.^[287] As of August 2023, the total number of Russian and Ukrainian soldiers killed or wounded during the Russian invasion of Ukraine was nearly 500,000.^[288]

Historiography

See also: Historiography in the Soviet Union, List of Russian historians, and List of Slavic studies journals

See also

• Dissolution of the Soviet Union
• Family tree of the Russian monarchs
• General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union
• History of Central Asia
• History of Siberia
• History of the administrative division of Russia
• History of the Caucasus
• History of the Jews in Russia
• History of the Soviet Union
• List of heads of government of Russia
• List of Mongol and Tatar raids against Rus'
• List of presidents of Russia
• List of Russian explorers
• List of Russian rulers
• List of wars involving Russia
• Military history of the Russian Empire
• Military history of the Soviet Union
• Politics of Russia
• Russian Armed Forces
• Russian colonization of the Americas
• Russian Empire
• Soviet Union
• Timeline of Moscow
• Timeline of Russian history
• Timeline of Russian innovation

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Further reading

Main articles: Bibliography of the history of the Early Slavs and Rus', Bibliography of Russian history (1223–1613), and Bibliography of Russian history (1613–1917)

Surveys

• Auty, Robert, and Dimitri Obolensky, eds. Companion to Russian Studies: vol 1: An Introduction to Russian History (1981) 403 pages; surveys by scholars.
• Bartlett, Roger P. A History of Russia (2005) online
• Brown, Archie et al. eds. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Russia and the Former Soviet Union (2nd ed. 1994) 664 pages online
• Bushkovitch, Paul. A Concise History of Russia (2011) excerpt and text search Archived 25 May 2017 at the Wayback Machine
• Connolly, Richard. The Russian Economy: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford University Press, 2020). Online review Archived 16 November 2020 at the Wayback Machine
• Figes, Orlando. Natasha's Dance: A Cultural History of Russia (2002). excerpt Archived 3 October 2016 at the Wayback Machine
• Florinsky, Michael T. ed. McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Russia and the Soviet Union (1961).
• Freeze, Gregory L., ed.,. Russia: A History. 2nd ed. (Oxford UP, 2002).
  ISBN 0-19-860511-0
  .
• Harcave, Sidney, ed. Readings in Russian history (1962) excerpts from scholars. online
• Hosking, Geoffrey A. Russia and the Russians: a History (2011) online
• Jelavich, Barbara. St. Petersburg and Moscow: Tsarist and Soviet Foreign Policy, 1814–1974 (1974).
• Kort, Michael. A Brief History of Russia (2008) online
• McKenzie, David & Michael W. Curran. A History of Russia, the Soviet Union, and Beyond. 6th ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing, 2001.
  ISBN 0-534-58698-8
  .
• Millar, James, ed. Encyclopedia of Russian History (4 vol. 2003). online
• Pares, Bernard. A History of Russia (1926) By a leading historian. Online
• Paxton, John. Encyclopedia of Russian History (1993) online
• Paxton, John. Companion to Russian history (1983) online
• Perrie, Maureen, et al. The Cambridge History of Russia. (3 vol. Cambridge University Press, 2006). excerpt and text search Archived 17 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine
• Riasanovsky, Nicholas V., and Mark D. Steinberg. A History of Russia (9th ed. 2018) 9th edition 1993 online
• Service, Robert. A History of Modern Russia: From Tsarism to the Twenty-First Century (Harvard UP, 3rd ed., 2009) excerpt Archived 29 March 2022 at the Wayback Machine
• Stone, David. A Military History of Russia: From Ivan the Terrible to the War in Chechnya excerpts Archived 25 May 2017 at the Wayback Machine
• Ziegler; Charles E. The History of Russia (Greenwood Press, 1999)

Russian Empire

Main article: Russian Empire § Further reading

• Baykov, Alexander. “The Economic Development of Russia.” Economic History Review 7#2 1954, pp. 137–149. online Archived 22 April 2022 at the Wayback Machine
• Billington, James H. The icon and the axe; an interpretive history of Russian culture (1966) online
• Christian, David. A History of Russia, Central Asia and Mongolia. Vol. 1: Inner Eurasia from Prehistory to the Mongol Empire. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers, 1998.
  ISBN 0-631-20814-3
  .
• De Madariaga, Isabel. Russia in the Age of Catherine the Great (2002), comprehensive topical survey
• Fuller, William C. Strategy and Power in Russia 1600–1914 (1998) excerpts Archived 25 March 2021 at the Wayback Machine
• Hughes, Lindsey. Russia in the Age of Peter the Great (Yale UP, 1998), Comprehensive topical survey. online
• Kahan, Arcadius. The Plow, the Hammer, and the Knout: An Economic History of Eighteenth-Century Russia (1985)
• Kahan, Arcadius. Russian Economic History: The Nineteenth Century (1989)
  • Gatrell, Peter. "Review: Russian Economic History: The Legacy of Arcadius Kahan" Slavic Review 50#1 (1991), pp. 176–178 online Archived 22 April 2022 at the Wayback Machine
• Lincoln, W. Bruce. The Romanovs: Autocrats of All the Russias (1983) online, sweeping narrative history
• Lincoln, W. Bruce. The great reforms : autocracy, bureaucracy, and the politics of change in Imperial Russia (1990) online
• Manning, Roberta. The Crisis of the Old Order in Russia: Gentry and Government. Princeton University Press, 1982.
• Markevich, Andrei, and Ekaterina Zhuravskaya. 2018. “Economic Effects of the Abolition of Serfdom: Evidence from the Russian Empire.” American Economic Review 108.4–5: 1074–1117.
• Mironov, Boris N., and Ben Eklof. The Social History of Imperial Russia, 1700–1917 (2 vol Westview Press, 2000)
• Moss, Walter G. A History of Russia. Vol. 1: To 1917. 2d ed. Anthem Press, 2002.
• Oliva, Lawrence Jay. ed. Russia in the era of Peter the Great (1969), excerpts from primary and secondary sources online
• Pipes, Richard. Russia under the Old Regime (2nd ed. 1997)
• Seton-Watson, Hugh. The Russian Empire 1801–1917 (Oxford History of Modern Europe) (1988) excerpt and text search Archived 15 April 2017 at the Wayback Machine
• Treasure, Geoffrey. The Making of Modern Europe, 1648–1780 (3rd ed. 2003). pp. 550–600.

Soviet era

See also:

Bibliography of the Post Stalinist Soviet Union

• Chamberlin, William Henry. The Russian Revolution 1917–1921 (2 vol 1935) online free
• Cohen, Stephen F. Rethinking the Soviet Experience: Politics and History since 1917. (Oxford University Press, 1985)
• Cross, Samuel Hazzard; Sherbowitz-Wetzor, Olgerd P. (1953) [1930]. The Russian Primary Chronicle, Laurentian Text. Translated and edited by Samuel Hazzard Cross and Olgerd P. Sherbowitz-Wetzor (PDF). Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Mediaeval Academy of America. Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 August 2021. Retrieved 26 January 2023.
• Davies, R. W. Soviet economic development from Lenin to Khrushchev (1998) excerpt Archived 27 December 2022 at the Wayback Machine
• Davies, R.W., Mark Harrison and S.G. Wheatcroft. The Economic transformation of the Soviet Union, 1913-1945 (1994)
• Figes, Orlando. A people's tragedy a history of the Russian Revolution (1997) online
• Fitzpatrick, Sheila. The Russian Revolution. (Oxford University Press, 1982), 208 pages.
  ISBN 0-19-280204-6
• Gregory, Paul R. and Robert C. Stuart, Russian and Soviet Economic Performance and Structure (7th ed. 2001)
• Hosking, Geoffrey. The First Socialist Society: A History of the Soviet Union from Within (2nd ed. Harvard UP 1992) 570 pages
• Kennan, George F. Russia and the West under Lenin and Stalin (1961) online
• Kort, Michael. The Soviet Colossus: History and Aftermath (7th ed. 2010) 502 pages
• Kotkin, Stephen. Stalin: Paradoxes of Power, 1878–1928 (2014); vol 2 (2017)
• Library of Congress. Russia: a country study edited by Glenn E. Curtis. (Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, 1996). online Archived 11 July 2012 at archive.today
• Lincoln, W. Bruce. Passage Through Armageddon: The Russians in War and Revolution, 1914–1918 (1986)
• Lewin, Moshe. Russian Peasants and Soviet Power. (Northwestern University Press, 1968)
• McCauley, Martin. The Rise and Fall of the Soviet Union (2007), 522 pages.
• Moss, Walter G. A History of Russia. Vol. 2: Since 1855. 2d ed. Anthem Press, 2005.
• ISBN 0-14-015774-3
  .
• Ofer, Gur. "Soviet Economic Growth: 1928-1985," Journal of Economic Literature (1987) 25#4: 1767–1833. online Archived 11 November 2020 at the Wayback Machine
• Pipes, Richard. A concise history of the Russian Revolution (1995) online
• Regelson, Lev. Tragedy of Russian Church. 1917–1953. http://www.regels.org/Russian-Church.htm Archived 17 February 2015 at the Wayback Machine
• Remington, Thomas. Building Socialism in Bolshevik Russia. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1984.
• Service, Robert. A History of Twentieth-Century Russia. 2nd ed. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999.
  ISBN 0-674-40348-7
  .
• Service, Robert. Stalin: A Biography (2004), along with Tucker and Kotkin, a standard biography
• Steinberg, Mark D. The Russian Revolution, 1905–1921 (Oxford Histories, 2017).
• Tucker, Robert C. Stalin as Revolutionary, 1879–1929 (1973); Stalin in Power: The Revolution from Above, 1929–1941. (1990)along with Kotkin and Service books, a standard biography; online at ACLS e-books

Post-Soviet era

• ISBN 978-0-230-61773-5
• Cohen, Stephen. Failed Crusade: America and the Tragedy of Post-Communist Russia. New York: W.W. Norton, 2000, 320 pages.
  ISBN 0-393-32226-2
• Gregory, Paul R. and Robert C. Stuart, Russian and Soviet Economic Performance and Structure, Addison-Wesley, Seventh Edition, 2001.
• ISBN 978-1-4426-1021-7. Archived
  from the original on 23 April 2023. Retrieved 27 June 2023.
• Medvedev, Roy. Post-Soviet Russia A Journey Through the Yeltsin Era, Columbia University Press, 2002, 394 pages.
  ISBN 0-231-10607-6
• Moss, Walter G. A History of Russia. Vol. 2: Since 1855. 2d ed. Anthem Press, 2005. Chapter 22.
• Smorodinskaya, Tatiana, and Karen Evans-Romaine, eds. Encyclopedia of Contemporary Russian Culture (2014) excerpt Archived 30 March 2022 at the Wayback Machine; 800 pp covering art, literature, music, film, media, crime, politics, business, and economics.
• Stent, Angela. The Limits of Partnership: U.S.-Russian Relations in the Twenty-First Century (2014)

Atlases, geography

• Blinnikov, Mikhail S. A geography of Russia and its neighbors (Guilford Press, 2011)
• Barnes, Ian. Restless Empire: A Historical Atlas of Russia (2015), copies of historic maps
• Catchpole, Brian. A Map History of Russia (Heinemann Educational Publishers, 1974), new topical maps.
• Channon, John, and Robert Hudson. The Penguin Historical Atlas of Russia (Viking, 1995), new topical maps.
• Chew, Allen F. An Atlas of Russian History: Eleven Centuries of Changing Borders (Yale UP, 1970), new topical maps.
• Gilbert, Martin. Routledge Atlas of Russian History (4th ed. 2007) excerpt and text search online
• Henry, Laura A. Red to Green: environmental activism in post-Soviet Russia (2010)
• Kaiser, Robert J. The Geography of Nationalism in Russia and the USSR (1994).
• Medvedev, Andrei. Economic Geography of the Russian Federation by (2000)
• Parker, William Henry. An historical Geography of Russia (University of London Press, 1968)
• Shaw, Denis J. B. Russia in the Modern World: A New Geography (Blackwell, 1998) of Finland.

Historiography

• Baron, Samuel H., and Nancy W. Heer. "The Soviet Union: Historiography Since Stalin." in Georg G. Iggers and Harold Talbot Parker, eds. International handbook of historical studies: contemporary research and theory (Taylor & Francis, 1979). pp. 281–94.
• Boyd, Kelly, ed. (1999). Encyclopedia of Historians and Historical Writing vol 2. Taylor & Francis. pp. 1025–41.
  ISBN 9781884964336
  .
• Confino, Michael (2009). "The New Russian Historiography and the Old—Some Considerations". History & Memory. 21 (2): 7–33.
  S2CID 145645042
  – via Muse.
• Cox, Terry (2002). "The New History of the Russian Peasantry". Journal of Agrarian Change. 2 (4): 570–86.
  doi:10.1111/1471-0366.00046
  .
• David-Fox, Michael et al. eds. After the Fall: Essays in Russian and Soviet Historiography (Bloomington: Slavica Publishers, 2004)
• Dmytryshyn, Basil (1980). "Russian expansion to the Pacific, 1580–1700: A Historiographical Review" (PDF). Slavic Studies. 25: 1–25.
• Firestone, Thomas. "Four Sovietologists: A Primer." National Interest No. 14 (Winter 1988–9), pp. 102–107 on the ideas of Zbigniew Brzezinski, Stephen F. Cohen, Jerry F. Hough, and Richard Pipes.
• Fitzpatrick, Sheila. "Revisionism in Soviet History" History and Theory (2007) 46#4 pp. 77–91 online, covers the scholarship of the three major schools, totalitarianism, revisionism, and post-revisionism.
• Halperin, Charles J. (1987). Russia and the Golden Horde: The Mongol Impact on Medieval Russian History. Indiana University. p. 222.
  ISBN 9781850430575
  . (e-book).
• Martin, Janet (2004). Medieval Russia: 980–1584. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  ISBN 9780521368322. Archived
  from the original on 23 April 2023. Retrieved 11 October 2015. (digital printing 2004)
• Martin, Janet (2009b). "From Kiev to Muscovy: The Beginnings to 1450". In Freeze, Gregory (ed.). Russia: A History. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 1–30.
  ISBN 978-0-19-150121-0
  . (third edition)
• Martin, Russell E (2010). "The Petrine Divide and the Periodization of Early Modern Russian History". Slavic Review. 69 (2): 410–425.
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• Orlovsky, Daniel (1990). "The New Soviet History". Journal of Modern History. 62 (4): 831–50.
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• Sanders, Thomas, ed. Historiography of Imperial Russia: The Profession and Writing of History in a Multinational State (1999).
• Suny, Ronald Grigor. "Rehabilitating Tsarism: The Imperial Russian State and Its Historians. A Review Article" Comparative Studies in Society and History 31#1 (1989) pp. 168–179 online
• Topolski, Jerzy. "Soviet Studies and Social History" in Georg G. Iggers and Harold Talbot Parker, eds. International handbook of historical studies: contemporary research and theory (Taylor & Francis, 1979. pp. 295–300.
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Primary sources

• Kaiser, Daniel H. and Gary Marker, eds. Reinterpreting Russian History: Readings 860-1860s (1994) 464 pages excerpt and text search; primary documents and excerpts from historians
• Vernadsky, George, et al. eds. Source Book for Russian History from Early Times to 1917 (3 vol 1972)
• Seventeen Moments in Soviet History (An on-line archive of primary source materials on Soviet history.)

External links

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• Guides to Sources on Russian History and Historiography
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