History of South America
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The history of South America is the study of the past, particularly the written record, oral histories, and traditions, passed down from generation to generation on the continent of
Indigenous peoples' thousands of years of independent life were disrupted by European colonization from Spain and Portugal and by demographic collapse. The resulting civilizations, however, were very different from those of their colonizers, both in the mestizos and the indigenous cultures of the continent. Through the trans-Atlantic slave trade, South America (especially Brazil) became the home of millions of people of the African diaspora. The mixing of ethnic groups led to new social structures.
The tensions between Europeans, indigenous peoples, and African slaves and their descendants shaped South America, starting in sixteenth century. Most of Spanish America achieved its independence in the early nineteenth century through hard-fought
Prehistory
In the
The
Geological evidence suggests that approximately 3 million years ago, South America became connected to North America when the Bolivar Trough marine barrier disappeared and the Panamanian land bridge formed. The joining of these two land masses led to the
Pre-Columbian era
Earliest inhabitants
The Americas are thought to have been first inhabited by people from eastern Asia who crossed the
Amongst the oldest evidence for human presence in South America is the
Agriculture and domestication of animals
The first evidence for the existence of agricultural practices in South America dates back to circa 6500 BCE, when
South American cultures began domesticating
By 2000 BCE, many agrarian village communities had developed throughout the Andes and the surrounding regions. Fishing became a widespread practice along the coast, with fish being the primary source of food for those communities. Irrigation systems were also developed at this time, which aided in the rise of agrarian societies.
Among the earliest permanent settlements, dated to 4700 BC is the
In the last two thousand years, there may have been contact with the Polynesians who sailed to and from the continent across the South Pacific Ocean. The sweet potato, which originated in South America, spread through some areas of the Pacific. There is no genetic legacy of human contact.[12]
Caral-Supe / Norte Chico
On the north-central coast of present-day
The Caral Supe complex is one of the larger Norte Chico sites and has been dated to 27th century BCE. It is noteworthy for having absolutely no signs of warfare. It was contemporary with urbanism's rise in Mesopotamia.[14]
Cañari
The
The Cañari were most notable in having repulsed the Incan invasion with fierce resistance for many years until they fell to Tupac Yupanqui. It is said that the Inca strategically married the Cañari princess Paccha to conquer the people. Many of their descendants still reside in Cañar.[16]
Chibchan Nations
The
Muisca
Of these indigenous groups, the Muisca were the most advanced and formed one of the four grand civilisations in the Americas.[18] With the Inca in Peru, they constituted the two developed and specialised societies of South America. The Muisca, meaning "people" or "person" in their version of the Chibcha language; Muysccubun,[19] inhabited the Altiplano Cundiboyacense, the high plateau in the Eastern Ranges of the Colombian Andes and surrounding valleys, such as the Tenza Valley.[20] Commonly set at 800 AD, their history succeeded the Herrera Period.[21] The people were organised in a loose confederation of rulers, later called the Muisca Confederation.[22] At the time of the Spanish conquest, their reign spread across the modern departments Cundinamarca and Boyacá with small parts of southern Santander with a surface area of approximately 25,000 square kilometres (9,700 sq mi) and a total population of between 300,000 and two million individuals.[23][24][25]
The Muisca were known as "The Salt People", thanks to their extraction of and trade in
The gold and
Amazon
For a long time, scholars believed that Amazon forests were occupied by small numbers of hunter-gatherer tribes. Archeologist
The first European to travel the length of the Amazon River was Francisco de Orellana in 1542.[36] The BBC documentary Unnatural Histories presents evidence that Francisco de Orellana, rather than exaggerating his claims as previously thought, was correct in his observations that an advanced civilization was flourishing along the Amazon in the 1540s. It is believed that the civilization was later devastated by the spread of infectious diseases from Europe, such as smallpox, to which the natives had no immunity.[34] Some 5 million people may have lived in the Amazon region in 1500, divided between dense coastal settlements, such as that at Marajó, and inland dwellers.[37] By 1900 the population had fallen to 1 million, and by the early 1980s, it was less than 200,000.[37]
Researchers have found that the fertile
Andean civilizations
Chavín
The
Moche
The
Skilled artisans, the Moche were a technologically advanced people who traded with faraway peoples, like the Maya. Knowledge about the Moche has been derived mostly from their ceramic pottery, which is carved with representations of their daily lives. They practiced human sacrifice, had blood-drinking rituals, and their religion incorporated non-procreative sexual practices (such as fellatio).[44][45]
Inca
Holding their capital at the great puma-shaped city of
Arawak and Carib civilizations
The
The Carib were skilled boatbuilders and sailors who owed their dominance in the Caribbean basin to their military skills. The Carib war rituals included cannibalism; they had a practice of taking home the limbs of victims as trophies.
It is not known how many
European colonization
Before the arrival of Europeans 20–30 million people lived in South America.[50]
Between 1452 and 1493, a series of papal bulls (Dum Diversas, Romanus Pontifex, and Inter caetera) paved the way for the European colonization and Catholic missions in the New World. These authorized the European Christian nations to "take possession" of non-Christian lands and encouraged subduing and converting the non-Christian people of Africa and the Americas.[citation needed]
In 1494,
In 1498, during his third voyage to the Americas,
Great signs are these of the Terrestrial Paradise, for the site conforms to the opinion of the holy and wise theologians whom I have mentioned. And likewise, the [other] signs conform very well, for I have never read or heard of such a large quantity of fresh water being inside and in such close proximity to salt water; the very mild temperateness also corroborates this; and if the water of which I speak does not proceed from Paradise then it is an even greater marvel, because I do not believe such a large and deep river has ever been known to exist in this world.[51]
Beginning in 1499, the people and natural resources of South America were repeatedly exploited by foreign
European diseases (
The Spaniards were committed to converting their American subjects to
Eventually, the natives and the Spaniards interbred, forming a Mestizo class. Mestizos and the Native Americans were often forced to pay unfair taxes to the Spanish government (although all subjects paid taxes) and were punished harshly for disobeying their laws. Many native artworks were considered pagan idols and destroyed by Spanish explorers. This included a great number of gold and silver sculptures, which were melted down before transport to Europe.[56]
17th and 18th centuries
In 1616, the Dutch, attracted by the legend of El Dorado, founded a fort in Guayana and established three colonies:[57]
In 1624 France attempted to settle in the area of modern-day French Guiana, but was forced to abandon it in the face of hostility from the Portuguese, who viewed it as a violation of the Treaty of Tordesillas. However French settlers returned in 1630 and in 1643 managed to establish a settlement at Cayenne along with some small-scale plantations.[citation needed]
Since the sixteenth century, there were some movements of discontent to the Spanish and Portuguese colonial system. Among these movements, the most famous being that of the
Between 1721 and 1735, the
Between 1742 and 1756, was the insurrection of
In 1763, the African
In 1796, the Dutch colony of Essequibo was captured by the British during the French Revolutionary Wars.[60]
During the eighteenth century, the figure of the priest, mathematician and botanist
On August 15, 1801, the Prussian scientist Alexander von Humboldt reached Fontibón where Mutis had begun his expedition to New Granada, Quito. The meeting between the two scholars is considered the brightest spot of the botanical expedition. Humboldt also visited Venezuela, Mexico, United States, Chile, and Peru. Through his observations of temperature differences between the Pacific Ocean between Chile and Peru in different periods of the year, he discovered cold currents moving from south to north up the coast of Peru, which was named the Humboldt Current in his honor.[61]
Between 1806 and 1807, British military forces
Independence and 19th century
The Spanish colonies won their independence in the first quarter of the 19th century, in the
) led their independence struggle. Although Bolivar attempted to keep the Spanish-speaking parts of the continent politically unified, they rapidly became independent of one another.Unlike the Spanish colonies, the Brazilian independence came as an indirect consequence of the Napoleonic Invasions to Portugal – French invasion under General Junot led to the capture of Lisbon on 8 December 1807. In order not to lose its sovereignty, the Portuguese Court moved the capital from Lisbon to Rio de Janeiro, which was the Portuguese Empire's capital between 1808 and 1821 and rose the relevance of Brazil within the Portuguese Empire's framework. Following the Portuguese Liberal Revolution of 1820, and after several battles and skirmishes were fought in Pará and in Bahia, the heir apparent Pedro, son of King John VI of Portugal, proclaimed the country's independence in 1822 and became Brazil's first emperor (He later also reigned as Pedro IV of Portugal). This was one of the most peaceful colonial independences ever seen in human history.
A struggle for power emerged among the new nations, and several further wars were soon fought thereafter.
The first few wars were fought for supremacy in the northern and southern parts of the continent. The
Later conflicts between the South American nations continued to define their borders and power status. In the Pacific coast, Chile and Peru continued to exhibit their increasing domination, defeating Spain in the
A few countries did not gain independence until the 20th century:
- Panama, from Colombia, in 1903
- Trinidad and Tobago, from the United Kingdom, in 1962
- Guyana, from the United Kingdom, in 1966
- Suriname, from the Netherlands, in 1975
French Guiana remains an overseas department of France.
20th century
1900–1920
By the start of the century, the United States continued its interventionist attitude, which aimed to directly defend its interests in the region. This was officially articulated in
1930–1960
The Great Depression posed a challenge to the region. The collapse of the world economy meant that the demand for raw materials drastically declined, undermining many of the economies of South America.
Intellectuals and government leaders in South America turned their backs on the older economic policies and turned toward import substitution industrialization. The goal was to create self-sufficient economies, which would have their own industrial sectors and large middle classes and which would be immune to the ups and downs of the global economy. Despite the potential threats to United States commercial interests, the Roosevelt administration (1933–1945) understood that the United States could not wholly oppose import substitution. Roosevelt implemented a good neighbor policy and allowed the nationalization of some American companies in South America. The Second World War also brought the United States and most Latin American nations together.
The history of South America during World War II is important because of the significant economic, political, and military changes that occurred throughout much of the region as a result of the war. In order to better protect the Panama Canal, combat Axis influence, and optimize the production of goods for the war effort, the United States through Lend-Lease and similar programs greatly expanded its interests in Latin America, resulting in large-scale modernization and a major economic boost for the countries that participated.[62]
Strategically, Brazil was of great importance because of its having the closest point in the Americas to Africa where the Allies were actively engaged in fighting the Germans and Italians. For the Axis, the Southern Cone nations of Argentina and Chile were where they found most of their South American support, and they utilised it to the fullest by interfering with internal affairs, conducting espionage, and distributing propaganda.[62][63][64]
Brazil was the only country to send an
The Brazilian active participation on the battle field in Europe was divined after the
Economics
According to author Thomas M. Leonard, World War II had a major impact on Latin American economies. Following the December 7, 1941 Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, most of Latin America either severed relations with the Axis powers or declared war on them. As a result, many nations (including all of Central America, the Dominican Republic, Mexico, Chile, Peru, Argentina, and Venezuela) suddenly found that they were now dependent on the United States for trade. The United States' high demand for particular products and commodities during the war further distorted trade. For example, the United States wanted all of the platinum produced in Colombia, all the silver of Chile, and all of cotton, gold and copper of Peru. The parties agreed upon set prices, often with a high premium, but the various nations lost their ability to bargain and trade in the open market.
Cold War
Wars became less frequent in the 20th century, with Bolivia-Paraguay and Peru-Ecuador fighting the last inter-state wars. Early in the 20th century, the
The continent became a battlefield of the
Late 20th century military regimes and revolutions
By the 1970s, leftists had acquired a significant political influence which prompted the right-wing, ecclesiastical authorities and a large portion of each individual country's upper class to support coups d'état to avoid what they perceived as a communist threat. This was further fueled by Cuban and United States intervention which led to a political polarisation. Most South American countries were in some periods ruled by military dictatorships that were supported by the United States of America.
Also around the 1970s, the regimes of the
Colombia has had an ongoing, though diminished internal conflict, which started in 1964 with the creation of Marxist guerrillas (FARC-EP) and then involved several illegal armed groups of leftist-leaning ideology as well as the private armies of powerful drug lords. Many of these are now defunct, and only a small portion of the ELN remains, along with the stronger, though also greatly reduced FARC. These leftist groups smuggle narcotics out of Colombia to fund their operations, while also using kidnapping, bombings, land mines and assassinations as weapons against both elected and non-elected citizens.
Revolutionary movements and right-wing military dictatorships became common after World War II, but since the 1980s, a wave of democratisation came through the continent, and democratic rule is widespread now.[68] Nonetheless, allegations of corruption are still very common, and several countries have developed crises which have forced the resignation of their governments, although, in most occasions, regular civilian succession has continued.
In the 1960s and 1970s, the governments of Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and Uruguay were overthrown or displaced by U.S.-aligned
Washington Consensus
The set of specific economic policy prescriptions that were considered the "standard" reform package were promoted for crisis-wracked developing countries by Washington, DC-based institutions such as the
21st century
A turn to the left
According to the BBC, a "common element of the 'pink tide' is a clean break with what was known at the outset of the 1990s as the '
Despite the presence of a number of Latin American governments which profess to embrace a leftist ideology, it is difficult to categorize Latin American states "according to dominant political tendencies, like a
While this political shift is difficult to quantify, its effects are widely noticed. According to the Institute for Policy Studies, 2006 meetings of the South American Summit of Nations and the Social Forum for the Integration of Peoples demonstrated that certain discussions that "used to take place on the margins of the dominant discourse of neoliberalism, (have) now moved to the centre of public debate."[71]
Pink tide
The term 'pink tide' (Spanish: marea rosa,
Since the 2000s or 1990s in some countries, left-wing political parties have risen to power. Hugo Chávez in Venezuela, Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva and Dilma Rousseff in Brazil, Fernando Lugo in Paraguay, Néstor and Cristina Fernández de Kirchner in Argentina, Tabaré Vázquez and José Mujica in Uruguay, the Lagos and Bachelet governments in Chile, Evo Morales in Bolivia, and Rafael Correa of Ecuador are all part of this wave of left-wing politicians who also often declare themselves socialists, Latin Americanists or anti-imperialists.
- The list of leftist South American presidents is, by date of election, the following
- 1998: Hugo Chávez, Venezuela[74]
- 1999: Ricardo Lagos, Chile[75][76]
- 2002: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, Brazil[77][78][79][80]
- 2002: Lucio Gutiérrez, Ecuador[81][82]
- 2003: Néstor Kirchner, Argentina[83][84][85]
- 2004: Tabaré Vázquez, Uruguay[86][87][88]
- 2005: Evo Morales, Bolivia[89][a][98]
- 2006: Michelle Bachelet, Chile[99][100]
- 2006: Rafael Correa, Ecuador[101][102][103][104]
- 2007: Cristina Fernández de Kirchner, Argentina[105][106][b][109][110][111][112][113][114][115][116]
- 2008: Fernando Lugo, Paraguay[117][118]
- 2010: José Mujica, Uruguay[119][120][121][122]
- 2010: Dilma Rousseff, Brazil[123][124][125]
- 2011: Ollanta Humala, Peru[126][127][128][129][130]
- 2013: Nicolás Maduro, Venezuela[131][132][133][134]
- 2014: Michelle Bachelet, Chile [135]
- 2015: Tabaré Vázquez, Uruguay [136]
- 2017: Lenín Moreno, Ecuador[137]
- 2019: Alberto Fernández, Argentina
- 2020: Luis Arce, Bolivia
- 2021: Pedro Castillo, Peru[138]
- 2022: Gabriel Boric Font, Chile [139]
- 2022: Gustavo Petro, Colombia [140]
- 2023: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, Brazil [141]
Politics
This section needs to be updated.(January 2021) |
During the first decade of the 21st century, South American governments move to the political left, with leftist leaders being elected in Chile, Uruguay, Brazil, Argentina, Ecuador, Bolivia, Paraguay, Peru, and Venezuela. Most South American countries are making an increasing use of protectionist policies, undermining a greater global integration but helping local development.
In 2008, the Union of South American Nations (USAN) was founded, which aimed to merge the two existing customs unions, Mercosur and the Andean Community, thus forming the third-largest trade bloc in the world.[142] The organization is planning for political integration in the European Union style, seeking to establish free movement of people, economic development, a common defense policy and the elimination of tariffs.[citation needed] According to Noam Chomsky, USAN represents that "for the first time since the European conquest, Latin America began to move towards integration".[143][144][145][146][147][148][149][150]
Most recent heads of state in South America
- 2010: Dilma Rousseff, Brazil[123][124][125]
- 2010: José Mujica, Uruguay [151]
- 2010: Sebastián Piñera, Chile [152]
- 2010: Juan Manuel Santos[153]
- 2011: Ollanta Humala, Peru[126][127][128][129][130]
- 2013: Nicolás Maduro, Venezuela[131][132][133][134]
- 2013: Horacio Cartés, Paraguay [154]
- 2014: Michelle Bachelet, Chile [155]
- 2015: Mauricio Macri, Argentina [156]
- 2015: Tabaré Vázquez, Uruguay [157]
- 2015: David Granger, Guyana [158]
- 2016: Michel Temer, Brazil [159]
- 2016: Pedro Pablo Kuczynski Godard, Peru
- 2017: Lenín Moreno, Ecuador[137]
- 2018: Sebastián Piñera, Chile [160]
- 2018: Iván Duque Márquez, Colombia [161]
- 2018: Martín Vizcarra, Peru [162]
- 2018: Mario Abdo, Paraguay [163]
- 2019: Jair Bolsonaro, Brazil [164]
- 2019: Alberto Fernández, Argentina [165]
- 2020: Luis Lacalle, Uruguay [166]
- 2020: Luis Arce, Bolivia [167]
- 2020: Manuel Merino de Lama, Peru [168]
- 2020: Chandrikapersad "Chan" Santokhi, Suriname [169]
- 2020: Irfaan Ali, Guyana [170]
- 2020: Francisco Sagasti, Peru [171]
- 2021: Guillermo Lasso, Ecuador[172]
- 2021: Pedro Castillo, Peru[138]
- 2022: Gabriel Boric Font, Chile [139]
- 2022: Gustavo Petro, Colombia [140]
- 2022: Dina Boluarte, Peru [173]
- 2023: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, Brazil [174]
- 2023: Santiago Peña, Paraguay [175]
- 2023: Daniel Noboa, Ecuador[176]
- 2023: Javier Milei, Argentina [177]
See also
- Inca Empire
- Gran Colombia
- History of Latin America
- Military history of South America
- Peru–Bolivian Confederation
- Simón Bolívar
- José de San Martín
- Francisco Pizarro
- Spanish American wars of independence
Notes
- ^ Morales is described as the first indigenous president of Bolivia in academic studies of his presidency, such as those of Muñoz-Pogossian,[90] Webber,[91] Philip and Panizza,[92] and Farthing and Kohl,[93] as well as in press reports, such as those of BBC News.[94] However, there have been challenges to this claim by critics who have asserted that Morales probably has some European ancestry, and thus on genetic grounds is technically mestizo rather than solely indigenous.[95] Harten asserted that this argument was "misguided[,] wrong[... and] above all irrelevant" because regardless of his genetic makeup, the majority of Bolivians perceive Morales as being the first indigenous president.[95] In Bolivian society, indigeneity is a fluid concept rooted in cultural identity;[95] for instance, many indigenous individuals that have settled in urban areas and abandoned their traditional rural customs have come to identify as mestizo.[96][97]
- ^ She is variously known as Cristina Fernández,[106][107] Cristina K, or Cristina.[107][108]
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Historiography
- Deforestation. World Geography. Columbus, Ohio: McGraw-Hill/Glencoe, 2000. 202–204
- Farthing, Linda C.; Kohl, Benjamin H. (2014). Evo's Bolivia: Continuity and Change. Austin: University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-75868-1.
- Harten, Sven (2011). The Rise of Evo Morales and the MAS. London and New York: Zed Books. ISBN 978-1-84813-523-9.
- Hensel, Silke. "Was There an Age of Revolution in Latin America?: New Literature on Latin American Independence." Latin American Research Review (2003) 38#3 pp. 237–249. online
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- Philip, George; Panizza, Francisco (2011). The Triumph of Politics: The Return of the Left in Venezuela, Bolivia and Ecuador. Cambridge: Polity Press. ISBN 978-0-7456-4749-4.
- Sheil, D.; Wunder, S. (2002). "The value of tropical forest to local communities: complications, caveats, and cautions" (PDF). Conservation Ecology. 6 (2): 9. hdl:10535/2768.
- ISBN 978-0-230-62305-7.
- Uribe, Victor M. "The Enigma of Latin American Independence: Analyses of the Last Ten Years," Latin American Research Review (1997) 32#1 pp. 236–255 in JSTOR
- Wade, Lizzie. (2015). "Drones and satellites spot lost civilizations in unlikely places."
- Webber, Jeffrey R. (2011). From Rebellion to Reform in Bolivia: Class Struggle, Indigenous Liberation, and the Politics of Evo Morales. Haymarket Books. ISBN 978-1-60846-106-6.
Bibliography
Prehistory
- Marshall, Larry G. (1988). "Land Mammals and the Great American Interchange" (PDF). American Scientist. 76 (4): 380–388. Bibcode:1988AmSci..76..380M. Archived from the original(PDF) on 2016-08-27. Retrieved 2016-08-26.
Muisca
- Daza, Blanca Ysabel (2013). Historia del proceso de mestizaje alimentario entre Colombia y España – History of the integration process of foods between Colombia and Spain (PhD thesis) (in Spanish). Barcelona, Spain: Universitat de Barcelona.
- Francis, John Michael (1993). "Muchas hipas, no minas" The Muiscas, a merchant society: Spanish misconceptions and demographic change (Masters thesis). University of Alberta.
- Gamboa Mendoza, Jorge (2016). Los muiscas, grupos indígenas del Nuevo Reino de Granada. Una nueva propuesta sobre su organizacíon socio-política y su evolucíon en el siglo XVI – The Muisca, indigenous groups of the New Kingdom of Granada. A new proposal on their social-political organization and their evolution in the 16th century (in Spanish). Banrepcultural. Archived from the original on 2019-11-03. Retrieved 2016-07-08 – via YouTube.
{{cite AV media}}
: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link) - García, Jorge Luis (2012). The Foods and crops of the Muisca: a dietary reconstruction of the intermediate chiefdoms of Bogotá (Bacatá) and Tunja (Hunza), Colombia (PDF) (Masters thesis). University of Central Florida. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-05-03. Retrieved 2016-07-08.
- Groot de Mahecha, Ana María (2008). Sal y poder en el altiplano de Bogotá, 1537–1640 (in Spanish). ISBN 978-958-719-046-5.
- Kruschek, Michael H. (2003). The evolution of the Bogotá chiefdom: A household view (PDF) (PhD thesis). University of Pittsburgh. Retrieved 2016-07-08.
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Further reading
- Harvey, Robert (2000). Liberators: Latin America's Struggle For Independence, 1810–1830. John Murray, London. ISBN 0-7195-5566-3.