History of Senegal

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History of Senegal
Coat of arms of Senegal
flag Senegal portal

A map by Guillaume Delisle (1770)

The history of Senegal is commonly divided into a number of periods, encompassing the

prehistoric
era, the precolonial period, colonialism, and the contemporary era.

Paleolithic

The earliest evidence of human life is found in the valley of the Falémé in the south-east.[1]

The presence of man in the

stone tools characteristic of Acheulean such as hand axes reported by Théodore Monod[2] at the tip of Fann in the peninsula of Cap-Vert in 1938, or cleavers found in the south-east.[3] There were also found stones shaped by the Levallois technique, characteristic of the Middle Paleolithic. Mousterian Industry is represented mainly by scrapers found in the peninsula of Cap-Vert, as well in the low and middle valleys of the Senegal and the Falémé. Some pieces are explicitly linked to hunting, like those found in Tiémassass, near M'Bour, a controversial site that some claim belongs to the Upper Paleolithic,[4] while other argue in favor of the Neolithic.[5]

Neolithic

In Senegambia, the period when humans became hunters, fishermen and producers (farmer and artisan) are all well represented and studied. This is when more elaborate objects and ceramics[6] emerged. But gray areas remain. Although the characteristics and manifestations of civilization from the Neolithic have been identified their origins and relationship have not yet fully defined. What can be distinguished is:

  • The dig of Cape Manuel: the Neolithic deposit Manueline Dakar was discovered in 1940.[7] Basalt rocks including ankaramite were used for making microlithic tools such as axes or planes. Such tools have been found at Gorée and the Magdalen Islands, indicating the activity of shipbuilding by nearby fishermen.
  • The dig of Bel-Air: Neolithic Bélarien tools, usually made out of flint, are present in the dunes of the west, near the current capital. In addition to axes, adzes and pottery, there is also a statuette, the Venus Thiaroye[8]
  • The dig of Khant: the Khanty creek, located in the north near Kayar in the lower valley of the Senegal River, gave its name to a Neolithic industry which mainly uses bone and wood.[9] This deposit is on the list of closed sites and monuments of Senegal.[10]
  • The dig the Falémé located in the south-east of Senegal, has uncovered a Neolithic Falemian tools industry that produced polished materials as diverse as sandstone, hematite, shale, quartz, and flint. Grinding equipment and pottery from the period are well represented at the site.
  • The Neolithic civilization of the Senegal River valley and the
    Ferlo
    are the least well known due to not always being separated.

Prehistory

In the case of Senegal, the periodization of

Tekrur.[12]

A variety of archaeological remains have been found:

Megalithic alignments in Senegal

Early Inhabitants

Maad a Sinig Kumba Ndoffene Fa Ndeb Joof. King of Sine. The Royal House of Boureh Gnilane Joof.

In the absence of written sources and monumental ruins in this region, the history of the early centuries of the modern era must be based primarily on archaeological excavations, the writing of early Arab geographers and travelers, and data derived from oral tradition. Combining these data suggests that Senegal was first populated from the north and east in several waves of migration, the last being that of the

Gambia and Casamance regions indicate "that the earliest inhabitants might be identified most closely with one of several related groups—Bainunk, Kasanga, Beafada... To these were added Serer, who moved southward during the first millennium A.D. from the Senegal River valley, and Mande-speaking peoples, who arrived later still from the east."[25] He also cautions, however, that attempting to project modern-day ethnic definitions onto people who lived hundreds or thousands of years ago is at best highly speculative and at worst counterproductive.[26]

Kingdoms and Empires

Location of the Ghana Empire

The medieval history of the Sahel is characterized by the consolidation of settlements into large state entities – the

Republic of Mali, so current-day Senegal occupied a peripheral position.[27]

The earliest of these empires is that of Ghana, probably founded in the

first millennium by Soninke and whose animist populations subsisted by agriculture and trade across the Sahara,[28] including gold, salt and cloth. Its area of influence slowly spread to regions between the river valleys of the Senegal and Niger
.

A contemporary empire of Ghana, but less extensive, the kingdom of

slaves.[33] Indeed, the growth of a vast empire by Arab-Muslim Jihads is not devoid of economic and political issues and brought in its wake the first real growth of the slave trade. This trade called the trans-Saharan slave trade provided North Africa and Saharan Africa with slave labor. The Tekrur were among the first converts to Islam, certainly before 1040.[34]

Wolof of Waalo, in "war costume" (1846)
Extension of the Mali Empire at its height

Two other major political entities were formed and grew during the 13th and 14th century: the Mali Empire and the Jolof Empire which become the vassal of the first in its heyday. Originating in the Mandinka invasion, Mali continued to expand, encompassing first eastern Senegal, and later almost all the present territory. Founded in the 14th century by the possibly mythical chief of the Wolof Ndiadiane Ndiaye,[35] who was a Serer of Waalo (Ndiaye is originally a Serer surname[36]

Saloum), bringing together all the Senegambia to which he gave religious and social unity:[dubious – discuss] the "Grand Djolof" [41]
which collapsed in 1550.

The Jolof Empire was founded by a voluntary confederacy of States; it was not an empire built on military conquest in spite of what the word "empire" implies.[42][43] The Serer tradition of Sine attests that the Kingdom of Sine never paid tribute to Ndiadiane Ndiaye nor to any member of his descendants that ruled Djolof. Historian Sylviane Diouf states that "Each vassal kingdom—Walo, Takrur, Kayor, Baol, Sine, Salum, Wuli, and Niani—recognized the hegemony of Jolof and paid tribute."[44] It went on to state that, Ndiadiane Ndiaye himself received his name from the mouth of Maissa Wali (the King of Sine).[45] In the epics of Ndiadiane and Maissa Wali, it is well acknowledged that Maissa Wali was pivotal in the founding of this Empire.[citation needed] It was he who nominated Ndiadiane Ndiaye and called for the other states to join this confederacy, which they did, and the "empire" headed by Ndiadiane, who took residence at Djolof.[45][46] It is for this reason scholars propose that the empire was more like a voluntary confederacy than an empire built on military conquest.[42][43]

The arrival of Europeans engendered autonomy of small kingdoms which were under the influence of

marabouts
played an increasing role.

In

Diola inhabited the coastal area while the mainland – unified 13th century under the name of Kaabu – was occupied by the Mandingo. In the 15th century, the king of one of the tribes, Kassas gave his name to the region: Kassa Mansa (King of Kassas). Until the French intervention The Casamance was a heterogeneous entity, weakened by internal rivalries.[48]

The era of trading posts and trafficking

See also:
Triangular Trade

According to several ancient sources, including occasions by the Dictionnaire de pédagogie et d'instruction primaire by

Dieppe
Mariners in the 14th century. Flattering for Norman sailors, this argument gives credence also to the idea of a precedence of the French presence in the region, but it is not confirmed by subsequent work.

In the mid-15th century, several European nations reached the coast of West Africa, vested successively or simultaneously by the Portuguese, the Dutch, the English and French. Europeans first settled along the coasts, on islands in the mouths of rivers and then a little further upstream. They opened trading posts and engaged in the "trade:" – a term which, under the

privilege
.

The Portuguese navigators

Main article: Portuguese Empire
Portuguese colonies and posts under the reign of João III, 16th century

Encouraged by

slaves, Portuguese explorers explored the African coast and ventured still farther south.[51]

In 1444

Joal in the Kingdom of Sine
.

They also traversed the lower Casamance[55] and founded Ziguinchor in 1645. The introduction of Christianity accompanied this business expansion.

The Dutch West India Company

Main article: Senegambia (Dutch West India Company)

After the

Gambia, Ghana and Angola
.

The Dutch West India Company at Amsterdam in 1655

Created in 1621, the Dutch West India Company purchased the island of Gorée in 1627.[56] The company built two forts that are in ruins today: in 1628 on the face of Nassau Cove and 1639 at Nassau on the hill, as well as warehouses for goods destined for the mainland trading posts .

In his Description of Africa (1668), the humanist Dutch Olfert Dapper gives the etymology of the name given to it by his countrymen, Goe-ree Goede Reede, that is to say "good harbor".,[57] which is the name of (part of) an island in the Dutch province of Zeeland as well.

The Dutch settlers occupied the island for nearly half a century, dealing in wax, amber, gold, ivory and also participated in the slave trade, but kept away from foreign trading posts on the coast. The Dutch were dislodged several times: in 1629 by the Portuguese, in 1645 and 1659 by the French and in 1663 by the English.

Against the backdrop of Anglo-French rivalry

The "trade" and the slave trade intensified in the 17th century. In Senegal, the French and British competed mainly on two issues, the island of Gorée and St. Louis. On 10 February 1763 the Treaty of Paris ended the Seven Years' War and reconciled, after three years of negotiations, France, Great Britain and Spain. Great Britain returned the island of Gorée to France. Britain then acquired from France, among many other territories, "the river of Senegal, with forts & trading posts St. Louis, Podor, and Galam and all rights & dependencies of the said River of Senegal.".[58]

Under

Dieppe and Rouen merchants responsible for the operation in Senegal and the Gambia. It was dissolved in 1658 and its assets were acquired by the Company of Cape Vert and Senegal, itself expropriated following the creation by Colbert in 1664 of the French West India Company
.

The Company of Senegal was in turn founded by Colbert in 1673. It became the major tool of French colonialism in Senegal, but saddled with debt, it was dissolved 1681 and replaced by another that lasted until 1694, the date of creation of the Royal Company of Senegal, whose director, Andre Brue, would be captured by Lat Sukaabe Fall the Damel of Cayor and released against ransom in 1701. A third Company of Senegal was founded in 1709 and lasted until 1718. On the British side, the monopoly of trade with Africa was granted to the Royal African Company in 1698.

The List of Complaints of Saint-Louis du Sénégal (1789)
« Plan de l'isle de Gorée avec ses deux forts et le combat que nous avons rendu le premier du mois de novembre 1677 »

Grand Master of the naval war of

Jean II d'Estrées seized Gorée on 1 November 1677. The island was taken by the English on 4 February 1693 before being again occupied by the French four months later. In 1698 the Director of the Company of Senegal, Andre Brue, restored the fortifications. But Gorée was again captured by the British in 1758 during the Seven Years' War.[59] However, under the 1763 Treaty of Paris ending the war, although Senegal was given to the British, the island of Gorée was returned to France.[60]

The excellent location of St. Louis caught the attention of the English, who occupied it three times, first for a few months in 1693, second during the Seven Years' War from 1758 until it was retaken for the French by Armand Louis de Gontaut in 1779, and lastly from 1809 to 1816 during the Napoleonic wars.

After the 1763 Treaty of Paris, the British united their colony of The Gambia with Senegal into Senegambia. The British retook Gorée during the Anglo-French War; however, British possession of Gorée was brief.

In 1783 the Treaty of Versailles returned Senegal to France,[61] and Senegambia was no more.

Nine companies, in succession, received the African monopoly of gum acacia from the French Crown. Seven of them went bankrupt. Among them were the Compagnie d’Afrique and the Compagnie du Sénégal. The last was the Compagnie de la Gomme which failed in 1793.[62]

Appointed governor in 1785,

Knight Boufflers focuses for two years to enhance the colony, while engaged in the smuggling of gum arabic and gold with signares
.

In 1789 the people of

Kingdom of Galam
.

A trading economy

The Europeans were sometimes disappointed because they hoped to find more gold in West Africa, but when the development of

Church itself has an interest in the colonial system. Traffic of "ebony" was an issue for warriors who traditionally reduced the vanquished to slavery. Some people specialized in the slave trade, for example the Dyula in West Africa. States and kingdoms competed, along with private traders who became much richer in the triangular trade
(although some shipments resulted in real financial disaster). Politico-military instability in the region was compounded by the slave trade.

A ball signares in St. Louis (burning 1890)

The Black Code, enacted in 1685, regulated the trafficking of slaves in the American colonies.

In Senegal, trading posts were established in

Kingdom of Galam, was in the 18th century a French engine of trafficking in Senegambia
.

In parallel, a mestizo society develops in St. Louis and Gorée.

Slavery was abolished by the National Convention in 1794, then reinstated by Bonaparte in 1802. The British Empire abolished slavery in 1833; in France it was finally abolished in the Second Republic in 1848, under the leadership of Victor Schœlcher.

The progressive weakening of the colony

In 1815, the Congress of Vienna condemned slavery. But this would not change much economically for the Africans.

After the departure of

Governor Schmaltz (he had taken office at the end of the wreck of the Medusa), Roger Baron particularly encouraged the development of the peanut, "the earth pistachio", whose monoculture
would be long because of the severe economic backwardness of Senegal. Despite the ferocity of the Baron, the company was a failure.

The colonization of

Emmanuel Bertrand Bocandé, a Nantes
businessman.

Modern colonialism

Main article: French conquest of Senegal
Maison des Esclaves on Gorée
Island
Saint-Louis in 1780
French West Africa in 1890

Various European powers – Portugal, the Netherlands, and England – competed for trade in the area from the 15th century onward, until in 1677, France ended up in possession of what had become a minor slave trade departure point—the infamous island of

captured by a British expedition as part of the Seven Years' War, but was later returned to France. It was only in the 1850s that the French, under the governor, Louis Faidherbe
, began to expand their foothold onto the Senegalese mainland, at the expense of the native kingdoms.

The Four Communes of Saint-Louis, Dakar, Gorée, and Rufisque were the oldest colonial towns in French controlled west Africa. In 1848, the French Second Republic extended the rights of full French citizenship to their inhabitants. While those who were born in these towns could technically enjoy all the rights of native French citizens, substantial legal and social barriers prevented the full exercise of these rights, especially by those seen by authorities as full blooded Africans.

Most of the African population of these towns were termed originaires: those Africans born into the commune, but who retained recourse to African and/or Islamic law (the so-called "personal status"). Those few Africans from the four communes who were able to pursue higher education and were willing to renounce their legal protections could "rise" to be termed Évolué ("Evolved") and were nominally granted full French citizenship, including the vote. Despite this legal framework, Évolués still faced substantial discrimination in Africa and the Metropole alike.

On 27 April 1848, following the February revolution in France, a law was passed in Paris enabling the Four Communes to elect a Deputy to the French Parliament for the first time. On 2 April 1852 the parliamentary seat for Senegal was abolished by

French Second Empire
, the Four Communes was again allowed a parliamentary seat which was granted by law on 1 February 1871. On 30 December 1875 this seat was again abolished, but only for a few years as it was reinstated on 8 April 1879, and remained the single parliamentary representation from sub-Saharan Africa anywhere in a European legislature until the fall of the third republic in 1940.

It was only in 1916 that originaires were granted full voting rights while maintaining legal protections.

decolonisation
struggle.

List of deputies elected to the French Parliament

The French Second Republic:

Arrival of Blaise Diagne, Deputy for Senegal, High Commissioner of the Government for the recruitment of black troops in Dakar in March 1918

The French Third Republic:

Flag of French Senegal (1958–1959)

1945–1959:

Following the 1945 elections to the Constituent Assembly in France, which were held with a very limited franchise, the French authorities gradually extended the franchise until—in November 1955—the principle of universal suffrage was passed into law and implemented the following year. The first electoral contests held under universal suffrage were the municipal elections of November 1956. The first national contest was the 31 March 1957 election of the Territorial Assembly.[69]

Independence

Fédération du Mali

In January 1959, Senegal and the

Léopold Senghor
, internationally known poet, politician, and statesman, was elected Senegal's first president in August 1960.

The 1960s and early 1970s saw the continued and persistent violating of Senegal's borders by the Portuguese military from Portuguese Guinea. In response, Senegal petitioned the United Nations Security Council in 1963, 1965, 1969 (in response to shelling by Portuguese artillery), 1971 and finally in 1972.

After the breakup of the Mali Federation, President Senghor and Prime Minister

attempted coup
by Prime Minister Dia. The coup was put down without bloodshed and Dia was arrested and imprisoned. Senegal adopted a new constitution that consolidated the President's power.

Senghor was considerably more tolerant of opposition than most African leaders became in the 1960s. Nonetheless, political activity was somewhat restricted for a time. Senghor's party, the Senegalese Progressive Union (now the Socialist Party of Senegal), was the only legally permitted party from 1965 until 1975. In the latter year, Senghor allowed the formation of two opposition parties that began operation in 1976—a Marxist party (the African Independence Party) and a liberal party (the Senegalese Democratic Party).

In 1980, President Senghor retired from politics, and handed power over to his handpicked successor, Prime Minister Abdou Diouf, in 1981.

1980–present

Senegal joined with

Senegambia on 1 February 1982. However, the envisaged integration of the two countries was never carried out and the union was dissolved in 1989. Despite peace talks, a southern separatist group in the Casamance region has clashed sporadically with government forces since 1982. Senegal has a long history of participating in international peacekeeping.[70]

Abdou Diouf was president between 1981 and 2000.[71] Diouf served four terms as president. In the presidential election of 2000, he was defeated in a free and fair election by opposition leader Abdoulaye Wade.[72] Senegal experienced its second peaceful transition of power and its first from one political party to another.

On 30 December 2004, President Abdoulaye Wade announced that he would sign a peace treaty with two separatist factions of the

refugees began returning home from neighboring Guinea-Bissau. However, at the beginning of 2007, refugees began fleeing again as the sight of Senegalese troops rekindled fears of a new outbreak of violence between the separatists and the government.[74]

Abdoulaye Wade conceded defeat to Macky Sall in the election of 2012.[75] In February 2019, president Macky Sall was re-elected and he won a second term. The length of presidential term was reduced from seven years to five.[76]

In March 2024, Opposition candidate Bassirou Diomaye Faye won the Senegal’s presidential election over the candidate of the ruling coalition, becoming the youngest president in Senegal’s history.[77]

See also

References

  1. ^ Unless otherwise stated, the material in this part is based on Ndiouga Benga and on Mandiomé Thiam, "prehistory prehistory and history", in Atlas du Sénégal, op. cit., p. 74
  2. ^ (in French) Théodore Monod, « Sur la découverte du Paléolithique ancien à Dakar », Bulletin du Comité d'études historiques et scientifiques de l'AOF, t. XXI, 1938, pp. 518–519
  3. ^ (in French) Abdoulaye Camara et Bertrand Duboscq, La préhistoire dans le Sud-Est du Sénégal, Actes du 2e Colloque de Kédougou, 18–22 fév. 1985, Doc. du CRA du Musée de l'Homme (Paris), n° 11, 1987, pp. 19–48
  4. ^ (in French) Th. Dagan, « Le Site préhistorique de Tiémassas (Sénégal) », Bulletin de l'Institut français d'Afrique noire, 1956, pp. 432–448
  5. ^ (in French) Cyr Descamps, « Quelques réflexions sur le Néolithique du Sénégal », West African Journal of Archaeology, 1981, vol. 10–11, pp. 145–151
  6. ^ (in French) Mandiomé Thiam, La céramique au Sénégal : Archéologie et Histoire, Université de Paris I, 1991, 464 pages (thèse de doctorat)
  7. ^ (in French) « Le gisement du Cap Manuel », conférence de Cyr Descamps, en ligne "Le Gisement du Cap Manuel (Dakar, Sénégal)". Archived from the original on 18 February 2010. Retrieved 2 July 2010.
  8. ^ (in Spanish) « Prehistoria de África: Manifestaciones artísticas. Esculturas. Senegal » [1]
  9. Présence africaine
    , 1998, n° 158, pp. 7–22
  10. ^ a b "Arrêté n° 12.09.2007 portant publication de la liste des sites et monuments historiques classés" (in French). Ministre de la Culture et du Patrimoine historique classé. 12 September 2007. Archived from the original on 20 February 2012. Retrieved 2 July 2008.
  11. ^ (in French) Guy Thilmans, Cyr Descamps et B. Khayat, Protohistoire du Sénégal : recherches archéologiques, tome 1 : Les Sites Mégalithiques, IFAN, Dakar, 1980, 158 pages
  12. ^ See his third thesis supported at the Sorbonne in 1986, La Métallurgie du fer au Sénégal et ses travaux des années 1990 on this topic
  13. ^ (in French) Edmond Dioh et Mathieu Gueye, « Les amas coquilliers de la lagune de Joal-Fadiouth (région de Thiès) », dans Senegalia, op. cit., pp. 323–328.
  14. ^ "Saloum Delta". World Heritage Site. Archived from the original on 6 October 2012. Retrieved 29 August 2012.
  15. ^ (in French) Annie Ravisé, Contribution à l'étude des Kjökkenmöddinger (amas artificiels de coquillages) dans la région de Saint-Louis, Dakar, Université de Dakar, 1969 (mémoire de Maîtrise)
  16. ^ Olga Linares de Sapir, « Shell middens of lower Casamance and problems of Diola protohistory », West African Journal of Archaeology, Oxford University Press, Ibadan, 1971, vol. I, pp. 23–54.
  17. ^ (in French) Jean-Léopold Diouf, Dictionnaire wolof-français et français-wolof, Paris: Karthala, 2003, p. 216.
  18. ^ (in French) Raymond Mauny, Tableau géographique de l'Ouest africain au Moyen-Âge d'après les sources écrites, la tradition et l'archéologie, Amsterdam: Swets et Zeitlinger, 1967, p. 163.
  19. ^ "Cercles mégalithiques de Sénégambie" (in French). UNESCO. Retrieved 2 July 2008.
  20. ^ (in French) Augustin Holl et Hamady Bocoum, « Variabilité des pratiques funéraires dans le mégalithisme sénégambien : le cas de Sine Ngayène », dans Senegalia, op. cit., pp. 224–234
  21. ^ (in French) Bruno Chavane, Recherches archéologiques dans la moyenne vallée du fleuve Sénégal, 1979 (thèse)
  22. ^ (in French) Guy Thilmans, « Les disques perforés en céramique des sites protohistoriques du fleuve Sénégal », Notes africaines, n° 162, 1979, pp. 29–35.
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  24. ^ Fall, Mamadou (2021). "Les Terroirs Historiques et la Poussée Soninké". In Fall, Mamadou; Fall, Rokhaya; Mane, Mamadou (eds.). Bipolarisation du Senegal du XVIe - XVIIe siécle (in French). Dakar: HGS Editions. p. 28.
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  27. ^ (in French) Gerti Hesseling, Histoire politique du Sénégal. Institutions, droit et société, Paris: Karthala, 1985, p. 103.
  28. ^ (in French) Mahamadou Maiga, Le bassin du fleuve Sénégal – De la traite négrière au développement sous-régional autocentré, Paris: L’Harmattan, 1995, p. 20.
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  32. ^ (in French) « Discussion sur les croisements ethniques », séance du 2 février 1865, Bulletin de la société d'anthropologie, tome 6, fasc. 4, p. 67.
  33. ^ (in French) Gerti Hesseling, op. cit., p. 104.
  34. ^ (in French) Raymond Mauny, op. cit., p. 523
  35. ^ (in French) Samba Lampsar Sall, Njajaan Njaay. Les mythes de fondation de l'Empire du Djolof, Dakar, Université de Dakar, 1982, 157 pages (Mémoire de Maîtrise)
  36. ^ William J. Foltz. From French West Africa to the Mali Federation, Volume 12 of Yale studies in political science, p136. Published by Yale University Press, 1965
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  38. ^ The name comes from the Serer language. See: Victoria Bomba Coifman. History of the Wolof state of Jolof until 1860 including comparative data from the Wolof state of Walo, University of Wisconsin–Madison, 1969, p. 276.
  39. ^ See also: Godfrey Mwakikagile. Gambia and Its People: Ethnic Identities and Cultural Integration in Africa, p. 94.
  40. Tekrur
    . See Henry Gravrand. "La Civilisation Sereer", Pangool, p. 91. See also:
    • Ed Hindson & Ergun Caner. The Popular Encyclopedia of Apologetics: Surveying the Evidence for the Truth of Christianity, p. 21. Harvest House Publishers, 2008.
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  41. ^ (in French) Jean Boulègue, Le grand Jolof, XIIIe-XVIe siècle, vol. 1: Les Anciens Royaumes Wolof, Façades, Blois ; Paris: Karthala, 207 pp.
  42. ^ a b Charles, Eunice A. Precolonial Senegal: the Jolof Kingdom, 1800–1890. African Studies Center, Boston University, 1977. p 3
  43. ^
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  44. ^ Diouf, Sylviane, Servants of Allah: African Muslims enslaved in the Americas (New York: New York University Press, 1998), 19
  45. ^ a b Diouf, Niokhobaye. "Chronique du royaume du Sine" par suivie de Notes sur les traditions orales et les sources écrites concernant le royaume du Sine par Charles Becker et Victor Martin. Bulletin de l'Ifan, Tome 34, Série B, n° 4, 1972. p706
  46. ^ Stride, G.T. & C. Ifeka: "Peoples and Empires of West Africa: West Africa in History 1000–1800" page 22. Nelson, 1971
  47. ^ (in French) Gerti Hesseling, op. cit., p. 105
  48. ^ (in French) Djibril Diop, Décentralisation et gouvernance locale au Sénégal. Quelle pertinence pour le développement local ?, Paris: L'Harmattan, 2006, p. 29.
  49. ^ (in French) Ferdinand Édouard Buisson, Dictionnaire de pédagogie et d'instruction primaire, 1887, p. 442.
  50. ^ (in French) Olivier Pétré-Grenouilleau, Les traites négrières. Documentation photographique, La Documentation française, n° 8032, 2003.
  51. ^ (in French) Joseph Roger de Benoist et Abdoulaye Camara (et al.), Histoire de Gorée, Paris: Maisonneuve et Larose, 2003, p. 12.
  52. ^ This place corresponds to the area of Cape Vert in Senegal today and not to the îles du Cap-Vert which aren't discovered until 1456.
  53. ^ (in French) Joseph Roger de Benoist et Abdoulaye Camara, op. cit., pp. 15 and 139.
  54. ^ (in French) Abbé David Boilat, « Notice sur Tanguegueth ou Rufisque », Esquisses sénégalaises, Karthala, Paris, 1984 (1st edn 1853), p. 55.
  55. ^ (in French) Christian Roche, Histoire de la Casamance. Conquête et résistance : 1850–1920, Paris: Karthala, 1985 (1st edn 1976), p. 67
  56. ^ The date of 1617, cited by Olfert Dapper in Description de l'Afrique contenant les noms, la situation & les confins de toutes ses parties, leurs rivières, leurs villes & leurs habitations, leurs plantes & leurs animaux : les moeurs, les coutumes, la langue, les richesses, la religion & le gouvernement de ses peuples : avec des cartes des États, des provinces & des villes, & des figures en taille-douce, qui representent les habits & les principales cérémonies des habitants, les plantes & les animaux les moins connus, W. Waesberge, Boom et Van Someren, Amsterdam, édition de 1686, p. 229, is reprised in many sources. Implausible, given thé date of creation of the company, it is challenged by two historians of Gorée: J.-R. de Benoist et A. Camara, op. cit., pp. 15–18
  57. ^ (in French) Olfert Dapper, op. cit., p. 229
  58. ^ Wikisource: Article 10 of the Treaty of Paris of 1763 Treaty of Paris(1763)
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  60. ^ "His Britannick Majesty shall restore to France the island of Goree in the condition it was in when conquered: and his Most Christian Majesty cedes, in full right, and guaranties to the King of Great Britain the river Senegal, with the forts and factories of St. Lewis, Podor, and Galam, and with all the rights and dependencies of the said river Senegal." – Article X of the Treaty of Paris (1763) at Wikisource.
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  63. ^ "Goree and the Atlantic Slave Trade", Philip Curtin, History Net Archived 2 April 2016 at the Wayback Machine, accessed 9 July 2008.
  64. ^ Les Guides Bleus: Afrique de l'Ouest(1958 ed.), p. 123.
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Further reading

English Language

French language

Primary sources

  • Michel Adanson, Histoire naturelle du Sénégal. Coquillages. Avec la relation abrégée d'un voyage fait en ce pays pendant les années 1749, 50, 51, 52 et 53, Paris, 1757, réédité partiellement sous le titre Voyage au Sénégal, présenté et annoté par Denis Reynaud et Jean Schmidt, Publications de l'Université de Saint-Étienne, 1996.
  • Stanislas, chevalier de Boufflers, Lettres d'Afrique à Madame de Sabran, préface, notes et dossier de François Bessire, s. l., Babel, 1998, 453 pages (coll. Les Épistolaires)
  • Marie Brantôme, Le Galant exil du marquis de Boufflers, 1786
  • Jean Baptiste Léonard Durand, Voyage au Sénégal 1785–1786, Paris: Agasse, 1802.
  • Georges Hardy, La mise en valeur du Sénégal de 1817 à 1854, Paris: Larose, 1921, XXXIV + 376 pages (Thèse de Lettres)
  • André Charles, marquis de La Jaille, Voyage au Sénégal pendant les années 1784 et 1785, avec des notes jusqu’à l'an X par P. Labarthe, Paris, Denter,1802.
  • Saugnier, Relation des voyages de Saugnier à la côte d'Afrique, au Maroc, au Sénégal, à Gorée, à Galam, publiée par Laborde, Paris: Lamy, 1799.
  • René Claude Geoffroy de Villeneuve, L’Afrique ou Histoire, mœurs, usages et coutumes des Africains : le Sénégal, orné de 44 planches exécutées la plupart d'après des dessins originaux inédits faits sur les lieux, Paris: Nepveu,1814.

Secondary sources

External links
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