History of Southern Africa
The history of Southern Africa has been divided into its prehistory, its ancient history, the major polities flourishing, the colonial period, and the post-colonial period, in which the current nations were formed.
Geography
The area located at the south of the desert is a
Climate
In 15,000
Prehistory
By at least 170,000 BP, amid the
In 92,000 BP, amid the
Between 65,000 BP and 37,000 BP, amid the Middle to Late Stone Age, Southern Africans developed the bow and arrow.[4]
Ancient history
Bantu expansion
Though some may have been created later, the earlier red finger-painted rock art may have been created between 6000 BP and 1800 BP, to the south of Kei River and Orange River by
Bantu-speaking farmers, or their
Post-classical history
Kingdom of Mapungubwe
The largest settlement from what has been dubbed the Leopard's Kopje culture is known as the K2 culture and was the immediate predecessor to the settlement of Mapungubwe.[7] The people of the K2 culture, probably derived from the ancestors of the Shona and Kalanga people of southern Africa,[8] was attracted to the Shashi-Limpopo area, likely because it provided mixed agricultural possibilities.[9] The area was also prime elephant country, providing access to valuable ivory. The control of the gold and ivory trade greatly increased the political power of the K2 culture.[10] By 1075 CE, the population of K2 had outgrown the area and relocated to Mapungubwe Hill.[11]
Kingdom of Zimbabwe
The kingdom taxed other rulers throughout the region. The kingdom was composed of over 150 tributaries headquartered in their own minor zimbabwes.[12]
Kingdom of Mutapa
Mutota's son and successor, Nyanhewe Matope, extended this new kingdom into an empire encompassing most of the lands between Tavara and the Indian Ocean.[13] This empire had achieved uniting a number of different peoples in Southern Africa by building strong, well-trained armies and encouraging states to join voluntarily, offering membership in the Great council of the Empire to any who joined without resistance.[14] Matope's armies overran the kingdom of the Manyika as well as the coastal kingdoms of Kiteve and Madanda.[13] By the time the Portuguese arrived on the coast of Mozambique, the Mutapa Kingdom was the premier state in the region.[13] He raised a strong army which conquered the Dande area of the Tonga and Tavara. The empire had reached its full extent by the year 1480 CE a mere 50 years following its creation.[14]
Kingdom of Butua
Prior to becoming a part of the Rozwi kingdom, the Togwa dynasty ruled the kingdom of Butua until 1683 CE.[15]
Torwa dynasty
At Khami, the Kalanga people, along with people from Great Zimbabwe, founded the Torwa dynasty.[16]
Kingdom of Maravi
Between the 16th century CE and the 19th century CE, the kingdoms of Maravi (e.g., Undi, Lundu, Kalonga) prospered.[17]
Modern history
Merina Kingdom
By the early 19th century CE, the Merina were able to overcome rival tribes such as the Bezanozano, the Betsimisaraka, and eventually the Sakalava kingdom and bring them under the Merina crown. It is through this process that the ethnonym "Merina" began to be commonly used, as it denotes prominence in the Malagasy language.[18] Though some sources describe the Merina expansion as the unification of Madagascar, this period of Merina expansion was seen by neighboring tribes such as the Betsimisaraka as aggressive acts of colonialism.[19] By 1824 CE, the Merina captured the port of Mahajanga situated on the western coast of the island marking a further expansion of power. Under Radama I, the Merina continued to launch military expeditions that expanded imperial control and enriched military chiefs.[20] The ability of the Merina to overcome neighboring tribes was due to British firepower and military training. The British had an interest in establishing trade with the Merina kingdom due to its central position on the island since 1815 CE. Merina imperial expeditions became more frequent and violent after the renunciation of the second Merina-British treaty. Between 1828 CE and 1840 CE, more than 100,000 men were killed and more than 200,000 enslaved by Merina forces. Imperial rule was met with resistance from escaped slaves and other refugees from imperial rule numbering in the tens of thousands. These refugees formed raiding brigands that were dealt with by imperial troops who hunted them down in 1835 CE. Notably, the rate of escaping refugees only heightened the demand for slave labor in the Merina kingdom, further fueling campaigns of military expansion.[20] Throughout the middle of the 19th century CE, continued imperial expansion and increasing control in coastal trade solidified Merina predominance over the island. The Merina kingdom nearly consolidated all of Madagascar into a single nation before French colonization in 1895 CE.[21]
Rozwi Empire
Records from the Portuguese show that the Rozvi were sophisticated military strategists. They were noted for using the
Ndwandwe Kingdom
The kingdom of Ndwande developed in the 19th century CE due to various kinds of changes (e.g., socioeconomic, political).[23]
Mthethwa Paramountcy
According to Muzi Mthethwa (1995), the Mthethwas are descended from the
The Mthethwa Paramountcy was consolidated and extended under the rule of Dingiswayo. The chief entered into an alliance with the Tsonga to the north in the early 19th century CE and began trading Ivory[26] and other things with the Portuguese in Mozambique.
Zulu Kingdom
Shaka initiated many military, social, cultural and political reforms, forming a well-organized and centralised Zulu state. The most important reforms involved the transformation of the army, through the innovative tactics and weapons, and a showdown with the spiritual leadership,
The alliance under his leadership survived Zwide's first assault at the
Kingdom of Mthwakazi
Mthwakazi is the traditional name of the proto-Ndebele people and
Slave trade
Colonial period
Scramble for Africa
Post-colonial period
History of Southern African Architecture
Further information in the sections of Architecture of Africa:
History of science and technology in Southern Africa
Further information in the sections of History of science and technology in Africa:
Military history of Southern Africa
Genetic history of Southern Africa
From the region of
Archaic Human DNA
While
Ancient DNA
Three
Botswana
At Nqoma, in
At Taukome, in Botswana, an individual, dated to the Early Iron Age (1100 BP), carried haplogroups E1b1a1 (E-M2, E-Z1123) and L0d3b1.[39][40]
At Xaro, in
Malawi
Fingira
At Fingira rockshelter, in Malawi, an individual, dated between 6179 BP and 2341 BP, carried haplogroups B2 and L0d1.[41]
At Fingira, in Malawi, an individual, estimated to date between 6175 BP and 5913 BP, carried haplogroups BT and L0d1b2b.[42]
At Fingira, in Malawi, an individual, estimated to date between 6177 BP and 5923 BP, carried haplogroups BT and L0d1c.[42]
At Fingira, in Malawi, an individual, estimated to date between 2676 BP and 2330 BP, carried haplogroup L0f.[42]
Chencherere
At Chencherere, in Malawi, an individual, estimated to date between 5400 BP and 4800 BP, carried haplogroup L0k2.[42]
At Chencherere, in Malawi, an individual, estimated to date between 5293 BP and 4979 BP, carried haplogroup L0k1.[42]
Hora
At Hora 1 rockshelter, in
At Hora 1 rockshelter, in Malawi, an individual, dated between 16,424 BP and 14,029 BP, carried haplogroups B2b1a2~ and L0d3/L0d3b.[41]
At Hora, in Malawi, an individual, estimated to date between 10,000 BP and 5000 BP, carried haplogroups BT and L0k2.[42]
At Hora, in Malawi, an individual, estimated to date between 8173 BP and 7957 BP, carried haplogroup L0a2.[42]
South Africa
At Doonside, in South Africa, an individual, estimated to date between 2296 BP and 1910 BP, carried haplogroup L0d2.[43][44]
At Champagne Castle, in South Africa, an individual, estimated to date between 448 BP and 282 BP, carried haplogroup L0d2a1a.[43][44]
At
At Mfongosi, in
At
At St. Helena, in South Africa, an individual, estimated to date between 2241 BP and 1965 BP, carried haplogroups A1b1b2a and L0d2c1.[42]
At Faraoskop Rock Shelter, in South Africa, an individual, estimated to date between 2017 BP and 1748 BP, carried haplogroups A1b1b2a and L0d1b2b1b.[42]
At Kasteelberg, in South Africa, an individual, estimated to date between 1282 BP and 1069 BP, carried haplogroup L0d1a1a.[42]
At Vaalkrans Shelter, in South Africa, an individual, estimated to date to 200 BP, is predominantly related to Khoisan speakers, partly related (15% - 32%) to East Africans, and carried haplogroups L0d3b1.[45]
Ballito Bay
At Ballito Bay, in South Africa, an individual, estimated to date between 1986 BP and 1831 BP, carried haplogroups A1b1b2 and L0d2c1.[43][44]
At Ballito Bay, in South Africa, an individual, estimated to date between 2149 BP and 1932 BP, carried haplogroups A1b1b2 and L0d2a1.[43][44]
At Ballito Bay, South Africa, Ballito Boy, estimated to date 1,980 ± 20 cal BP, was found to have Rickettsia felis.[46][47]
Y-Chromosomal DNA
Various
Mitochondrial DNA
In 200,000 BP, Africans (e.g.,
Mitochondrial DNA studies also provide evidence that the San carry high frequencies of the earliest haplogroup branches in the human mitochondrial DNA tree. This DNA is inherited only from one's mother. The most divergent (oldest) mitochondrial haplogroup, L0d, has been identified at its highest frequencies in the southern African San groups.[48][52][53][54]
Autosomal DNA
In a study published in March 2011, Brenna Henn and colleagues found that the ǂKhomani San, as well as the
Medical DNA
Among the ancient DNA from three
The genomes of Africans commonly found to undergo
Timeline of archaeological cultures and sites
- Lomekwi (3,300,000 BP)[59]
- Taung (3,030,000 BP)[60]
- Sterkfontein (2,800,000 BP)[61]
- Drimolen (2,000,000 BP)[62]
- Kromdraai fossil site (2,000,000 BP)[62]
- Cooper's Cave (1,900,000 BP)[63]
- Canteen Kopje (1,890,000 BP)[64]
- Swartkrans (1,800,000 BP)[65]
- Motsetsi (1,640,000 BP)[66]
- Wonderwerk Cave (1,000,000 BP)[67]
- Middle Pleistocene)[68]
- Rising Star Cave (414,000 BP)[69]
- Kalambo Falls (300,000 BP – 200,000 BP)[70]
- Duinefontein (290,000 BP)[71]
- Gladysvale Cave (257,000 BP)[72]
- Florisbad archaeological and paleontological site (200,000 BP)[73]
- Mumbwa Caves (194,000 BP – 124,000 BP)[74]
- Pinnacle Point (164,000 BP)[75]
- Hoedjiespunt (130,000 BP)[76]
- Ngalue (105,000 BP)[77]
- Blombos Cave (84,000 BP)[78]
- Stillbay (80,000 BP)[79]
- Howieson's Poort Shelter (80,000 BP – 60,000 BP)[80]
- Mousteroid (80,000 BP – 50,000 BP)[81][82]
- Peers Cave (75,000 BP)[78]
- Howiesons Poort (68,000 BP – 60,000 BP)[83]
- Boomplaas Cave (66,000 BP)[84]
- Klasies River Caves (66,000 BP)[78]
- Diepkloof Rock Shelter (65,000 BP)[85]
- Plovers Lake (62,900 BP)[86]
- Sibudu Cave (61,000 BP)[78]
- Fauresmith (industry) (60,300 BP – 32,600 BP)[87]
- Border Cave (58,200 BP)[88]
- Ngwenya Mine (43,000 BP)[89]
- Apollo 11 Cave (30,000 BP)[90]
- Elands Bay Cave (19,398 BP)[91]
- Tsodilo (14,500 BP)[92]
- Mwela Rock Paintings (10,820 BP)[93]
- Kalemba Rockshelter (10,000 BP – 8,000 BP)[94]
- Matsieng Footprints (10,000 BP – 3000 BP)[95]
- Nelson Bay Cave (9000 BP)[78]
- Jubilee Shelter (8500 BP)[78]
- Twyfelfontein (5850 BP)[96]
- Rose Cottage Cave (4000 BP)[78]
- The White Lady (3000 BCE – 1500 BCE)[97]
- Mussel Point (3500 BP)[98]
- Byneskranskop (3200 BP – 1500 BP)[99]
- Driekops Eiland (2500 BP)[100]
- Bambata Cave (215 CE)[101]
- Ziwa (1630 BP)[102]
- Chibuene (7th century CE)[103]
- Toutswemogala Hill (7th century CE – 19th century CE)[104]
- Leopard's Kopje (750 CE – 800 CE)[105]
- Bambandyanalo (1000 CE)[99]
- Great Zimbabwe (1300 CE)[106]
- Domboshaba (1300 CE – 1600 CE)[107]
- Majojo (1300 CE – 1650 CE)[108]
- Mbande Hill (600 BP)[109]
- Kingdom of Mapungubwe (1370 CE – 1410 CE)[99]
- Manyikeni (14th century CE)[110]
- Khami (1450 CE – 1820 CE)[111]
- Dzata ruins (pre-1600 CE)[112]
- Blaauboschkraal stone ruins (16th century CE)[113]
- Ingombe Ilede (16th century CE)[114]
- Danangombe (1650 CE – 1815 CE)[115]
- Burchell's Shelter (post-1660 CE)[116]
- Mamuno Monument (200 BP)[117]
- Kaditshwene (1790 CE)[118]
- Bumbusi National Monument (18th century CE)[119]
- Tlokwe Ruins (19th century CE)[120]
- Old Palapye (19th century CE)[121]
- Dundo (1912 CE)[122]
List of archaeological cultures and sites
- Cango Caves
- Eye of Kuruman
- Gwisho Hot-Springs
- Heritage Western Cape
- Kathu Archaeological Complex
- ǁKhauxaǃnas
- Kogelbeen Cave
- Kolobeng Mission
- Kweneng' Ruins
- Magosian
- Makapansgat
- Malapa Fossil Site, Cradle of Humankind
- Melkhoutboom Cave
- Melville Koppies
- Naletale
- Nooitgedacht Glacial Pavements
- Northern Cape Heritage Resources Authority
- Nyambwezi Falls
- Paternoster Midden
- Sangoan
- Schoemansdal, Limpopo
- Sedan Beehive stone huts
- Wildebeest Kuil Rock Art Centre
- Witsie's Cave (Lekhalong la Witsie)
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