History of Sindh

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History of Sindh
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Statue of an Indus priest or king found in Mohenjodaro, 1927
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History of provinces

The history of Sindh refers to the history of the Pakistani province of Sindh, as well as neighboring regions that periodically came under its sway.

Sindh was the site of one of the

Indo-Scythians and Indo-Parthians
ruled in Sindh.

Sindh is sometimes referred to as the Bab-ul Islam (transl. 'Gateway of

Mughal empire conquered Sindh in 1591 and organized it as Subah of Thatta, the first-level imperial division. Sindh again became independent under Kalhora dynasty. The British conquered Sindh in 1843 AD after Battle of Hyderabad from the Talpur dynasty
. Sindh became separate province in 1936, and after independence became part of Pakistan.

Sindh is home to two UNESCO-designated World Heritage Sites: the Makli Necropolis and Mohenjo-daro.[4]

Etymology

The Greeks who conquered Sindh in 325 BC under the command of Alexander the Great referred to the Indus River as Indós, hence the modern Indus. The ancient Iranians referred to everything east of the river Indus as hind.[5][6] The word Sindh is a Persian derivative of the Sanskrit term Sindhu, meaning "river" - a reference to Indus River.[7] Southworth suggests that the name Sindhu is in turn derived from Cintu, a Dravidian word for date palm, a tree commonly found in Sindh.[8][9]

The previous spelling "Sind" (from the Perso-Arabic سند) was discontinued in 1988 by an amendment passed in

Sindh Assembly,[10]
and is now spelt "Sindh."

Bronze age

Indus Valley Civilization (3300–1300 BC)

Dancing Girl of Mohenjo-daro
Excavated ruins of the Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro in Sindh
Main article:
Indus Valley Civilization

Sindh and surrounding areas contain the ruins of the Indus Valley Civilization. There are remnants of thousand-year-old cities and structures, with a notable example in Sindh being that of

Caral-Supe. Mohenjo-daro was abandoned in the 19th century BCE as the Indus Valley Civilization declined, and the site was not rediscovered until the 1920s. Significant excavation has since been conducted at the site of the city, which was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1980.[12] The site is currently threatened by erosion and improper restoration.[13]

The cities of the ancient Indus were noted for their

baked brick houses, elaborate drainage systems, water supply systems, clusters of large non-residential buildings, and techniques of handicraft and metallurgy.[a] Mohenjo-daro and Harappa very likely grew to contain between 30,000 and 60,000 individuals,[15] and the civilisation may have contained between one and five million individuals during its florescence.[16] A gradual drying of the region during the 3rd millennium BCE may have been the initial stimulus for its urbanisation. Eventually it also reduced the water supply enough to cause the civilisation's demise and to disperse its population to the east.[b]

Iron age (c. 1300 – c. 518 BC)

Sindhu-Sauvera kingdoms

Main article: Sindhu-Sauvīra
The Sindhu-Sauvīra kingdom and the Mahājanapadas in the Post Vedic period

Sindhu-Sauvīra (Sanskrit: Sindhu-Sauvīra; Pāli: Sindhu-Sovīra) was an ancient Indo-Aryan kingdom of western South Asia whose existence is attested during the Iron Age. The inhabitants of Sindu were called the Saindhavas, and the inhabitants of Sauvīra were called Sauvīrakas.

The territory of Sindhu-Sauvīra covered the lower Indus Valley,[17] with its southern border being the Indian Ocean and its northern border being the Punjab around Multan.[18]

Sindhu was the name of the inland area between the Indus River and the Sulaiman Mountains, while Sauvīra was the name for the coastal part of the kingdom as well as the inland area to the east of the Indus river as far north as the area of modern-day Multan.[18]

The capital of Sindhu-Sauvīra was named Roruka and Vītabhaya or Vītībhaya, and corresponds to the mediaeval Arohṛ and the modern-day Rohṛī.[18][19][20]

Ancient history

Achaemenid Era (516–326 BC)

Main article: Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley

Achaemenid empire may have controlled parts of present-day Sindh as part of the province of Hindush. The territory may have corresponded to the area covering the lower and central Indus basin (present day Sindh and the southern Punjab regions of Pakistan).[21] To the north of Hindush was Gandāra (spelt as Gandāra by the Achaememids). These areas remained under Persian control until the invasion by Alexander.[22]

Alternatively, some authors consider that Hindush may have been located in the Punjab area.[23]

Hellenistic era (326–317 BC)

Main article: Indian campaign of Alexander the Great
City of Patala below Alexandria on the Indus[24][25]

Alexander conquered parts of Sindh after Punjab for few years and appointed his general Peithon as governor. The ancient city of Patala was located at the mouth of the Indus River. The Indus parted into two branches at the city of Patala before reaching the sea, and the island thus formed was called Patalene, the district of Patala. Alexander constructed a harbour at Patala.[26][27]

Some scholars identify Patala with Thatta, a one-time capital of Sindh.[24][25] But the identity of Patala is much debated among scholars.

Siltation has caused the Indus to change its course many times since the days of Alexander the Great, and the site of ancient Patala has been subject to much conjecture.[28]

Mauryan Era (316–180 BC)

Main article:
Maurya empire

Chandragupta Maurya had established his empire around 320 BC. The early life of Chandragupta Maurya is not clear. Janapadas of Punjab and Sindh, he had gone on to conquer much of the North West. He then defeated the Nanda rulers in Pataliputra to capture the throne. Chandragupta Maurya fought Alexander's successor in the east, Seleucus I Nicator, when the latter invaded. In a peace treaty, Seleucus ceded all territories west of the Indus River and offered a marriage, including a portion of Bactria, while Chandragupta granted Seleucus 500 elephants.[29]

The Mauryan Empire, under king

Sindhi people, prior to the arrival of Buddhism in the 3rd century BCE.[33]

Indo-Greek era (180–90 BC)

Main article:
Indo-Greek kingdom

Following a century of Mauryan rule which ended by 180 BC, the region came under the Indo-Greeks. According to Apollodorus of Artemita, quoted by Strabo, the Indo-Greek territory of Sindh was known as Sigerdis.[34]

Indo Scythians (90–20 BC)

Main article: Indo-Scythians
Bhanbhore port city dates from 1st century BC, from Scytho-Parthian era.

The

Indus Valley, as well as Roman Tabula Peutingeriana.[37] The Periplus states that Minnagara
was the capital of Scythia, and that Parthian Princes from within it were fighting for its control during the 1st century CE.

Gupta Empire (345-455 AD)

Main article: Gupta Empire
Prince of Wales Museum describes the style of Mirpur Khas stupa as a conflation of the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara, and Gupta art
:

"The terracotta figures of Mirpur Khas represent the Gupta Empire as it flourished in Sindh. (...) In the terracottas of Mirpur Khas, of which the Museum has a most representative collection, one may see the synthesis of Gandhara and Gupta traditions . Here the old sacrosanct forms of Gandhara are moulded in the Gupta character of nobility , restraint and spirituality and the result is very pleasing. The figures of the Buddha from Mirpur Khas show transformation from the Gandhara to Gupta idiom , which the figures of the donor and Kubera show well developed Gupta types."

— Prince of Wales Museum of Western India[49]

Buddhism despite having a long illustrious history in Sindh, declined during the reign of the Gupta Empire, due to preference given to the propagation of Hinduism again in the region. Hinduism soon became the predominant religion in the province again.[33][50][51]

Sassanian Empire (325–489 AD)

Main article: Hind (Sasanian province)
Gold coins of Sasanian Empire ruler Shapur III (r. 383–388), minted in Sindh, modern Pakistan. Obverse: portrait of Shapur III, Brahmi script character Śrī ("Lord") in front of the King. Degraded Pahlavi legend around. Reverse: fire altar with attendants.[52][53]

Sasanian rulers from the reign of Shapur I claimed control of the Sindh area in their inscriptions. Shapur I installed his son Narseh as "King of the Sakas" in the areas of Eastern Iran as far as Sindh.[54] Two inscriptions during the reign of Shapur II mention his control of the regions of Sindh, Sakastan and Turan.[55] Still, the exact term used by the Sasanian rulers in their inscription is Hndy, similar to Hindustan, which cannot be said for sure to mean "Sindh".[52] Al-Tabari mentioned that Shapur II built cities in Sind and Sijistan.[56][57]


Rai Dynasty (c. 489 – 632 AD)

Main article: Rai dynasty
The Rai dynasty, circa 550–600 CE[58]

The Rai dynasty of Sindh was the first dynasty of Sindh and at its height of power ruled much of the Northwestern regions of the Indian subcontinent. The dynasty reigned for a period of 144 years, c. 489 – 632 AD, concurrent with the Huna invasions of North India.[59] The names of rulers might have been corruptions of Sanskrit names — Devaditya, Harsha, and SInhasena.[59][60] The origins of the dynasty, caste status, and how they rose to power remains unknown.[59][60] They apparently had familial ties with other rulers of South Asia including Kashmir, Kabul, Rajasthan, Gujarat, etc. — Aror is noted to be the capital of both Hind and Sindh.[59][61] Alexander Cunningham had proposed an alternate chronology (? – >641 AD) — primarily on the basis of numismatic and literary evidence[c] — identifying the first two Rais as Hunas and the later three as rulers of Zabulistan and Khorasan.[60][d] However, there exists little historical evidence to favor the proposition of Hunas ever making to Sindh and the individual bases of his hypothesis stands discredited in modern scholarship.[60] Chintaman Vinayak Vaidya supported Cunningham's chronology (? – >641 AD) but held the Rais to be descendants of Mauryas and Shudra, by caste.[60][e]

Harsha Empire

Harshacharitta, a biography written by Banabhatta mentions King Harsha badly defeated the ruler of Sindh and took possession of his fortunes.[62]

Brahmin dynasty (c. 632 – c. 724 AD)

Main article:
Brahman dynasty
Territory of the Chach dynasty circa 600–650 CE[63]

The

Chacha Empire. The Brahmin dynasty were successors of the Buddhist Rai dynasty. The dynasty ruled on the Indian subcontinent which originated in the region of Sindh, present-day Pakistan. Most of the information about its existence comes from the Chach Nama
, a historical account of the Chach-Brahmin dynasty.

Chinese traveller,

Brahminical Hinduism had once again gained the majority dominance.[66][67]

Chacha empire, prior to the arrival of Islam with the Arab invasions, although a significant minority of the Sindhi population adhered to Buddhism as well.[68] Hindus made up almost two-thirds of the ethnic Sindhi population before the arrival of Islam in the region.[33] At the time of the invasions, Sindhi Hindus were a rural pastoral population, majority of whom lived in upper Sindh, a region that was entirely Hindu;[69] whereas Buddhists were a mercantile population, almost entirely concentrated in the urban areas between lower Sindh and Makran, a region that was equally divided in population between Buddhists and Hindus.[69]

The primary sources describe that

Buddhist community despised and opposed the local Brahmin ruler, hence sympathizing with the Arab invaders and even helping them in times.[74]

On the other hand,

Raja Dahir, whereas the eastern Hindu Jats supported Dahir, against the invaders.[76]

After the Chacha Empire's fall in 712, though the empire had ended, its dynasty's members administered parts of Sindh under the Umayyad Caliphate's

Caliphal province of Sind.[64] These rulers include Hullishāh and Shishah.[64]

Medieval era

Arab Sindh (711–854 AD)

Main article:
Arab Sindh
Qasim-era Umayyad coinage of Sind, minted in "al-Hind" (India; possibly at Multan), dated 97 AH (c. 715 CE), per obverse circular legend: In the name of Allah, struck this dirham in al-Hind (India in Abd al-Malik al-Hind coin 715 CE) in the year seven and ninety

After the death of the Islamic prophet

Persia. An initial expedition in the region launched because of the Sindhi pirate attacks on Arabs in 711–12, failed.[77][78]

The first clash with the Hindu kings of Sindh took place in 636 (15 A.H.) under Caliph

Uthman ibn Abu-al-Aas, dispatching naval expeditions against Thane and Bharuch under the command of his brother, Hakam. Another brother of his, al-Mughira, was given the command of the expedition against Debal.[79] Al-Baladhuri states they were victorious at Debal but doesn't mention the results of other two raids. However, the Chach Nama states that the raid of Debal was defeated and its governor killed the leader of the raids.[80]

These raids were thought to be triggered by a later pirate attack on Umayyad ships.[81] Uthman was warned by Umar against it who said "O brother of Thaqif, you have put the worm on the wood. I swear, by Allah that if they had been smitten, I would have taken the equivalent (in men) from your families." Baladhuri adds that this stopped any more incursions until the reign of Uthman.[82]

Majority of the Sindh region's native

Brahamanabad has various accounts of 6,000 to 26,000 inhabitants slaughtered.[84]

60,000 slaves, including 30 young royal women, were sent to al-Hajjaj. During the capture of one of the forts of Sindh, the women committed the

Raja Dahir, his two daughters were sent to the caliph and they accused Qasim of raping them. The caliph ordered Qasim to be sewn up in hide of a cow and died of suffocation.[86]

Habbari Arab dynasty (854–1024)

Main article: Habbari dynasty
The Habbarid Emirate, circa 900 CE

The third dynasty,

Ghaznavid Empire
, thereby ending Arab rule of Sindh.

Ghaznavids

Main article: Ghaznavids

Some of the territory in Sindh found itself under raids from the Turkic ruler,

Mahmud Ghaznavi in 1025, who ended Arab rule of Sindh.[90] During his raids of northern Sindh, the Arab capital of Sindh, Mansura, was largely destroyed.[91]

Soomra dynasty (1011–1333)

The Soomra dynasty was a local Sindhi Muslim dynasty that ruled between early 11th century and the 14th century.[92][93][94]

Later chroniclers like

Ali ibn al-Athir (c. late 12th c.) and Ibn Khaldun (c. late 14th c.) attributed the fall of Habbarids to Mahmud of Ghazni, lending credence to the argument of Hafif being the last Habbarid.[95] The Soomras appear to have established themselves as a regional power in this power vacuum.[95][96]

The Ghurids and Ghaznavids continued to rule parts of Sindh, across the eleventh and early twelfth century, alongside Soomrus.[95] The precise delineations are not yet known but Sommrus were probably centered in lower Sindh.[95]

Some of them were adherents of

Sultan of Delhi, and was allowed to continue on as a vassal.[97]

Samma dynasty (1333–1520)

Main article: Samma dynasty
Makli Necropolis
The Makli Necropolis at Thatta is one of the largest funerary sites in the world.[98]

The

Balochistan from c. 1351 to c. 1524 CE, with their capital at Thatta.[99][100][101]

The

sultan of Delhi. Mohammad bin Tughlaq made an expedition against Sindh in 1351 and died at Sondha, possibly in an attempt to restore the Soomras. With this, the Sammas became independent. The next sultan, Firuz Shah Tughlaq attacked Sindh in 1365 and 1367, unsuccessfully, but with reinforcements from Delhi he later obtained Banbhiniyo's surrender. For a period the Sammas were therefore subject to Delhi again. Later, as the Sultanate of Delhi collapsed they became fully independent.[102] Jam Unar was the founder of Samma dynasty mentioned by Ibn Battuta.[102]

The Samma civilization contributed significantly to the evolution of the

Makli Hill.[103] It has left its mark in Sindh with magnificent structures including the Makli Necropolis of its royals in Thatta.[104][105]

Arghun dynasty (1520–1591)

The

Arghun Khan.[108]

Arghun rule was divided into two branches: the Arghun branch of Dhu'l-Nun Beg Arghun that ruled until 1554, and the Tarkhan branch of Muhammad 'Isa Tarkhan that ruled until 1591 as the seventh dynasty of Sindh.[107]

Early modern era

Mughal Era (1591–1701)

In the late 16th century, Sindh was brought into the Mughal Empire by Akbar, himself born in the Rajput kingdom in Umerkot in Sindh.[109][110] Mughal rule from their provincial capital of Thatta was to last in lower Sindh until the early 18th century, while upper Sindh was ruled by the indigenous Kalhora dynasty holding power, consolidating their rule until the mid-18th century, when the Persian sacking of the Mughal throne in Delhi allowed them to grab the rest of Sindh. It is during this the era that the famous Sindhi Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai composed his classic Sindhi text "Shah Jo Risalo" [111][112][113]

Kalhora dynasty (1701–1783)

The

Punjab region between 1701 and 1783 from their capital of Khudabad, before shifting to Hyderabad
from 1768 onwards.

Kalhora rule of Sindh began in 1701 when Mian Yar Muhammad Kalhoro was invested with title of Khuda Yar Khan and was made governor of Upper Sindh sarkar by royal decree of the Mughals.[114] Later, he was made governor of Siwi through imperial decree. He founded a new city Khudabad after he obtained from Aurangzeb a grant of the track between the Indus and the Nara and made it the capital of his kingdom. Thenceforth, Mian Yar Muhammad became one of the imperial agents or governors. Later he extended his rule to Sehwan and Bukkur and became sole ruler of Northern and central Sindh except Thatto which was still under the administrative control of Mughal Empire.[114]

The Kalhora dynasty succumbed to the

Amirs. Mian Abdul Nabi Kalhoro was the last Kalhora ruler.[115]

Talpur dynasty (1783–1843)

Tombs of the Talpur Mirs in Hyderabad
Talpur dynasty, circa. 1823 before annexation by British.

The Talpur dynasty (Sindhi: ٽالپردور‎; Urdu: سلسله تالپور‎) succeeded the Kalhoras in 1783 and four branches of the dynasty were established.[116] One ruled lower Sindh from the city of Hyderabad, another ruled over upper Sindh from the city of Khairpur, a third ruled around the eastern city of Mirpur Khas, and a fourth was based in Tando Muhammad Khan. They were ethnically Baloch,[117] and for most of their rule, they were subordinate to the Durrani Empire and were forced to pay tribute to them.[118][119]

They ruled from 1783, until 1843, when they were in turn defeated by the

Battle of Dubbo.[120] The northern Khairpur branch of the Talpur dynasty, however, continued to maintain a degree of sovereignty during British rule as the princely state of Khairpur,[117] whose ruler elected to join the new Dominion of Pakistan in October 1947 as an autonomous region, before being fully amalgamated into West Pakistan
in 1955.

Modern era

Main articles: British Raj, Partition of India, and Pakistan Movement
Sindh became part of the Bombay Presidency in 1909.

British Rule (1843–1947)

The British conquered Sindh in 1843. General Charles Napier is said to have reported victory to the Governor General with a one-word telegram, namely Peccavi – or I have sinned (Latin).[121]

The British had two objectives in their rule of Sindh: the consolidation of British rule and the use of Sindh as a market for British products and a source of revenue and raw materials. With the appropriate infrastructure in place, the British hoped to utilise Sindh for its economic potential.[122]

The British incorporated Sindh, some years later after annexing it, into the Bombay Presidency. Distance from the provincial capital, Bombay, led to grievances that Sindh was neglected in contrast to other parts of the Presidency. The merger of Sindh into Punjab province was considered from time to time but was turned down because of British disagreement and Sindhi opposition, both from Muslims and Hindus, to being annexed to Punjab.[122]

The British desired to increase their profitability from Sindh and carried out extensive work on the irrigation system in Sindh, for example, the Jamrao Canal project. However, the local Sindhis were described as both eager and lazy and for this reason, the British authorities encouraged the immigration of Punjabi peasants into Sindh as they were deemed more hard-working. Punjabi migrations to Sindh paralleled the further development of Sindh's irrigation system in the early 20th century. Sindhi apprehension of a ‘Punjabi invasion’ grew.[122]

In his backdrop, desire for a separate administrative status for Sindh grew. At the annual session of the Indian National Congress in 1913, a Sindhi Hindu put forward the demand for Sindh's separation from the Bombay Presidency on the grounds of Sindh's unique cultural character. This reflected the desire of Sindh's predominantly Hindu commercial class to free itself from competing with the more powerful Bombay's business interests.[122] Meanwhile, Sindhi politics was characterised in the 1920s by the growing importance of Karachi and the Khilafat Movement.[123] A number of Sindhi pirs, descendants of Sufi saints who had proselytised in Sindh, joined the Khilafat Movement, which propagated the protection of the Ottoman Caliphate, and those pirs who did not join the movement found a decline in their following.[124] The pirs generated huge support for the Khilafat cause in Sindh.[125] Sindh came to be at the forefront of the Khilafat Movement.[126]

Although Sindh had a cleaner record of communal harmony than other parts of India, the province's Muslim elite and emerging Muslim middle class demanded separation of Sindh from Bombay Presidency as a safeguard for their own interests. In this campaign, local Sindhi Muslims identified ‘Hindu’ with Bombay instead of Sindh. Sindhi Hindus were seen as representing the interests of Bombay instead of the majority of Sindhi Muslims. Sindhi Hindus, for the most part, opposed the separation of Sindh from Bombay.[122] Although Sindh had a culture of religious syncretism, communal harmony and tolerance due to Sindh's strong Sufi culture in which both Sindhi Muslims and Sindhi Hindus partook,[127] both the Muslim landed elite, waderas, and the Hindu commercial elements, banias, collaborated in oppressing the predominantly Muslim peasantry of Sindh who were economically exploited.[128] Sindhi Muslims eventually demanded the separation of Sindh from the Bombay Presidency, a move opposed by Sindhi Hindus.[129][130][131]

In Sindh's first provincial election after its separation from Bombay in 1936, economic interests were an essential factor of politics informed by religious and cultural issues.[132] Due to British policies, much land in Sindh was transferred from Muslim to Hindu hands over the decades.[133] Religious tensions rose in Sindh over the Sukkur Manzilgah issue where Muslims and Hindus disputed over an abandoned mosque in proximity to an area sacred to Hindus. The Sindh Muslim League exploited the issue and agitated for the return of the mosque to Muslims. Consequentially, a thousand members of the Muslim League were imprisoned. Eventually, due to panic the government restored the mosque to Muslims.[132] The separation of Sindh from Bombay Presidency triggered Sindhi Muslim nationalists to support the Pakistan Movement. Even while the Punjab and North-West Frontier Province were ruled by parties hostile to the Muslim League, Sindh remained loyal to Jinnah.[134] Although the prominent Sindhi Muslim nationalist G.M. Syed left the All India Muslim League in the mid-1940s and his relationship with Jinnah never improved, the overwhelming majority of Sindhi Muslims supported the creation of Pakistan, seeing in it their deliverance.[123] Sindhi support for the Pakistan Movement arose from the desire of the Sindhi Muslim business class to drive out their Hindu competitors.[135] The Muslim League's rise to becoming the party with the strongest support in Sindh was in large part linked to its winning over of the religious pir families.[136] Although the Muslim League had previously fared poorly in the 1937 elections in Sindh, when local Sindhi Muslim parties won more seats,[137] the Muslim League's cultivation of support from local pirs in 1946 helped it gain a foothold in the province,[138] it didn't take long for the overwhelming majority of Sindhi Muslims to campaign for the creation of Pakistan.[139][140]

Partition (1947)

In 1947, violence did not constitute a major part of the Sindhi partition experience, unlike in Punjab. There were very few incidents of violence on Sindh, in part due to the Sufi-influenced culture of religious tolerance and in part that Sindh was not divided and was instead made part of Pakistan in its entirety. Sindhi Hindus who left generally did so out of a fear of persecution, rather than persecution itself, because of the arrival of Muslim refugees from India. Sindhi Hindus differentiated between the local Sindhi Muslims and the migrant Muslims from India. A large number of Sindhi Hindus travelled to India by sea, to the ports of Bombay, Porbandar, Veraval, and Okha.[141]

See also

  • List of Monarchs of Sindh

Notes

  1. ^ These covered carnelian products, seal carving, work in copper, bronze, lead, and tin.[14]
  2. ^ Brooke (2014), p. 296. "The story in Harappan India was somewhat different (see Figure 111.3). The Bronze Age village and urban societies of the Indus Valley are some-thing of an anomaly, in that archaeologists have found little indication of local defense and regional warfare. It would seem that the bountiful monsoon rainfall of the Early to Mid-Holocene had forged a condition of plenty for all, and that competitive energies were channeled into commerce rather than conflict. Scholars have long argued that these rains shaped the origins of the urban Harappan societies, which emerged from Neolithic villages around 2600 BC. It now appears that this rainfall began to slowly taper off in the third millennium, at just the point that the Harappan cities began to develop. Thus it seems that this "first urbanisation" in South Asia was the initial response of the Indus Valley peoples to the beginning of Late Holocene aridification. These cities were maintained for 300 to 400 years and then gradually abandoned as the Harappan peoples resettled in scattered villages in the eastern range of their territories, into the Punjab and the Ganges Valley....' 17 (footnote):
    (a) Giosan et al. (2012);
    (b) Ponton et al. (2012);
    (c) Rashid et al. (2011);
    (d) Madella & Fuller (2006);
    Compare with the very different interpretations in
    (e) Possehl (2002), pp. 237–245
    (f) Staubwasser et al. (2003)
  3. ^ The end-date arrived as a result of equating Sindhu with the Sin tu kingdom, described in the Great Tang Records on the Western Regions during 641 A.D. Modern scholars reject this claim.
  4. ^ Diwaji and Sahiras were respectively Toramana and Mihirakula. Rai Sahasi was held to be Tegin Shah, Rai Sahiras II to be Vasudeva, and Rai Sahasi II, an anonymous successor.
  5. Chittor claiming to be Sahasi II's brother. Rulers of pre-Sisodia Rajasthan usually claimed a descent from Mauryas and this identification went perfectly with Xuanzang
    's noting the King of Sin-tu to be a Sudra.

References

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  3. ^ JPRS Report: Near East & South Asia. Foreign Broadcast Information Service. 1992.
  4. ^ "Properties inscribed on the World Heritage List (Pakistan)". UNESCO. Retrieved 14 July 2016.
  5. ^ Choudhary Rahmat Ali (28 January 1933). "Now or Never. Are we to live or perish forever?".
  6. ISBN 978-81-7156-374-6
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  7. ^ Phiroze Vasunia 2013, p. 6.
  8. ^ Southworth, Franklin. The Reconstruction of Prehistoric South Asian Language Contact (1990) p. 228
  9. ^ Burrow, T. Dravidian Etymology Dictionary Archived 1 March 2021 at the Wayback Machine p. 227
  10. ^ "Sindh, not Sind". The Express Tribune. Web Desk. 12 February 2013. Retrieved 16 October 2015.
  11. OCLC 855957425
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  12. ^ "Mohenjo-Daro: An Ancient Indus Valley Metropolis".
  13. ^ "Mohenjo Daro: Could this ancient city be lost forever?". BBC News. 26 June 2012. Retrieved 22 August 2022.
  14. ^ Wright 2009, pp. 115–125.
  15. ^ Dyson 2018, p. 29 "Mohenjo-daro and Harappa may each have contained between 30,000 and 60,000 people (perhaps more in the former case). Water transport was crucial for the provisioning of these and other cities. That said, the vast majority of people lived in rural areas. At the height of the Indus valley civilization the subcontinent may have contained 4-6 million people."
  16. ^ McIntosh 2008, p. 387: "The enormous potential of the greater Indus region offered scope for huge population increase; by the end of the Mature Harappan period, the Harappans are estimated to have numbered somewhere between 1 and 5 million, probably well below the region's carrying capacity."
  17. ^ Raychaudhuri, Hemchandra (1953). Political History of Ancient India: From the Accession of Parikshit to the Extinction of Gupta Dynasty. University of Calcutta. p. 197.
  18. ^ a b c Jain 1974, p. 209-210.
  19. ^ Sikdar 1964, p. 501-502.
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    .
  24. ^ a b Jean Baptiste Bourguignon d'Anville, A Geographical Illustration of the Map of India, Translated by William Herbert, London, 1759, p.19; "Tatta est non seulement un ville, mais encore une province de l'Inde, selon les voyageurs modernes. La ville ainsi nommée a pris la place de l'ancienne Patala ou Pattala, qui donnoit autrefois le nom à terrain renfermé entre les bouches de l’Indus." Jean-Baptiste Bourguignon d'Anville, Eclaircissements géographiques sur la carte de l'Inde, Paris, Imprimerie Royale, 1753, p.39. D'Anville, Orbis Veteribus Notus
  25. ^ a b Alexander Burnes, Travels into Bokhara: Containing the Narrative of a Voyage on the Indus, London, Murray, 1839, Vol.I, p.27. William Robertson, An Historical Disquisition concerning Ancient India, Basel, Tourneisen, 1792, pp.20: “Patala (the modern Tatta)”; p.40: “Pattala (now Tatta).” William Vincent, The Commerce and Navigation of the Ancients in the Indian Ocean, London, Cadell and Davies, 1807, p.138. “Tatta, the Páttala of the ancients.” Cf. M. Nisard, Pomponius Méla, oeuvres complètes, Paris, Dubochet et Le Chevalier, 1850, p.656: "Cette région [Patalène], qui tirait son nom de Patala, sa principale ville, est comprise aujourd'hui dans ce qu'on appelle le Sindh y, qui avait autrefois pour capitale Tatta, ville de douze à quinze mille âmes, qui occupe l'emplacement de l'antique Patala".
  26. ^ Dani 1981, p. 37.
  27. ^ Eggermont 1975, p. 13.
  28. ^ A.H. Dani and P. Bernard, “Alexander and His Successors in Central Asia”, in János Harmatta, B.N. Puri and G.F. Etemadi (editors), History of civilizations of Central Asia (Paris, UNESCO, 1994) II: 85. Herbert Wilhelmy has pointed out that siltation had caused the Indus to change its course many times over the centuries and that in Alexander’s time it bifurcated at the site of Bahmanabad, 75 kilometres to the north east of Hyderabad, which John Watson McCrindle had considered to occupy the site of ancient Patala: Herbert Wilhelmy, “Verschollene Städte im Indusdelta“, Geographische Zeitschrift, 56: 4 (1968): 256-294, n.b. 258-63; McCrindle (1901): 19, 40, 124, 188; idem, The Invasion of India by Alexander the Great, Westminster, Constable, 1893, pp.356-7.
  29. ^ Thorpe 2009, p. 33.
  30. ISBN 978-0-8239-4001-1. Archived
    from the original on 15 January 2023. Retrieved 27 September 2023.
  31. ^ "Buddhism In Pakistan". pakteahouse.net. Archived from the original on 20 January 2015. Retrieved 27 September 2023.
  32. ISBN 9780691157863. Archived
    from the original on 15 January 2023. Retrieved 27 September 2023.
  33. ^ a b c Chandwani, Nikhil (13 March 2019). "History of Hinduism in Sindh from ancient times and why Sindh belongs to India". The Times of India. Archived from the original on 13 March 2019. Retrieved 7 October 2023. Hinduism was majorly practiced in Sindh during this time but with the entry of Chandragupta Maurya in 313 BC there was an entry of Buddhism as well. .... However, there was a revival of Hindu religion during the Gupta period which then became dominated culture in Sindh. It flourished well all over India, especially in the Sindh region. .... Before the invasion of Mohammed bin Qasim, Hinduism was the most prominent religion in Sindh that constituted about 64 percent of percent of the total population.
  34. ^ "The Greeks... took possession, not only of Patalena, but also, on the rest of the coast, of what is called the kingdom of Saraostus and Sigerdis." Strabo 11.11.1 (Strabo 11.11.1)
  35. ISBN 978-81-206-1549-6
    .
  36. ^ The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians
  37. ^ "Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, 38". Archived from the original on 14 August 2014. Retrieved 9 December 2022.
  38. ^ Indian Art - Volume 2, Vasudeva Sharana Agrawala, Prithivi Prakashan, 1977, Page 43
  39. ^ Indian Art of the Gupta Age: From Pre-classical Roots to the Emergence of Medieval Trends, Editors Śrīrāma Goyala, Śaṅkara Goyala, Kusumanjali Book World, 2000, p. 85
  40. ^ Vakataka - Gupta Age Circa 200-550 A.D., Ramesh Chandra Majumdar, Anant Sadashiv Altekar, Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1967, p. 435
  41. ^ Objects of Translation: Material Culture and Medieval "Hindu-Muslim" Encounter, Finbarr Barry Flood, Princeton University Press, 2009, p. 50
  42. ^ South Asian Archaeology 1975: Papers from the Third International Conference of the Association of South Asian Archaeologists in Western Europe Held in Paris, J. E. Van Lohuizen-De Leeuw BRILL, 1979. The image of the Brahma from Mirpur Khas is on the cover. link
  43. ^ Gupta Dynasty – MSN Encarta. Archived from the original on 29 October 2009.
  44. ISBN 978-0-300-06217-5
    .
  45. ^ a b Relief Panel: 5th century - 6th Century from Mirpur Khas Pakistan, Victoria & Albert Museum, UK
  46. ISBN 978-90-04-08551-0
    .
  47. ISBN 978-90-04-06941-1
    .
  48. ISBN 978-90-04-08551-0
    .
  49. ^ Indian Art. Prince of Wales Museum of Western India. 27 September 1964. pp. 2–4.
  50. ^ Gopal, Navjeevan (3 May 2019). "In ancient Punjab, religion was fluid, not watertight, says Romila Thapar". The Indian Express. Archived from the original on 3 May 2019. Retrieved 25 September 2023. ...but after the Gupta period, Buddhism began to decline.
  51. ISBN 9780199948239
    . Retrieved 25 September 2023. the emergence and spread of Hinduism through Indian society helped lead to Buddhism's gradual decline in India.
  52. ^
    ISBN 9781785702105
    .
  53. ^ Senior, R.C. (2012). "Some unpublished ancient coins" (PDF). Oriental Numismatic Society Newsletter. 170 (Winter): 17.
  54. ^ Senior, R.C. (1991). "The Coinage of Sind from 250 AD up to the Arab Conquest" (PDF). Oriental Numismatic Society. 129 (June–July 1991): 3–4. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 September 2019. Retrieved 20 January 2021.
  55. ISBN 9780857716668
    .
  56. ISBN 9780857716668
    .
  57. ISBN 9781474400305
    .
  58. ISBN 0226742210
    .
  59. ^
    ISBN 90-04-09249-8
    .
  60. ^ a b c d e Mirchandani, B. D. (1985). Glimpses of Ancient Sind: A Collection of Historical Papers. Sindh: Saraswati M. Gulrajani. pp. 25, 53–56.
  61. ^ Asif (2016), pp. 65, 81–82, 131–134
  62. ISBN 978-81-7201-674-6
    .
  63. ISBN 0226742210
    .
  64. ^
    ISBN 9004095098
    .
  65. ^ Rao, B. S. L. Hanumantha; Rao, K. Basaveswara (1958). Indian History and Culture. Commercial Literature Company. p. 337.
  66. ISBN 9780761996644. Archived from the original on 28 October 2023. Retrieved 7 October 2023. It appears that at the time of Hsuan Tsang, after a millennia-long historical con- flict, Brahmanism had emerged dominant. Buddhism was declining and it would, within centuries, vanish from the land of its origin.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link
    )
  67. ISBN 9780855984960
    . Retrieved 7 October 2023. By the seventh century AD, Buddhism declined completely and Hinduism became the dominant religion. Around this time the Arabs, who had trade and commerce links going back for centuries, came for the first time as conquerors (712 AD). By 724 AD they had established direct rule in Sindh.
  68. ^
    ISBN 9789047441816
    . Retrieved 25 September 2023. Sind's majority population followed Hindu traditions but a substantial minority was Buddhist.
  69. ^
    ISBN 978-90-04-08551-0. Archived
    from the original on 21 January 2023. Retrieved 7 October 2023. As a result, it is possible to conclude that Buddhism, while important in Sindh, was not the only or even the majority religion. Hindus were definitely in the vast majority in upper Sind (where, as noted, there were few if any Buddhists), but probably at least equal in numbers to the Buddhists in Lower Sindh and Mukrân. (page 52) ..... Nevertheless, the data indicate, in a general way, the relative balance between the two religions in Lower Sind and the predominance of Hinduism in Upper Sind. (page 72)
  70. ISBN 9780415580618
    . Retrieved 22 October 2023. It is quite likely therefore that some form of Buddhist collaboration with the Arabs may have begun even before the Arab invasion.
  71. JSTOR 26609161
    . Retrieved 22 October 2023. The primary sources indicate that the Buddhists tended to collaborate with the invading Arabs at an early date
  72. ISBN 9788190891806
    . Retrieved 22 October 2023. At the time of the Arab invasion, the Buddhists repudiated their allegiance to Dahir and decided to cooperate with his enemy.
  73. ISBN 9789004085510. Archived
    from the original on 2 March 2017. Retrieved 22 October 2023. Buddhists tended to collaborate to a significantly greater extent and at an earlier date than did Hindus.... Where the primary sources refer to religious affiliation, Buddhist conmunities (as opposed to individuals) are always (there is no exception) mentioned in terms of collaboration.... Furthermore, Buddhists generally collaborated early in the campaign before the major conquest of Sind had been achieved and even before the conquest of towns in which they were resident and which were held by strong garrisons.
  74. S2CID 162083674
    . Retrieved 22 October 2023. ....the invasion of Sind was all the easier because the leaders of the Buddhist community were in opposition to the Hindu rulers and sympathized with the Arabic [sic] invaders and sometimes even helped them.
  75. ISBN 9780226340500
    . Retrieved 22 October 2023. While the results of Buddhist collaboration in Sind were short-lived, the history of Hinduism there continued in multiple forms, first with Brahman-led resistance continuing in upper Sind around Multan...
  76. ISBN 9781351558242
    . Retrieved 22 October 2023.
  77. ISBN 978-92-3-104153-2
  78. ^ "History of India". indiansaga.com. Retrieved 3 February 2020.
  79. ISBN 978-92-3-104153-2
  80. Majumdar, Ramesh Chandra (1976), Readings in political history of India, ancient, mediaeval, and modern
    , B.R. Pub. Corp., on behalf of Indian Society for Prehistoric and Quaternary Studies, p. 216
  81. ^ Tripathi 1967, p. 337.
  82. ^ Asif 2016, p. 35.
  83. ^ Wink 2002, p. 203.
  84. ^ a b The Classical age, by R. C. Majumdar, p. 456
  85. ^ Asif 2016, p. 117.
  86. ISBN 978-1-134-37006-1
  87. ISBN 978-81-261-0436-9
    pg 43-45.
  88. ISBN 978-90-04-08551-0
    pg 140-143.
  89. ^ A Gazetteer of the Province of Sindh. G. Bell and Sons. 1874.
  90. ^ Abdulla, Ahmed (1987). An Observation: Perspective of Pakistan. Tanzeem Publishers.
  91. ISBN 978-81-317-2791-1
    .
  92. ^ Siddiqui, Habibullah. "The Soomras of Sindh: their origin, main characteristics and rule – an overview (general survey) (1025 – 1351 AD)" (PDF). Literary Conference on Soomra Period in Sindh.
  93. ^ "The Arab Conquest". International Journal of Dravidian Linguistics. 36 (1): 91. 2007. The Soomras are believed to be Parmar Rajputs found even today in Rajasthan, Saurashtra, Kutch and Sindh. The Cambridge History of India refers to the Soomras as "a Rajput dynasty the later members of which accepted Islam" (p. 54 ).
  94. ISBN 978-969-35-2020-0
    . But as many kings of the dynasty bore Hindu names, it is almost certain that the Soomras were of local origin. Sometimes they are connected with Paramara Rajputs, but of this there is no definite proof.
  95. ^
    ISBN 978-0-19-547503-6
    .
  96. ^
    ISBN 978-0-19-547503-6
    .
  97. ISBN 978-1-00-000729-9
    .
  98. ^ "Historical Monuments at Makli, Thatta".
  99. ^ Census Organization (Pakistan); Abdul Latif (1976). Population Census of Pakistan, 1972: Larkana. Manager of Publications.
  100. ^ Rapson, Edward James; Haig, Sir Wolseley; Burn, Sir Richard; Dodwell, Henry (1965). The Cambridge History of India: Turks and Afghans, edited by W. Haig. Chand. p. 518.
  101. ^ U. M. Chokshi; M. R. Trivedi (1989). Gujarat State Gazetteer. Director, Government Print., Stationery and Publications, Gujarat State. p. 274. It was the conquest of Kutch by the Sindhi tribe of Sama Rajputs that marked the emergence of Kutch as a separate kingdom in the 14th century.
  102. ^ a b "Directions in the History and Archaeology of Sindh by M. H. Panhwar". Archived from the original on 25 December 2018. Retrieved 9 December 2022.
  103. ^ Archnet.org: Thattah Archived 2012-06-06 at the Wayback Machine
  104. ^ Census Organization (Pakistan); Abdul Latif (1976). Population Census of Pakistan, 1972: Larkana. Manager of Publications.
  105. ^ Population Census of Pakistan, 1972: Jacobabad
  106. ^ Davies, p. 627
  107. ^ a b Bosworth, "New Islamic Dynasties," p. 329
  108. ^ The Travels of Marco Polo - Complete (Mobi Classics) By Marco Polo, Rustichello of Pisa, Henry Yule (Translator)
  109. ISBN 9780521663700
    .
  110. ^ "Hispania [Publicaciones periódicas]. Volume 74, Number 3, September 1991 – Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes". cervantesvirtual.com. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 27 January 2016.
  111. ^ a b Brohī, ʻAlī Aḥmad (1998). The Temple of Sun God: Relics of the Past. Sangam Publications. p. 175. Kalhoras a local Sindhi tribe of Channa origin...
  112. ^ a b Burton, Sir Richard Francis (1851). Sindh, and the Races that Inhabit the Valley of the Indus. W. H. Allen. p. 410. Kalhoras...were originally Channa Sindhis , and therefore converted Hindoos.
  113. ISBN 978-0-69111-709-6
    . The area of the Hindu-built mansion Pakka Qila was built in 1768 by the Kalhora kings, a local dynasty of Arab origin that ruled Sindh independently from the decaying Moghul Empire beginning in the mid-eighteenth century.
  114. ^ a b Ansari 1992, pp. 32–34.
  115. ISBN 978-0-521-40530-0
    .
  116. ^ "History of Khairpur and the royal Talpurs of Sindh". Daily Times. 21 April 2018. Retrieved 6 March 2020.
  117. ^
    ISBN 978-81-206-1965-4
    .
  118. ISBN 9783515049993
    .
  119. ISBN 9780674248816
    .
  120. ^ "The Royal Talpurs of Sindh - Historical Background". www.talpur.org. Retrieved 23 February 2020.
  121. ^ General Napier apocryphally reported his conquest of the province to his superiors with the one-word message peccavi, a schoolgirl's pun recorded in Punch (magazine) relying on the Latin word's meaning, "I have sinned", homophonous to "I have Sindh". Eugene Ehrlich, Nil Desperandum: A Dictionary of Latin Tags and Useful Phrases [Original title: Amo, Amas, Amat and More], BCA 1992 [1985], p. 175.
  122. ^
    ISBN 978-1-317-44820-4
  123. ^
    ISBN 978-0-230-37539-0
  124. ISBN 978-0-231-05072-2
  125. ^ Ansari 1992, p. 77
  126. ^ Pakistan Historical Society (2007), Journal of the Pakistan Historical Society, Pakistan Historical Society., p. 245
  127. doi:10.1080/00856401.2016.1244752
  128. ISBN 978-1-134-59937-0
    .
  129. ISBN 978-1-317-44820-4
    .
  130. ^ Pakistan Historical Society (2007). Journal of the Pakistan Historical Society. Pakistan Historical Society. p. 245.
  131. ^ Ansari, p. 77.
  132. ^ a b Jalal 2002, p. 415
  133. ISBN 978-1-4985-3105-4
  134. ISBN 978-93-86057-62-4
  135. ISBN 978-0-7619-9683-5
  136. ^ Ansari, p. 115.
  137. ^ Ansari 1992, p. 115.
  138. ^ Ansari 1992, p. 122.
  139. ISBN 978-0-230-37539-0
    .
  140. ISBN 978-0-7619-9683-5
    .
  141. ^ Priya Kumar & Rita Kothari (2016) Sindh, 1947 and Beyond, South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies, 39:4, 776-777, DOI: 10.1080/00856401.2016.1244752

Sources

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