History of Spain
History of Spain |
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Timeline |
The history of
Germanic control lasted about 200 years until the
The marriage and joint rule of
Spain's apparent resurgence was cut short by losses during the
Prehistory
The earliest record of
Archeological evidence in places like
Early history of the Iberian Peninsula
Before the
The south of the peninsula was rich in archaic Phoenician colonies, unmatched by any other region in the central-western Mediterranean.
The Greeks are responsible for the name Iberia, apparently after the river Iber (
The peninsula was a military theatres of the Second Punic War (218–201 BC) waged between Carthage and the Roman Republic, the two powers vying for supremacy in the western Mediterranean. Romans expelled Carthaginians from the peninsula in 206 BC.[14]
The peoples whom the Romans met at the time of their invasion were the Iberians, inhabiting an area stretching from the northeast part of the Iberian Peninsula through the southeast. The Celts mostly inhabited the inner and north-west part of the peninsula. To the east of the Meseta Central, the Sistema Ibérico area was inhabited by the Celtiberians, reportedly rich in precious metals (obtained by Romans in the form of tributes).[15] Celtiberians developed a refined technique of iron-forging, displayed in their quality weapons.[16]
The Celtiberian Wars were fought between the advancing legions of the Roman Republic and the Celtiberian tribes of Hispania Citerior from 181 to 133 BC.[17][18] The Roman conquest of the peninsula was completed in 19 BC.
Roman Hispania (2nd century BC – 5th century AD)
Hispania was the name used for the Iberian Peninsula under Roman rule from the 2nd century BC. The population was gradually culturally Romanized,[19] and local leaders were admitted into the Roman aristocratic class.[20]
The Romans improved existing cities, such as
After the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century, parts of Hispania came under the control of the Germanic tribes of Vandals, Suebi, and Visigoths.
The collapse of the Western Roman Empire did not lead to the same wholesale destruction of classical society as happened in areas like Roman Britain, Gaul and Germania Inferior during the Early Middle Ages, although the institutions and infrastructure did decline. Spain's languages, its religion, and the basis of its laws originate from this period.
Gothic Hispania (5th–8th centuries)
The first
As Rome declined,
At the same time, there was a process of "Romanization" of the Germanic and Hunnic tribes. The Visigoths, for example, were converted to Arian Christianity around 360, even before they were pushed into imperial territory by the expansion of the Huns.[25]
The Visigoths, having
Visigothic rule
The
Hispania never saw a decline in interest in classical culture to the degree observable in Britain, Gaul, and Germany. The Visigoths, having assimilated Roman culture and language during their tenure as foederati, maintained more of the old Roman institutions. They had a unique respect for legal codes that resulted in continuous frameworks and historical records for most of the period between 415, when Visigothic rule in Hispania began, and 711 when it is traditionally said to end.[26] The Liber Iudiciorum or Lex Visigothorum (654), also known as the Book of Judges, which Recceswinth promulgated, based on Roman law and Germanic customary laws, brought about legal unification. According to the historian Joseph O'Callaghan, at that time they already considered themselves one people and together with the Hispano-Gothic nobility they called themselves the gens Gothorum.[27] In the early Middle Ages, the Liber Iudiciorum was known as the Visigothic Code and also as the Fuero Juzgo. Its influence on law extends to the present.
The proximity of the Visigothic kingdoms to the Mediterranean and the continuity (though reduced) of western Mediterranean trade supported Visigothic culture. The Visigothic ruling class looked to Constantinople for style and technology.
Spanish Catholicism also coalesced during this time. The period of rule by the
The Visigoths inherited from Late Antiquity a
system and in the north drawing on their vassals to supply troops in exchange for protection. The bulk of the Visigothic army was composed of slaves. The loose council of nobles that advised Hispania's Visigothic kings and legitimized their rule was responsible for raising the army, and only upon its consent was the king able to summon soldiers.The economy of the Visigothic kingdom depended primarily on agriculture and animal husbandry; there is little evidence of Visigothic commerce and industry.[30] The native Hispani maintained the cultural and economic life of Hispania and were responsible for the relative prosperity of the 6th and 7th centuries. Administration was still based on Roman law, and only gradually did Visigothic customs and Roman common law merge.[31]
The Visigoths did not, until the period of Muslim rule, intermarry with the Spanish population, and the Visigothic language had a limited impact on the modern languages of Iberia.[32] The historian Joseph F. O'Callaghan says that at the end of the Visigothic era the assimilation of Hispano-Romans and Visigoths was occurring rapidly, and the leaders of society were beginning to see themselves as one people.[27] Little literature in the Gothic language remains from the period of Visigothic rule—only translations of parts of the Greek Bible and a few fragments of other documents have survived.[33]
The Hispano-Romans found Visigothic rule and its early embrace of the Arian heresy more of a threat than Islam, and shed their thralldom to the Visigoths only in the 8th century, with the aid of the Muslims themselves.[34] The most visible effect of Visigothic rule was the depopulation of the cities as their inhabitants moved to the countryside. Even while the country enjoyed a degree of prosperity when compared to France and Germany, the Visigoths felt little reason to contribute to the welfare, permanency, and infrastructure of their people and state. This contributed to their downfall, as they could not count on the loyalty of their subjects when the Moors arrived in the 8th century.[32]
Goldsmithery in Visigothic Hispania
In Spain, an important collection of Visigothic metalwork was found in Guadamur, known as the Treasure of Guarrazar. This archeological find comprises twenty-six votive crowns and gold crosses from the royal workshop in Toledo, with signs of Byzantine influence.
- Two important votive crowns are those of Recceswinth and of Suintila, displayed in the National Archaeological Museum of Madrid; both are made of gold, encrusted with sapphires, pearls, and other precious stones. Suintila's crown was stolen in 1921 and never recovered. There are several other small crowns and many votive crosses in the treasure.
- The aquiliform (eagle-shaped) fibulae that have been discovered in necropolises such as Duraton, Madrona or Castiltierra (cities of Segovia. These fibulae were used individually or in pairs, as clasps or pins in gold, bronze and glass to join clothes.
- The Visigothic belt buckles, a symbol of rank and status characteristic of Visigothic women's clothing, are also notable as works of goldsmithery. Some pieces contain exceptional Byzantine-style lapis lazuli inlays and are generally rectangular in shape, with copper alloy, garnets and glass.[35][b]
Architecture of Visigothic Hispania
During their governance of Hispania, the Visigoths built several churches in the basilical or cruciform style that survive, including the churches of San Pedro de la Nave in El Campillo, Santa María de Melque in San Martín de Montalbán, Santa Lucía del Trampal in Alcuéscar, Santa Comba in Bande, and Santa María de Lara in Quintanilla de las Viñas.[citation needed] The Visigothic crypt (the Crypt of San Antolín) in the Palencia Cathedral is a Visigothic chapel from the mid 7th century, built during the reign of Wamba to preserve the remains of the martyr Saint Antoninus of Pamiers. These are the only remains of the Visigothic cathedral of Palencia.[37]
Religion
At the beginning of the
While the Visigoths clung to their Arian faith, the Jews were well-tolerated. Previous Roman and Byzantine law determined their status, and already sharply discriminated against them.[39] Historian Jane Gerber relates that some of the Jews "held ranking posts in the government or the army; others were recruited and organized for garrison service; still others continued to hold senatorial rank".[40] In general, they were well-respected and well-treated by the Visigothic kings, until their transition from Arianism to Catholicism.[41] Conversion to Catholicism across Visigothic society reduced the friction between the Visigoths and the Hispano-Roman population.[42] However, the Visigothic conversion negatively impacted the Jews, who came under scrutiny for their religious practices.[43]
Islamic al-Andalus and the Christian Reconquest (8th–15th centuries)
The
The Muslim conquerors (also known as "Moors") were
In what should not have amounted to much more than a skirmish (later magnified by Spanish nationalism),[56][57] a Muslim force sent to put down the Christian rebels in the northern mountains was defeated by a force reportedly led by Pelagius, known as the Battle of Covadonga. The figure of Pelagius, a by-product of the Asturian chronicles of Alfonso III (written more than a century after the alleged battle), has been later reconstructed in conflicting historiographical theories, most notably that of a refuged Visigoth noble or an autochthonous Astur chieftain.[58] The consolidation of a Christian polity that came to be known as the Kingdom of Asturias ensued later. At the end of Visigothic rule, the assimilation of Hispano-Romans and Visigoths was occurring rapidly. An unknown number fled and took refuge in Asturias or Septimania. In Asturias they supported Pelagius's uprising, and joining with the indigenous leaders, formed a new aristocracy. The population of the mountain region consisted of native Astures, Galicians, Cantabri, Basques and other groups unassimilated into Hispano-Gothic society.[27] In 739, a rebellion in Galicia, assisted by the Asturians, drove out Muslim forces and it joined the Asturian kingdom. In the northern Christian kingdoms, lords and religious organizations often owned Muslim slaves who were employed as laborers and household servants.[51]
The Vikings invaded Galicia in 844, but were heavily defeated by Ramiro I at A Coruña.[60] Many of the Vikings' casualties were caused by the Galicians' ballistas – powerful torsion-powered projectile weapons that looked rather like giant crossbows.[60] 70 Viking ships were captured and burned.[60][61] Vikings returned to Galicia in 859, during the reign of Ordoño I. Ordoño was at the moment engaged against his constant enemies the Moors; but a count of the province, Don Pedro, attacked the Vikings and defeated them,[62] destroying 38 of their ships.
In the 10th century
In 942, Hungarian raids on Spain, especially in Catalonia,[64] took place, according to Ibn Hayyan's work.[65][63] Meanwhile, a slow but steady migration of Christian subjects to the northern kingdoms in Christian Hispania was slowly increasing the latter's power.
Al-Andalus coincided with
By the mid-13th century, the Emirate of Granada was the only independent Muslim realm in Spain, which survived until 1492 by becoming a vassal state to Castile, to which it paid tribute.
Warfare between Muslims and Christians
Medieval Spain was the scene of almost constant warfare between Muslims and Christians.
The Taifa kingdoms lost ground to the Christian realms in the north. After the loss of Toledo in 1085, the Muslim rulers reluctantly invited the
Spanish language and universities
In the 13th century, many languages were spoken in the Christian kingdoms of Hispania. These were the Latin-based
. Throughout the century, Castilian (what is also known today as Spanish) gained a growing prominence in the Kingdom of Castile as the language of culture and communication, at the expense of Leonese and of other close dialects.One example of this is the oldest preserved Castilian epic poem,
At the same time, Catalan and Galician became the standard languages in their respective territories, developing important literary traditions and being the normal languages in which public and private documents were issued: Galician from the 13th to the 16th century in Galicia and nearby regions of Asturias and Leon,[71] and Catalan from the 12th to the 18th century in Catalonia, the Balearic Islands and Valencia, where it was known as Valencian. Both languages were later substituted in its official status by Castilian Spanish, till the 20th century.
In the 13th century many universities were founded in León and in Castile. Some, such as the Leonese Salamanca and the Castilian Palencia, were among the earliest universities in Europe.
In 1492, under the
Early Modern Spain
Dynastic union of the Catholic Monarchs
In the 15th century, the most important among all of the Christian kingdoms that made up the old Hispania were the Kingdom of Castile, the Kingdom of Aragon, and the Kingdom of Portugal. The rulers of the kingdoms of Castile and Aragon were allied with dynastic families in Portugal, France, and other neighboring kingdoms.
The death of King Henry IV of Castile in 1474 set off a struggle for power called the War of the Castilian Succession (1475–1479). Contenders for the throne of Castile were Henry's one-time heir Joanna la Beltraneja, supported by Portugal and France, and Henry's half-sister Queen Isabella I of Castile, supported by the Kingdom of Aragon and by the Castilian nobility.
Isabella retained the throne and ruled jointly with her husband, King Ferdinand II. Isabella and Ferdinand had married in 1469.[72] Their marriage united both crowns and set the stage for the creation of the Kingdom of Spain, at the dawn of the modern era. That union, however, was a union in title only, as each region retained its own political and judicial structure. Pursuant to an agreement signed by Isabella and Ferdinand on January 15, 1474,[73] Isabella held more authority over the newly unified Spain than her husband, although their rule was shared.[73] Together, Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon were known as the "Catholic Monarchs" (Spanish: los Reyes Católicos), a title bestowed on them by Pope Alexander VI.
Conclusion of the Reconquista and expulsions of Jews and Muslims
The monarchs oversaw the final stages of the Reconquista of Iberian territory from the Moors with the conquest of Granada, conquered the Canary Islands, and expelled the Jews from Spain under the Alhambra Decree. Although until the 13th century religious minorities (Jews and Muslims) had enjoyed considerable tolerance in Castile and Aragon – the only Christian kingdoms where Jews were not restricted from any professional occupation – the situation of the Jews collapsed over the 14th century, reaching a climax in 1391 with large scale massacres in every major city except
The Catholic Monarchs ordered the remaining Jews to convert or face expulsion from Spain in 1492, and extended the expulsion decrees to their territories on the Italian peninsula, including Sicily (1493), Naples (1542), and Milan (1597).[74]
Over the following decades, Muslims faced the same fate; and about 60 years after the Jews, they were also compelled to convert ("
Isabella ensured long-term political stability in Spain by arranging strategic marriages for her five children. Her firstborn,
This ensured an alliance with the Habsburgs and the
Conquest of the Canary Islands, Columbian expeditions to the New World and African expansion
The Castilian conquest of the Canary Islands, inhabited by Guanche people, took place between 1402 (with the conquest of Lanzarote) and 1496 (with the conquest of Tenerife). Two periods can be distinguished in this process: the noble conquest, carried out by the nobility in exchange for a pact of vassalage, and the royal conquest, carried out directly by the Crown, during the reign of the Catholic Monarchs.[75] By 1520, European military technology combined with the devastating epidemics such as bubonic plague and pneumonia brought by the Castilians and enslavement and deportation of natives led to the extinction of the Guanches. Isabella and
Spain established colonies in North Africa that ranged from the Atlantic Moroccan coast to Tripoli in Libya. Melilla was occupied in 1497, Oran in 1509, Larache in 1610, and Ceuta was annexed from the Portuguese in 1668. Today, both Ceuta and Melilla still remain under Spanish control, together with smaller islets known as the presidios menores (Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera, las Islas de Alhucemas, las Islas de Chafarinas).
Spanish empire
The Spanish Empire was one of the first
In the 15th and 16th centuries, trade flourished across the Atlantic between Spain and the Americas and across the Pacific between East Asia and Mexico via the Philippines. Spanish
This New World empire was at first a disappointment, as the natives had little to trade. Diseases such as smallpox and measles that arrived with the colonizers devastated the native populations, especially in the densely populated regions of the Aztec, Maya and Inca civilizations, and this reduced their economic potential. Estimates of the pre-Columbian population of the Americas vary but possibly stood at 100 million—one fifth of humanity in 1492. Between 1500 and 1600 the population of the Americas was halved. In Mexico alone, it has been estimated that the pre-conquest population of around 25 million was reduced within 80 years to about 1.3 million.
In the 1520s, large-scale extraction of silver from the rich deposits of Mexico's Guanajuato began to be greatly augmented by the silver mines in Mexico's Zacatecas and Bolivia's Potosí from 1546. These silver shipments re-oriented the Spanish economy, leading to the importation of luxuries and grain. The resource-rich colonies of Spain thus caused large cash inflows.[80] They also became indispensable in financing the military capability of Habsburg Spain in its long series of European and North African wars.
Spain enjoyed a
The financial burden within the peninsula was on the backs of the peasant class while the nobility enjoyed an increasingly lavish lifestyle. From the incorporation of the Portuguese Empire in 1580 (lost in 1640) until the loss of its American colonies in the 19th century, Spain maintained one of the largest empires in the world even though it suffered military and economic misfortunes from the 1640s. The thought that Spain could bring Christianity to the New World and protect Catholicism in Europe played a strong role in the expansion of Spain's empire.[82]
Spanish Kingdoms under the 'Great' Habsburgs (16th century)
Charles I, Holy Emperor
Spain's world empire reached its greatest territorial extent in the late 18th century but it was under the
When Spain's first Habsburg ruler
In 1556 Charles abdicated, giving his Spanish empire to his only surviving son, Philip II of Spain, and the Holy Roman Empire to his brother, Ferdinand. Philip treated Castile as the foundation of his empire, but the population of Castile (about a third of France's) was never large enough to provide the soldiers needed. His marriage to Mary Tudor allied England with Spain.
Philip II and the wars of religion
In the 1560s, plans to consolidate control of the Netherlands led to unrest, which gradually led to the Calvinist leadership of the revolt and the Eighty Years' War. The Dutch armies waged a war of maneuver and siege, successfully avoiding pitched battle. This conflict consumed much Spanish expenditure during the later 16th century. Other extremely expensive failures included an attempt to invade Protestant England in 1588 that produced the worst military disaster in Spanish history when the Spanish Armada—costing 10 million ducats—was scattered by a storm.
Economic and administrative problems multiplied in Castile, and the weakness of the native economy became evident in the following century. Rising inflation, financially draining wars in Europe, the ongoing aftermath of the expulsion of the Jews and Moors from Spain, and Spain's growing dependency on the silver imports, combined to cause several bankruptcies that caused economic crisis in the country, especially in heavily burdened Castile. The great plague of 1596–1602 killed 600,000 to 700,000, or about 10% of the population. Altogether more than 1,250,000 deaths resulted from the extreme incidence of plague in 17th-century Spain.[85] Economically, the plague destroyed the labor force as well as creating a psychological blow.[86]
Cultural Golden Age (Siglo de Oro)
The Spanish Golden Age (
The
Some of Spain's greatest music is regarded as having been written in the period. Such composers as
Spanish literature blossomed as well, most famously demonstrated in the work of Miguel de Cervantes, the author of Don Quixote. Spain's most prolific playwright, Lope de Vega, wrote possibly as many as one thousand plays over his lifetime, over four hundred of which survive.
Decline under the 'Minor' Habsburgs (17th century)
Spain's severe financial difficulties began in the middle 16th century, and continued for the remainder of Habsburg rule. Despite the successes of Spanish armies, the period was marked by monetary inflation, mercantilism, and a variety of government monopolies and interventions. Spanish kings were forced to declare sovereign defaults nine times between 1557 and 1666.[88]
Philip II died in 1598, and was succeeded by his son Philip III. In his reign (1598–1621) a ten-year truce with the Dutch was overshadowed in 1618 by Spain's involvement in the European-wide Thirty Years' War. Philip III was succeeded in 1621 by his son Philip IV of Spain (reigned 1621–65). Much of the policy was conducted by the Count-Duke of Olivares, the inept prime minister from 1621 to 1643. He over-exerted Spain in foreign affairs and unsuccessfully attempted domestic reform. His policy of committing Spain to recapture Holland led to a renewal of the Eighty Years' War while Spain was also embroiled in the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648). His attempts to centralise power and increase wartime taxation led to revolts in Catalonia and in Portugal, which brought about his downfall.[89]
During the Thirty Years' War, in which various Protestant forces battled Imperial armies, France provided subsidies to Habsburg enemies, especially Sweden. Sweden lost and France's First Minister,
The Spanish "Golden Age" politically ends no later than 1659, with the Treaty of the Pyrenees, ratified between France and Habsburg Spain.
During the long regency for
By the 17th century, the Catholic Church and Spain had a close bond, attesting to the fact that Spain was virtually free of Protestantism during the 16th century. In 1620, there were 100,000 Spaniards in the clergy; by 1660 the number had grown to about 200,000, and the Church owned 20% of all the land in Spain. The Spanish bureaucracy in this period was highly centralized, and totally reliant on the king for its efficient functioning. Under Charles II, the councils became the sinecures of wealthy aristocrats despite attempts at reform. Political commentators in Spain, known as
The once proud Spanish army was falling far behind its foes. It did badly at Bergen op Zoom in 1622. The Dutch won very easily at 's-Hertogenbosch and Wesel in 1629. In 1632 the Dutch captured the strategic fortress town of Maastricht, repulsing three relief armies and dooming the Spanish to defeat.[91]
While Spain built a rich American Empire that exported a silver treasure fleet every year, it was unable to focus its financial, military, and diplomatic power on building up its Spanish base. The Crown's dedication to destroying Protestantism through almost constant warfare created a cultural ethos among Spanish leaders that undermined the opportunity for economic modernization or industrialization. When Philip II died in 1598, his treasury spent most of its income on funding the huge deficit, which continued to grow. In peninsular Spain, the productive forces were undermined by steady inflation, heavy taxation, immigration of ambitious youth to the colonies, and by depopulation. Industry went into reverse – Seville in 1621 operated 400 looms, where it had 16,000 a century before. Religiosity led by saints and mystics, missionaries and crusaders, theologians and friars dominated Spanish culture, with the psychology of a reward in the next world. Palmer and Colton argue:
- the generations of crusading against infidels, even, heathens and heretics had produced an exceptionally large number of minor aristocrats, chevaliers, dons, and hidalgos, who as a class were contemptuous of work and who were numerous enough and close enough to the common people to impress their haughty indifference upon the country as a whole.[92] Elliott cites the achievements of Castille in many areas, especially high culture. He finds:[93]
- A certain paradox in the fact that the achievement of the two most outstanding creative artists of Castile – Cervantes and Velázquez – was shot through with a deep sense of disillusionment and failure; but the paradox was itself a faithful reflection of the paradox of sixteenth-and seventeenth-century Castile. For here was a country which had climbed to the heights and sunk to the depths; which had achieved everything and lost everything; which had conquered the world only to be vanquished itself. The Spanish achievement of the sixteenth century was essentially the work of Castile, but so also was the Spanish disaster of the seventeenth; and it was Ortega y Gasset who expressed the paradox most clearly when he wrote what may serve as an epitaph on the Spain of the House of Austria: ‘Castile has made Spain, and Castile has destroyed it.’
The Habsburg dynasty became extinct in Spain with Charles II's death in 1700, and the
After the
Spain under the Bourbons, 1715–1808
Philip signed the Decreto de Nueva Planta in 1715, which revoked most of the historical rights and privileges of the different kingdoms that formed the Spanish Crown, especially the Crown of Aragon, unifying them under the laws of Castile, where the Castilian Cortes Generales had been more receptive to the royal wish.[106] Spain became culturally and politically a follower of absolutist France. Lynch says Philip V advanced the government only marginally and was more of a liability than the incapacitated Charles II; when a conflict came up between the interests of Spain and France, he usually favored France.[107]
Philip made reforms in government, and strengthened the central authorities relative to the provinces. Merit became more important, although most senior positions still went to the landed aristocracy. Below the elite level, inefficiency and corruption was as widespread as ever. The reforms started by Philip V culminated in much more important reforms of Charles III.[107][108] The historian Jonathan Israel, however, argues that King Charles III cared little for the Enlightenment and his ministers paid little attention to the Enlightenment ideas influential elsewhere on the Continent: "Most were first and foremost absolutists and their objective was always to reinforce monarchy, empire, aristocracy...and ecclesiastical control and authority over education."[109]
The economy improved over the depressed 1650–1700 era, with greater productivity and fewer famines and epidemics.[110]
in northern Italy.The rule of the Spanish Bourbons continued under
However, there were no reforming impulses in the reign of
During most of the 18th century Spain had arrested its relative decline of the latter part of the 17th century. But despite the progress, it continued to lag in the political and mercantile developments then transforming other parts of Europe, most notably in Great Britain, the Low Countries, and France. The chaos unleashed by the Peninsular War caused this gap to widen greatly and slowed Spain's industrialisation.
The Age of Enlightenment reached Spain in attenuated form about 1750. Attention focused on medicine and physics, with some philosophy. French and Italian visitors were influential but there was little challenge to Catholicism or the Church such as characterized the French philosophes. The leading Spanish figure was Benito Feijóo, a Benedictine monk and professor. He was a successful popularizer noted for encouraging scientific and empirical thought. By the 1770s the conservatives had launched a counterattack and used censorship and the Inquisition to suppress Enlightenment ideas.[111]
At the top of the social structure of Spain in the 1780s stood the nobility and the church. A few hundred families dominated the aristocracy, with another 500,000 holding noble status. There were 200,000 church men and women, half of them in heavily endowed monasteries that controlled much of the land not owned by the nobles. Most people were on farms, either as landless peons or as holders of small properties. The small urban middle class was growing, but was distrusted by the landowners and peasants alike.[112]
War of Spanish Independence and American wars of independence
War of Spanish Independence (1808–1814)
In the late 18th century, Spain had an alliance with France, and therefore did not have to fear a land war. Its only serious enemy was Britain, which had a powerful navy; Spain therefore concentrated its resources on its navy. When the French Revolution overthrew the Bourbons, a land war with France became a threat which the king tried to avoid. The Spanish army was ill-prepared. The officer corps was selected primarily on the basis of royal patronage, rather than merit. About a third of the junior officers had been promoted from the ranks and had few opportunities for promotion or leadership. The rank-and-file were poorly trained peasants. Elite units included foreign regiments of Irishmen, Italians, Swiss, and Walloons, in addition to elite artillery and engineering units. Equipment was old-fashioned and in disrepair. The army lacked its own horses, oxen and mules for transportation, so these auxiliaries were operated by civilians, who might run if conditions looked bad. In combat, small units fought well, but their old-fashioned tactics were hardly of use against the Napoleonic forces, despite repeated desperate efforts at last-minute reform.[113] When war broke out with France in 1808, the army was deeply unpopular. Leading generals were assassinated, and the army proved incompetent to handle command-and-control. Junior officers from peasant families deserted and went over to the insurgents; many units disintegrated. Spain was unable to mobilize its artillery or cavalry. In the war, there was one victory at the Battle of Bailén, and many humiliating defeats. Conditions steadily worsened, as the insurgents increasingly took control of Spain's battle against Napoleon. Napoleon ridiculed the army as "the worst in Europe"; the British who had to work with it agreed.[114] It was not the Army that defeated Napoleon, but the insurgent peasants whom Napoleon ridiculed as packs of "bandits led by monks".[115] By 1812, the army controlled only scattered enclaves, and could only harass the French with occasional raids. The morale of the army had reached a nadir, and reformers stripped the aristocratic officers of most of their legal privileges.[116]
Spain initially sided against France in the
Spaniards revolted. Thompson says the Spanish revolt was, "a reaction against new institutions and ideas, a movement for loyalty to the old order: to the hereditary crown of the Most Catholic kings, which Napoleon, an excommunicated enemy of the Pope, had put on the head of a Frenchman; to the Catholic Church persecuted by republicans who had desecrated churches, murdered priests, and enforced a "loi des cultes"; and to local and provincial rights and privileges threatened by an efficiently centralized government.[118] Juntas were formed all across Spain that pronounced themselves in favor of Ferdinand VII. On September 26, 1808, a Central Junta was formed in the town of Aranjuez to coordinate the nationwide struggle against the French. Initially, the Central Junta declared support for Ferdinand VII, and convened a "General and Extraordinary Cortes" for all the kingdoms of the Spanish Monarchy. On February 22 and 23, 1809, a popular insurrection against the French occupation broke out all over Spain.[119] The peninsular campaign was a disaster for France. Napoleon did well when he was in direct command, but that followed severe losses, and when he left in 1809 conditions grew worse for France. Vicious reprisals, famously portrayed by Goya in "The Disasters of War", only made the Spanish guerrillas angrier and more active; the war in Spain proved to be a major, long-term drain on French money, manpower and prestige.[120]
In March 1812, the
The Spanish army was stretched as it fought Napoleon's forces because of a lack of supplies and too many untrained recruits, but at Bailén in June 1808, the Spanish army inflicted the first major defeat suffered by a Napoleonic army; this resulted in the collapse of French power in Spain. Napoleon took personal charge and with fresh forces, defeating the Spanish and British armies in campaigns of attrition. After this the Spanish armies lost every battle they fought against the French, but were never annihilated; after battles they retreated into the mountains to regroup and launch new attacks and raids. Guerrilla forces sprang up all over Spain and, with the army, tied down huge numbers of Napoleon's troops, making it difficult to sustain concentrated attacks on Spanish forces. The raids became a massive drain on Napoleon's military and economic resources.[124] Spain was aided by the British and Portuguese, led by the Duke of Wellington. The Duke of Wellington fought Napoleon's forces in the Peninsular War, with Joseph Bonaparte playing a minor role as king at Madrid. The brutal war was one of the first guerrilla wars in modern Western history. French supply lines stretching across Spain were mauled repeatedly by the Spanish armies and guerrilla forces; thereafter, Napoleon's armies were never able to control much of the country and ending in French defeat. The war fluctuated, with Wellington spending several years behind his fortresses in Portugal while launching occasional campaigns into Spain.[125]
After Napoleon's disastrous 1812 campaign in Russia, Napoleon began to recall his forces for the defence of France against the advancing Russian and other coalition forces, leaving his forces in Spain increasingly undermanned and on the defensive against the advancing Spanish, British and Portuguese armies. At the Battle of Vitoria in 1813, an allied army under the Duke of Wellington decisively defeated the French and in 1814 Ferdinand VII was restored as King of Spain.[126][127]
Independence of Spanish America
Spain lost all of its North and South American territories, except Cuba and Puerto Rico, in a complex series of revolts 1808–26.[128] Spain was at war with Britain 1798–1808, and the British blockade cut Spain's ties to the overseas empire. Trade was handled by American and Dutch traders. The colonies thus had achieved economic independence from Spain, and set up temporary governments or juntas which were generally out of touch with Spain. After 1814, as Napoleon was defeated and Ferdinand VII was back on the throne, the king sent armies to regain control and reimpose autocratic rule. In the next phase 1809–16, Spain defeated all the uprising. A second round 1816–25 was successful and drove the Spanish out of all of its mainland holdings. Spain had no help from European powers. Indeed, Britain (and the United States) worked against it. When they were cut off from Spain, the colonies saw a struggle for power between Spaniards who were born in Spain (called "peninsulares") and those of Spanish descent born in New Spain (called "creoles"). The creoles were the activists for independence. Multiple revolutions enabled the colonies to break free of the mother country. In 1824 the armies of generals José de San Martín of Argentina and Simón Bolívar of Venezuela defeated the last Spanish forces; the final defeat came at the Battle of Ayacucho in southern Peru. After that Spain played a minor role in international affairs. Business and trade in the ex-colonies were under British control. Spain kept only Cuba and Puerto Rico in the New World.[129]
Reign of Ferdinand VII (1813–1833)
Aftermath of the Napoleonic wars
The Napoleonic wars had severe negative effects on Spain's long-term economic development. The Peninsular war ravaged towns and countryside alike, and the demographic impact was the worst of any Spanish war, with a sharp decline in population in many areas caused by casualties, outmigration, and disruption of family life. The marauding armies seized farmers' crops, and more importantly, farmers lost much of their livestock, their main capital asset. Severe poverty became widespread, reducing market demand, while the disruption of local and international trade, and the shortages of critical inputs, seriously hurt industry and services. The loss of a vast colonial empire reduced Spain's overall wealth, and by 1820 it had become one of Europe's poorest and least-developed societies; three-fourths of the people were illiterate. There was little industry beyond the production of textiles in Catalonia. Natural resources, such as coal and iron, were available for exploitation, but the transportation system was rudimentary, with few canals or navigable rivers, and road travel was slow and expensive. British railroad builders were pessimistic and did not invest. Eventually a small railway system was built, radiating from Madrid and bypassing the natural resources. The government relied on high tariffs, especially on grain, which further slowed economic development. For example, eastern Spain was unable to import inexpensive Italian wheat, and had to rely on expensive homegrown products carted in over poor roads. The export market collapsed apart from some agricultural products. Catalonia had some industry, but Castile remained the political and cultural center, and was not interested in promoting industry.[130]
Although the juntas, that had forced the French to leave Spain, had sworn by the liberal
The government, nearly bankrupt, was unable to pay its soldiers. There were few settlers or soldiers in Florida, so it was sold to the United States for $5 million. In 1820, an expedition intended for the colonies revolted in
Trienio liberal (1820–23)
The tumultuous three years of liberal rule that followed (1820–23) were marked by various absolutist conspiracies. The liberal government was viewed with hostility by the Congress of Verona in 1822, and France was authorized to intervene. France crushed the liberal government with massive force in the so-called "Hundred Thousand Sons of Saint Louis" expedition, and Ferdinand was restored as absolute monarch in 1823. In Spain proper, this marked the end of the second Spanish bourgeois revolution.
"Ominous Decade" (1823–1833)
In Spain, the failure of the second bourgeois revolution was followed by uneasy peace for the next decade. Having borne only a female heir presumptive, it appeared that Ferdinand would be succeeded by his brother,
Reign of Isabella II (1833–1868)
Ferdinand's death in 1833 and the accession of
The
Sexenio Democrático (1868–1874)
In 1868 another insurgency, known as the
Two years later, in 1870, the Cortes declared that Spain would again have a king.
First Spanish Republic (1873–1874)
In the absence of the Monarch, a government of radicals and Republicans was formed and declared Spain a republic. The
A coup took place in January 1874, when General Pavía broke into the Cortes. This prevented the formation of a federal republican government, forced the dissolution of the Parliament and led to the instauration of a unitary praetorian republic ruled by General Serrano, paving the way for the Restoration of the Monarchy through another pronunciamiento, this time by Arsenio Martínez Campos, in December 1874.
Restoration (1874–1931)
Reign of Alfonso XII and Regency of Maria Christina
Following the success of a December 1874 military coup the monarchy was restored in the person of
The 1876 Constitution granted the Catholic Church control of education (particularly secondary education).[142] Meanwhile, an organization formed in 1876 upon a group of Krausists educators, the Institución Libre de Enseñanza, had a leading role in the educational and cultural renovation in the country, covering for the inaction of the Spanish State.[143]
Disaster of 1898
In 1868, Cuba launched a
The "disaster" of 1898 created the Generation of '98, a group of statesmen and intellectuals who demanded liberal change from the new government. However both Anarchism on the left and fascism on the right grew rapidly in the early 20th century. A revolt in 1909 in Catalonia was bloodily suppressed.[145] Jensen (1999) argues that the defeat of 1898 led many military officers to abandon the liberalism that had been strong in the officer corps and turn to the right. They interpreted the American victory in 1898 as well as the Japanese victory against Russia in 1905 as proof of the superiority of willpower and moral values over technology. Over the next three decades, Jensen argues, these values shaped the outlook of Francisco Franco and other Falangists.[146]
Crisis of the Restoration system (1913–1931)
The bipartisan system began to collapse in the later years of the constitutional part of the reign of
Spain's neutrality in World War I spared the country from carnage, yet the conflict caused massive economic disruption, with the country experiencing at the same time an economic boom (the increasing foreign demand of products and the drop of imports brought hefty profits) and widespread social distress (with mounting inflation, shortage of basic goods and extreme income inequality).[149] A major revolutionary strike was called for August 1917, supported by the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party, the UGT and the CNT, seeking to overthrow the government. The Dato government deployed the army against the workers to brutally quell any threat to social order, sealing in turn the demise of the cabinet and undermining the constitutional order.[150] The strike was one of the three simultaneous developments of a wider three-headed crisis in 1917 that cracked the Restoration regime, that also included a military crisis induced by the cleavage in the Armed Forces between Mainland and Africa-based ranks vis-à-vis the military promotion (and ensuing formation of juntas of officers that refused to dissolve upon request from the government),[151] and a political crisis brought by the challenge posed by Catalan nationalism, whose bourgeois was emboldened by the economic upswing.[152]
During the Rif War, the crushing defeat of the Spanish Army in the so-called "Disaster of Annual" in the summer of 1921 brought in a matter of days the catastrophic loss of the lives of about 9,000 Spanish soldiers and the loss of all occupied territory in Morocco that had been gained since 1912.[153] This entailed the greatest defeat suffered by a European power in an African colonial war in the 20th century.[154][dubious ]
Alfonso XIII tacitly endorsed the September 1923 coup by General
Preceded by a partial retreat from vulnerable posts in the interior of the protectorate in Morocco,[158] Spain (in joint action with France) turned the tides in Morocco in 1925, and the Abd el-Krim-led Republic of the Rif started to see the beginning of its end after the Alhucemas landing and ensuing seizure of Ajdir,[159] the heart of the Riffian rebellion. The war had dragged on since 1917 and cost Spain $800 million.[160][161] The Spanish officers of the war ended up taking the brutality of the colonial military practices to the mainland.[162]
The late 1920s were prosperous until the worldwide Great Depression hit in 1929. In early 1930 bankruptcy and massive unpopularity forced the king to remove Primo de Rivera.
Primo de Rivera was replaced by
Second Spanish Republic (1931–36)
A provisional government presided by
Political ideologies were intensely polarized. Regarding the crux of the role of the Church, within the Left people saw the former as the major enemy of modernity and the Spanish people, and the right saw it as the invaluable protector of Spanish values.[169]
Under the Second Spanish Republic, women were allowed to vote in general elections for the first time. The Republic devolved substantial self-government to Catalonia and, for a brief period in wartime, also to the Basque Provinces.
The first cabinets of the Republic were center-left, headed by Niceto Alcalá-Zamora and Manuel Azaña. Economic turmoil, substantial debt, and fractious, rapidly changing governing coalitions led to escalating political violence and attempted coups by right and left.
Following the 1933 election, the right-wing
A devastating 1936–39 civil war was won in 1939 by the rebel forces under
Spanish Civil War (1936–39)
The Spanish Civil War was started by a
The Republic looked to the Western democracies for help, but following an earlier commitment to provide assistance by French premier Léon Blum, by 25 July the latter had already backtracked on it, as to the mounting inner division within his country the British opposition to intervention added up, as the sympathies of the UK lied in the Rebel faction.[173]
The Rebel faction enjoyed direct military support from
After the Spanish Civil War, the active agrarian population began to decline in Spain, the provinces with latifundia in Andalusia continued being the ones with the greatest number of day laborers; at the same time this was the region with the lowest literacy share.[176]
Political and military balance
The Spanish Republican government moved to Valencia, to escape Madrid, which was under siege by the Nationalists. It had some military strength in the Air Force and Navy, but it had lost nearly all of the Army. After opening the arsenals to arm local militias, it had little control over the Loyalist ground forces. Republican diplomacy proved ineffective, with only two useful allies, the Soviet Union and Mexico. Britain, France and 27 other countries had agreed to an arms embargo on Spain, and the United States went along. Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy both signed that agreement, but ignored it and sent supplies and vital help, including a powerful air force under German command, the Condor Legion. Tens of thousands of Italians arrived under Italian command. Portugal supported the Nationalists, and allowed the trans-shipment of supplies to Franco's forces. The Soviets sold tanks and other armaments for Spanish gold, and sent well-trained officers and political commissars. It organized the mobilization of tens of thousands of mostly communist volunteers from around the world, who formed the International Brigades.
In 1936, the Left united in the Popular Front and were elected to power. However, this coalition, dominated by the centre-left, was undermined both by the revolutionary groups such as the
Military operations
The Nationalists under Franco won the war, and historians continue to debate the reasons. The Nationalists were much better unified and led than the Republicans, who squabbled and fought amongst themselves endlessly and had no clear military strategy. The Army went over to the Nationalists, but it was very poorly equipped – there were no tanks or modern airplanes. The small navy supported the Republicans, but their armies were made up of raw recruits and they lacked both equipment and skilled officers and sergeants. Nationalist senior officers were much better trained and more familiar with modern tactics than the Republicans.[179]
On 17 July 1936, General
The
The war cost between 300,000 and 1,000,000 lives. It ended with the total collapse of the Republic and the accession of Francisco Franco as dictator. Franco amalgamated all right wing parties into a reconstituted fascist party Falange and banned the left-wing and Republican parties and trade unions. The Church was more powerful than it had been in centuries.[180]: 301–318
The conduct of the war was brutal on both sides, with widespread massacres of civilians and prisoners. After the war, many thousands of Republicans were imprisoned and up to 150,000 were executed between 1939 and 1943. Some 500,000 refugees escaped to France; they remained in exile for years or decades.
Francoist Spain (1939–1975)
The Francoist regime resulted in the deaths and arrests of hundreds of thousands of people who were either supporters of the previous Second Republic of Spain or potential threats to Franco's state. They were executed, sent to prisons or
During
Under Franco, Spain actively sought the return of Gibraltar by the United Kingdom, and gained some support for its cause at the United Nations. During the 1960s, Spain began imposing restrictions on Gibraltar, culminating in the closure of the border in 1969. It was not fully reopened until 1985.
Spanish rule in Morocco ended in 1967. Though militarily victorious in the 1957–58 Moroccan invasion of Spanish West Africa, Spain gradually relinquished its remaining African colonies. Spanish Guinea was granted independence as Equatorial Guinea in 1968, while the Moroccan enclave of Ifni had been ceded to Morocco in 1969. Two cities in Africa, Ceuta and Melilla, remain under Spanish rule and sovereignty.
The latter years of Franco's rule saw some economic and political liberalization (the Spanish miracle), including the birth of a tourism industry. Spain began to catch up economically with its European neighbors.[184]
Franco ruled until his death on 20 November 1975, when control was given to
History of Spain (1975–present)
Transition to democracy
The Spanish transition to democracy or new Bourbon restoration started with Franco's death on 20 November 1975, while its completion is marked by the electoral victory of the socialist PSOE on 28 October 1982.
Under its current (1978) constitution, Spain is a
Between 1978 and 1982, Spain was led by the Unión del Centro Democrático governments. In 1981 the
After earning a sweeping majority at the October 1982 general election, the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE) governed the country, with Felipe González as prime minister. On 1 January 1986, Spain joined the European Economic Community (EEC). A referendum on whether Spain should remain in NATO was held in March 1986. The ruling party, the PSOE, favoured Spain's permanence (a turn from their anti-NATO stance back in 1982).[187] Meanwhile, the Conservative opposition (People's Coalition), called for abstention.[188]
The country hosted the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona and Seville Expo '92.
Spain within the European Union (1993–present)
In 1996, the centre-right Partido Popular government came to power, led by
In the wake of its joining the EEC, Spain experienced an economic boom, cut painfully short by the
Spain is ranked as a middle power able to exert modest regional influence. It has a small voice in international organizations; it is not part of the G8 and participates in the G20 only as a guest. Spain is part of the G6 (EU).
Historical population
Year | Pop. | ±% |
---|---|---|
1833 | 12,286,941 | — |
1846 | 12,162,872 | −1.0% |
1857 | 15,464,340 | +27.1% |
1877 | 16,622,175 | +7.5% |
1887 | 17,549,608 | +5.6% |
1900 | 18,616,630 | +6.1% |
1910 | 19,990,669 | +7.4% |
1920 | 21,388,551 | +7.0% |
1930 | 23,677,095 | +10.7% |
1940 | 26,014,278 | +9.9% |
1950 | 28,117,873 | +8.1% |
1960 | 30,582,936 | +8.8% |
1970 | 33,956,047 | +11.0% |
1981 | 37,683,363 | +11.0% |
1991 | 38,872,268 | +3.2% |
2001 | 40,847,371 | +5.1% |
2011 | 46,815,916 | +14.6% |
2021 | 47,385,107 | +1.2% |
Source: INE |
See also
- Black Propaganda against Portugal and Spain
- Demographics of Spain
- Economic history of Spain
- Foreign relations of Spain
- List of missing landmarks in Spain
- Monarchy of Spain
- Politics of Spain
Notes
- ^ "'First west Europe tooth' found". British Broadcasting Corporation. BBC News. 30 June 2007. Archived from the original on March 16, 2018.
- ^ "Spain – History – Pre-Roman Spain – Prehistory". Britannica Online Encyclopedia. 2008.
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- ^ Ansede, Manuel (2018-10-04). "The invasion that wiped out every man from Spain 4,500 years ago". EL PAÍS. Retrieved 2020-05-11.
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- ^ Aubet 2006, p. 36.
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- ^ Aubet 2006, pp. 44–45.
- ^ Blázquez 1988.
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- ^ Grout, James (2007). "The Celtiberian War". Encyclopaedia Romana. University of Chicago. Retrieved 2008-06-08.
- ^ "Major Phases in Roman History". Rome in the Mediterranean World. University of Toronto. Retrieved 2008-06-08.
- Latifundia(sing., latifundium), controlled by a land owning aristocracy, were superimposed on the existing Iberian landholding system.
- ^ a b Rinehart, Robert; Seeley, Jo Ann Browning (1998). "A Country Study: Spain – Hispania". Library of Congress Country Series. Retrieved 2008-08-09.
- Tingis(Tánger in present Morocco), Provincia Hispania Nova Citerior and Asturiae-Calleciae (these latter two provinces were created and then dissolved in the 3rd century AD).
- ^ Payne 1973a, Chapter 1 Ancient Hispania .
- ^ Collins 2004.
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- ^ Smith 1965, pp. 13–15.
- ^ "Las fuentes del Derecho Visigodo (I)". Derecho UNED. isipedia.com. Archived from the original on 2021-09-24. Retrieved 2022-08-17.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-8014-6872-8.
- ^ a b Smith 1965, pp. 16–17.
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- ^ Spain – The Visigothic kingdom. Retrieved 28 August 2020.
{{cite encyclopedia}}
:|website=
ignored (help) - ^ Payne 1973a, p. Ancient Hispania, p. 7.
- ^ a b Collins 2004, p. [page needed].
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- ^ The Metropolitan Museum of Art, "Belt Buckle 550–600".
- ^ "La necrópolis de época visigoda de Castiltierra (Segovia) Excavaciones dirigidas por E. Camps y J. M.a de Navascués, 1932–1935 Materiales conservados en el Museo Arqueológico Nacional" (PDF). National Archaeological Museum-Museo Arqueológico Nacional of Spain.
- ^ Salvador Conejo, Cripta visigoda de San Antolín.
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- ^ Marín-Guzmán 1991, p. 47.
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- ^ Marín-Guzmán 1991, p. 49.
- ^ Marín-Guzmán 1991, p. 48.
- ^ Marín-Guzmán 1991, p. 50.
- .
The battle cannot have amounted to much more than a minor skirmish between a small band of Asturian warriors and the Muslim expeditionary force sent to crush their resistance
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Traditional Spanish nationalism converted a skirmish, the Battle of Covadonga (718–722) and the figure of Pelayo, reckoned as first king of Asturias (718–737), into symbols of the will to recover the Visigothic unity and reinstate Christianity only a few years after the rout of Guadalete
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To pursue their mission of conquest, the Spaniards dealt individually with each settlement or village and with each province or island until the entire Philippine archipelago was brought under imperial control. They saw to it that the people remained divided or compartmentalized and with the minimum of contact or communication. The Spaniards adopted the policy of divide et impera (divide and conquer).
- S2CID 143692647.
The early modern revival of the Reconquista in the Philippines had a profound effect on the islands, one that is still being felt today. As described above, the Spanish Reconquista served to unify Christians against a common Moro enemy, helping to bring together Castilian, Catalan, Galician, and Basque peoples into a single political unit: Spain. In precolonial times, the Philippine islands were a divided and unspecified part of the Malay archipelago, one inhabited by dozens of ethnolinguistic groups, residing in countless independent villages, strewn across thousands of islands. By the end of the seventeenth century, however, a dramatic change had happened in the archipelago. A multiethnic community had come together to form the colonial beginnings of a someday nation: the Philippines. The powerful influence of Christian-Moro antagonisms on the formation of the early Philippines remains evident more than four hundred years later, as the Philippine national government continues to grapple with Moro separatists groups, even in 2013.
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- ^ The first R is held at the Musée de Cluny, Paris
- ^ Important findings have also been made in the Visigothic necropolis of Castiltierra (Segovia) in Spain.[36]
- Suinthila as a fortification against the Basques, is modern Olite. All of these cities were founded for military purposes and at least Reccopolis, Victoriacum, and Ologicus in celebration of victory. A possible fifth Visigothic foundation is Baiyara (perhaps modern Montoro), mentioned as founded by Reccared in the fifteenth-century geographical account, Kitab al-Rawd al-Mitar, cf. José María Lacarra, "Panorama de la historia urbana en la Península Ibérica desde el siglo V al X," La città nell'alto medioevo, 6 (1958:319–358). Reprinted in Estudios de alta edad media española (Valencia: 1975), pp. 25–90.
Bibliography
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- ISSN 0212-078X.
- Bernecker, Walter L. (2000). "Spain: The Double Breakdown". In Berg-Schlosser, Dirk; Mitchell, Jeremy (eds.). Conditions of Democracy in Europe, 1919–39. Systematic Case Studies. ISBN 0-333-64828-5.
- Blázquez, José María (1988). "Los griegos en la Península Ibérica, siglos VII-V a.C. Analogías con la colonización griega en el Mar Negro (Cólquida)". Homenaje a García y Bellido 5. Anejos de Gerión – via Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes.
- Carr, Raymond, ed. (2000). Spain: A History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-280236-1., 900pp; a standard scholarly history
- Carr, Raymond (2008). España, 1808–1975. Ariel. OCLC 1025648814.
- Carr, Raymond (2008). España, 1808–1975. Ariel.
- Casey, James (2003). Early modern Spain : a social history. Routledge.
- Collins, Roger (2000). "Visigothic Spain, 409–711". In Raymond Carr (ed.). Spain: A History. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19280-236-1.
- Collins, Roger (2004). Visigothic Spain, 409–711. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 0-631-18185-7.
- Elliott, J. H. (2002) [1970]. Imperial Spain 1469–1716. Penguin. p. 404. ISBN 978-0141925578.
- Gerber, Jane (1992). The Jews of Spain: A History of the Sephardic Experience. New York: Free Press. ISBN 978-0-02911-573-2.
- Graetz, Heinrich (1894). History of the Jews. Vol. 3. Philadelphia: The Jewish Publication Society of America. ASIN B000JRBM60.
- Herr, Richard (1974). Modern Spain: An Historical Essay. U. of California Press. ISBN 978-0520025349.
- JSTOR 1845444.
- Lirola Delgado, Jorge (1993). El poder naval de Al-Ándalus en la época del califato omeya. Granada: Universidad de Granada. ISBN 978-84-338-1797-6.
- Lorrio, Alberto J. (1997). Los celtíberos (PDF). Universidad de Alicante. p. 36. ISBN 84-7908-335-2.
- Marín-Guzmán, Roberto (1991). "Ethnic groups and social classes in Muslim Spain". Islamic Studies. 30 (1/2): 37–66. JSTOR 20840024.
- Martorell Linares, Miguel Ángel (1997). "La crisis parlamentaria de 1913–1917. La quiebra del sistema de relaciones parlamentarias de la Restauración". Revista de Estudios Políticos (96). Madrid: Centro de Estudios Constitucionales: 146.
- Metropolitan Museum of Art. "Belt Buckle 550–600". The Metropolitan Museum of Art.
- Muñoz Soro, Javier (2016). "El final de la utopía. Los intelectuales y el referéndum de la OTAN en 1986" (PDF). Ayer. 103: 19–21. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2021-10-25. Retrieved 2021-10-25.
- Payne, Stanley G. (1973). A History of Spain and Portugal. Vol. 1 Before 1700. University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 978-0-299-06270-5. Full text
- Payne, Stanley G. (1973). A History of Spain and Portugal. Vol. 2 After 1700. University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 978-0-299-06270-5. Full Text
- Prados Martínez, Fernando (2007). "La presencia neopúnica en la Alta Andalucía: a propósito de algunos referentes arquitectónicos y culturales de época bárquida (237–205 a.C.)" (PDF). Gerión. 25 (1): 85. ISSN 0213-0181.
- Romero Salvadó, Francisco J. (2010). "Spain's Revolutionary Crisis of 1917: A Reckless Gamble". In Romero Salvadó, Francisco J.; Smith, Angel (eds.). The Agony of Spanish Liberalism. From Revolution to Dictatorship 1913–23. ISBN 978-1-349-36383-4.
- Romero Salvadó, Francisco J. (1999). Twentieth-Century Spain: Politics and Society, 1898–1998. ]
- Roth, Norman (1994). Jews, Visigoths, and Muslims in Medieval Spain: Cooperation and Conflict. Leiden, New York, Köln: Brill. ISBN 978-9-00409-971-5.
- Martínez Sánchez, Juan Antonio (2011). "El referendum sobre la permanencia de España en la OTAN". UNISCI Discussion Papers. 26 (26): 306. ISSN 1696-2206.
- Smith, Rhea Marsh (1965). Spain: A Modern History. University of Michigan Press.
- Salvador Conejo, Diego. "Cripta visigoda de San Antolín". Rutas con historia. Retrieved April 19, 2020.
- ISBN 978-0375502040.; the first book in a trilogy about the Spanish Empire.
- The Golden Age: The Spanish Empire of Charles V (2010); the second book in the trilogy Published in the United States as The Golden Empire: Spain, Charles V, and the Creation of America (2011).
- World Without End: The Global Empire of Philip II (2014); the third volume in the trilogy
- Wagner, Carlos G. (1999). "Los Bárquidas y la conquista de la península ibérica". Gerión. 17. Madrid: Ediciones Complutense: 263–264.
- Waldman, Carl; Mason, Catherine (2006). Encyclopedia of European Peoples. New York: Facts on File. ISBN 978-0816049646.
Further reading
- Altman, Ida. Emigrants and Society, Extremadura and America in the Sixteenth Century. U of California Press 1989.
- Barton, Simon. A History of Spain (2009) excerpt and text search
- Bertrand, Louis and Charles Petrie. The History of Spain (2nd ed. 1956) online
- Braudel, Fernand The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II (2 vol; 1976) vol 1 free to borrow
- Cortada, James W. Spain in the Twentieth-Century World: Essays on Spanish Diplomacy, 1898–1978 (1980)
- Edwards, John. The Spain of the Catholic Monarchs 1474–1520 (2001) excerpt and text search
- Elliott, J.H. The Old World and the New. Cambridge 1970.
- Esdaile, Charles J. Spain in the Liberal Age: From Constitution to Civil War, 1808–1939 (2000) excerpt and text search
- Gerli, E. Michael, ed. Medieval Iberia: an encyclopedia. New York 2005. ISBN 0-415-93918-6
- Hamilton, Earl J. American Treasure and the Price Revolution in Spain, 1501–1650. Cambridge MA 1934.
- Haring, Clarence. Trade and Navigation between Spain and the Indies in the Time of the Hapsburgs. (1918). online free
- Israel, Jonathan I. "Debate—The Decline of Spain: A Historical Myth," Past and Present 91 (May 1981), 170–85.
- Kamen, Henry. Spain. A Society of Conflict (3rd ed.) London and New York: Pearson Longman 2005.[ISBN missing]
- Lynch, John. The Hispanic World in Crisis and Change: 1598–1700 (1994) excerpt and text search
- Lynch, John C. Spain under the Habsburgs. (2 vols. 2nd ed. Oxford UP, 1981).
- Merriman, Roger Bigelow. The Rise of the Spanish Empire in the Old World and the New. 4 vols. New York 1918–34. online free
- Norwich, John Julius. Four Princes: Henry VIII, Francis I, Charles V, Suleiman the Magnificent and the Obsessions that Forged Modern Europe (2017), popular history; excerpt
- Olson, James S. et al. Historical Dictionary of the Spanish Empire, 1402–1975 (1992)
- O'Callaghan, Joseph F. A History of Medieval Spain (1983) excerpt and text search
- Paquette, Gabriel B. Enlightenment, governance, and reform in Spain and its empire, 1759–1808. (2008)
- Parker, Geoffrey. Emperor: A New Life of Charles V (2019) excerpt
- Parker, Geoffrey. The Grand Strategy of Philip II (Yale UP, 1998). online review
- Parry, J.H.The Spanish Seaborne Empire. New York 1966.
- Payne, Stanley G. Spain: A Unique History (University of Wisconsin Press; 2011) 304 pages; short scholarly history
- Payne, Stanley G. Politics and Society in Twentieth-Century Spain (2012)
- Phillips, William D., Jr. Enrique IV and the Crisis of Fifteenth-Century Castile, 1425–1480. Cambridge MA 1978
- Phillips, William D., Jr., and Carla Rahn Phillips. A Concise History of Spain (2010) excerpt and text search
- Phillips, Carla Rahn. "Time and Duration: A Model for the Economy of Early Modern Spain," American Historical Review, Vol. 92. No. 3 (June 1987), pp. 531–562.
- Pierson, Peter. The History of Spain (2nd ed. 2008) excerpt and text search
- Pike, Ruth. Enterprise and Adventure: The Genoese in Seville and the Opening of the New World. Ithaca 1966.
- Pike, Ruth. Aristocrats and Traders: Sevillan Society in the Sixteenth Century. Ithaca 1972.
- Preston, Paul. The Spanish Civil War: Reaction, Revolution, and Revenge (2nd ed. 2007)
- Reston Jr, James. Defenders of the Faith: Charles V, Suleyman the Magnificent, and the Battle for Europe, 1520–1536 (2009), popular history.
- Ringrose, David. Madrid and the Spanish Economy 1560–1850. Berkeley 1983.
- Shubert, Adrian. A Social History of Modern Spain (1990) excerpt
- Thompson, I.A.A. War and Government in Habsburg Spain, 1560–1620. London 1976.
- Thompson, I.A.A. Crown and Cortes. Government Institutions and Representation in Early-Modern Castile. Brookfield VT 1993.
- Treasure, Geoffrey. The Making of Modern Europe, 1648–1780 (3rd ed. 2003). pp 332–373.
- Tusell, Javier. Spain: From Dictatorship to Democracy, 1939 to the Present (2007) excerpt and text search
- Vivens Vives, Jaime. An Economic History of Spain, 3d edn. rev. Princeton 1969.
- Walker, Geoffrey. Spanish Politics and Imperial Trade, 1700–1789. Bloomington IN 1979.
- Woodcock, George. "Anarchism in Spain" History Today (Jan 1962) 12#1 pp 22–32.
Historiography
- Boyd, Kelly, ed. (1999). Encyclopedia of Historians and Historical Writing vol 2. Taylor & Francis. pp. 1124–1136. ISBN 978-1884964336.
- Cabrera, Miguel A. "Developments in contemporary Spanish historiography: from social history to the new cultural history." Journal of Modern History 77.4 (2005): 988–1023.
- Cortada, James W. A Bibliographic Guide to Spanish Diplomatic History, 1460–1977 (Greenwood Press, 1977) 390 pages
- Feros, Antonio. "Spain and America: All is One”: Historiography of the Conquest and Colonization of the Americas and National Mythology in Spain c. 1892–c. 1992." in Christopher Schmidt-Nowara and John M. Nieto Phillips, eds. Interpreting Spanish Colonialism: Empires, Nations, and Legends (2005).
- García-Sanjuán, Alejandro. "Rejecting al-Andalus, exalting the Reconquista: historical memory in contemporary Spain." Journal of Medieval Iberian Studies 10.1 (2018): 127–145. online
- Herzberger, David K. Narrating the past: fiction and historiography in postwar Spain (Duke University Press, 1995).
- Herzberger, David K. "Narrating the past: History and the Novel of Memory in Postwar Spain." Publications of the Modern Language Association of America (1991): 34–45. in JSTOR
- Jover, José María. "Panorama of current Spanish historiography" Cahiers d'Histoire Mondiale. 1961, Vol. 6 Issue 4, pp 1023–1038.
- Linehan, Peter. History and the historians of medieval Spain (Oxford UP, 1993)
- Luengo, Jorge, and Pol Dalmau. "Writing Spanish history in the global age: connections and entanglements in the nineteenth century." Journal of global history 13.3 (2018): 425–445. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S1740022818000220
- Payne, Stanley G. “Jaime Vicens Vives and the Writing of Spanish History.” Journal of Modern History 34#2 (1962), pp. 119–134. online
- Viñao, Antonio. "From dictatorship to democracy: history of education in Spain." Paedagogica Historica 50#6 (2014): 830–843.
External links
- "History of Spain: Primary Documents – EuroDocs". eudocs.lib.byu.edu. Retrieved 2022-08-17.
- "Spanish History Sources & Documents". www.straatvaart.com. Retrieved 2022-08-17.
- Kamen, Henry (2006-04-26). "The Decline of Spain: A Historical Myth?". Archived from the original on 2006-04-26. Retrieved 2022-08-17.
- Martin, Iñaki Lopez (1999-09-15). "WWW-VL History – Spanish History Index – VL Historia – Indice de Historia de España". vlib.iue.it. Archived from the original on 2022-11-11. Retrieved 2022-08-17.
- Pereira-Muro, Carmen Culturas de España. Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin Company 2003.[ISBN missing]
- Olalde, Iñigo; Mallick, Swapan; Patterson, Nick; Rohland, Nadin; Villalba-Mouco, Vanessa; Silva, Marina; Dulias, Katharina; Edwards, Ceiridwen J.; Gandini, Francesca; Pala, Maria; Soares, Pedro; Ferrando-Bernal, Manuel; Adamski, Nicole; Broomandkhoshbacht, Nasreen; Cheronet, Olivia (2019-03-15). "The genomic history of the Iberian Peninsula over the past 8000 years". Science. 363 (6432): 1230–1234. PMID 30872528.
- Pueyo, Tomas. "A Brief History of Spain". unchartedterritories.tomaspueyo.com. Retrieved 2022-08-17.