History of Tamil Nadu
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The region of Tamil Nadu in the southeast of modern India, shows evidence of having had continuous human habitation from 15,000 BCE to 10,000 BCE.[1][2] Throughout its history, spanning the early Upper Paleolithic age to modern times, this region has coexisted with various external cultures.
The three ancient Tamil dynasties namely
Rapid changes in the political situation of the rest of India occurred due to
Prehistoric period
Palaeolithic
For most of the
In
A discovery of a rare fossilized baby brain in
Neolithic
In Tamil Nadu, the Neolithic period had its advent around 2500 BCE. Humans of the Neolithic period made their stone tools in finer shapes by grinding and polishing. A Neolithic axe head with ancient writing on it has been found in North Tamil Nadu Near Palar river.[13] The Neolithic humans lived mostly on small flat hills or on the foothills in small, more or less permanent settlements but for periodical migration for grazing purposes. They gave the dead proper burials within urns or pits. They were also starting to use copper for making certain tools or weapons.
Iron Age
During the
The earliest clear evidence of the presence of the megalithic urn burials are those dating from around 1800 BCE, which have been discovered at various places in Tamil Nadu, notably at Adichanallur, 24 km from Tirunelveli, where archaeologists from the Archaeological Survey of India unearthed 157 urns, including 15 containing human skulls, skeletons and bones, plus husks, grains of rice, charred rice and Neolithic Celts. One urn has writing inside, which, according to archaeologists from the Archaeological Survey of India, resembles early Tamil-Brahmi script, confirming it of the Neolithic period 2800 years ago.[16] Adhichanallur has been announced as an archaeological site for further excavation and studies.[17][18]
Mentions of the political situation of Tamil Nadu before the common era are found in Ashoka's edicts dated c.3rd century BCE and, vaguely, in the Hathigumpha inscription dated c.2nd century BCE.
Early history
Ancient Tamil Nadu contained three monarchical states, headed by kings called Vendhar and several tribal chieftaincies, headed by the chiefs called by the general denomination Vel or
The names of the three dynasties, Cholas, Pandyas, and Cheras, are mentioned in the Pillars of Ashoka (inscribed 273–232 BCE) inscriptions, among the kingdoms, which though not subject to Ashoka, were on friendly terms with him.[24][25] The king of Kalinga, Kharavela, who ruled around 150 BCE, mentioned in the famous Hathigumpha inscription of the confederacy of the Tamil kingdoms that had existed for over 100 years.[26]
Pandyas ruled initially from
The kingdom of the
These early kingdoms sponsored the growth of some of the oldest extant literature in Tamil. The classical Tamil literature, referred to as Sangam literature is attributed to the period between 500 BCE and 300 CE.[38][39] The poems of Sangam literature, which deal with emotional and material topics, were categorised and collected into various anthologies during the medieval period. These Sangam poems paint the picture of a fertile land and of a people who were organised into various occupational groups. The governance of the land was through hereditary monarchies, although the sphere of the state's activities and the extent of the ruler's powers were limited through the adherence to the established order (dharma).[40] The people were loyal to their kings and roving bards, musicians and dancers gathered at the royal courts of the generous kings. The arts of music and dancing were highly developed and popular. Musical instruments of various types are mentioned in the Sangam poems. The amalgamation of the southern and the northern styles of dancing started during this period and is reflected fully in the epic Cilappatikaram.[41]
Internal and external trade was well organised and active. Evidence from both archaeology and literature speaks of a flourishing foreign trade with the
Interregnum (300–600)
After the close of the Sangam era, from about 300 to about 600 CE, there was an almost total lack of information regarding occurrences in the Tamil land. Some time about 300 CE, the whole region was upset by the appearance of the Kalabhras. These people are described in later literature as 'evil rulers' who overthrew the established Tamil kings and got a stranglehold of the country.
Historians speculate that these people followed Buddhist or
Writing became very widespread and
Even with the exit of the Kalabhras, the Jain and Buddhist influence still remained in Tamil Nadu. The early Pandya and the Pallava kings were followers of these faiths. The Hindu reaction to this apparent decline of their religion was growing and reached its peak during the later part of the 7th century.
Age of empires (600–1300)
The medieval period of the history of the Tamil country saw the rise and fall of many kingdoms, some of whom went on to the extent of empires, exerting influences both in India and overseas. The Cholas who were very active during the Sangam age were entirely absent during the first few centuries.[53] The period started with the rivalry between the Pandyas and the Pallavas, which in turn caused the revival of the Cholas. The Cholas went on to become a great power. Their decline saw the brief resurgence of the Pandyas. This period was also that of the re-invigorated Hinduism during which temple building and religious literature were at their best.[54]
The
Pallavas
The 7th century Tamil Nadu saw the rise of the
During the 6th and the 7th centuries, the western Deccan saw the rise of the
Pandyas
Pandya
The
The Pandya power continued to grow under Srimara and encroached further into the Pallava territories. The Pallavas were now facing a new threat in the form of the
Cholas
Around 850, out of obscurity rose
The Cholas went into a temporary decline during the next few years due to weak kings, palace intrigues and succession disputes. Despite a number of attempts, the Pandya country could not be completely subdued and the Rashtrakutas were still a powerful enemy in the north. However, the Chola revival began with the accession of Rajaraja Chola I in 985. Cholas rose as a notable military, economic and cultural power in Asia under Rajaraja and his son
Throughout this period, the Cholas were constantly troubled by the ever-resilient
Marital and political alliances between the
Cheras
The Cheras were an ancient Dravidian royal dynasty of Tamil origin who ruled in regions of Tamil Nadu and Kerala in India. Together with the Chola and the Pandyas, it formed the three principal warring Iron Age kingdoms of southern India in the early centuries of the Common Era. over a wide area comprising Venad, Kuttanad, Kudanad, Pazhinad, and more. In other words, they governed the area between Alappuzha in the south to Kasargod in the north. This included Palghat, Coimbatore, Salem, and Kollimalai. The capital was Vanchi, which the Romans who actively traded with the Cheras knew as Muzris.
By the early centuries of the Common Era, civil society and statehood under the Cheras were developed in present-day western Tamil Nadu. The location of the Chera capital is generally assumed to be at modern Karur (identified with the Korra of Ptolemy). The Chera kingdom later extended to the plains of Kerala, the Palghat gap, along the river Perar and occupied land between the river Perar and river Periyar, creating two harbour towns, Tondi (Tyndis) and Muciri (Muziris), where the Roman trade settlements flourished.
The Cheras were in continuous conflict with the neighboring Cholas and Pandyas. The Cheras are said to have defeated the combined armies of the Pandyas and the Cholas and their ally states. They also made battles with the Kadambās of Banavasi and the Yavanas (the Greeks) on the Indian coast. After the 2nd century AD, the Cheras' power decayed rapidly with the decline of the lucrative trade with the Romans.
The Tamil poetic collection called Sangam literature describes a long line of Chera rulers dated to the first few centuries AD. It records the names of the kings, the princes, and the court poets who extolled them. The internal chronology of this literature is still far from settled, and at present, a connected account of the history of the period cannot be derived. Uthiyan Cheralathan, Nedum Cheralathan and Senguttuvan Chera are some of the rulers referred to in the Sangam poems. Senguttuvan Chera, the most celebrated Chera king, is famous for the legends surrounding Kannagi, the heroine of the Tamil epic Silapathikaram.
The Chera kingdom owed its importance to trade with West Asia, Greece, and Rome. Its geographical advantages, like the abundance of exotic spices, the navigability of the rivers connecting the Ghat mountains with the Arabian Sea, and the discovery of favorable Monsoon winds which carried sailing ships directly from the Arabian coast to Chera kingdom, combined to produce a veritable boom in the Chera foreign trade.
The Later Cheras ruled from the 9th century. Little is known about the Cheras between the two dynasties. The second dynasty, Kulasekharas ruled from a city on the banks of River Periyar called Mahodayapuram (Kodungallur). Though never regained the old status in the Peninsula, Kulasekharas fought numerous wars with their powerful neighbors and diminished to history in the 12th century as a result of continuous Chola and Rashtrakuta invasions. The Chera Dynasty was supported by Tamil warriors such as Villavar, Vanavar and Malayar clans.[citation needed]
The Chera rulers of Venadu, based at the port Quilon in southern Kerala, trace their relations back to the later/second Cheras. Ravi Varma Kulasekhara, ruler of Venadu from 1299 to 1314, is known for his ambitious military campaigns to former Pandya and Chola territories.
Pandya revival
After being overshadowed by the Pallavas and Cholas for centuries, the Pandiyas revived their fortunes in the 13th century and the Pandya power extended from the Telugu territories along the banks of the Godavari river to the northern half of Sri Lanka. When Kulasekara Pandyan I died in 1308, a conflict stemming from succession disputes arose amongst his sons – the legitimate Sundara Pandya and the illegitimate Vira Pandya (who was favoured by the king) fought each other for the throne. Soon Madurai fell into the hands of the invading armies of the Delhi Sultanate (which initially gave protection to the vanquished Sundara Pandyan).
Delhi Sultanate
Vijayanagar and Nayak period (1300–1650)
The 14th-century invasion by the Delhi Sultans caused a retaliatory reaction from the Hindus, who rallied to build a new kingdom, called the Vijayanagara Empire. Bukka, with his brother Harihara, founded the Vijayanagara Empire based in the city of Vijayanagara in Karnataka.[79] Under Bukka the empire prospered and continued to expand towards the south. Bukka and his son Kampana conquered most of the kingdoms of southern India. In 1371 the Vijayanagar empire defeated the short-lived Madurai Sultanate, which had been established by the remnants of the invading Khalji army.[80] Eventually the empire covered the entire south India. Vijayanagara empire established local governors called Nayaks to rule in the various territories of the empire.
The Vijayanagar Empire declined in 1565 defeated by the
In Madurai,
Tondaiman period (1680–1948)
Pudukkottai State covered a total area of 1,178 square miles (3,050 km2) and had a population of 438,648 in 1941. It extended over the whole of the present-day Pudukkottai district of Tamil Nadu (with the exception of Aranthangi taluk which was then a part of Tanjore district). The town of Pudukkottai was its capital.
List of kings of Pudukkottai
- Raghunatha Raya Tondaiman (1686–1730)
- Vijaya Raghunatha Raya Tondaiman I (1730–1769)
- Raya Raghunatha Tondaiman (1769– December 1789)
- Vijaya Raghunatha Tondaiman (December 1789 – 1 February 1807)
- Vijaya Raghunatha Raya Tondaiman II (1 February 1807 – June 1825)
- Raghunatha Tondaiman(June 1825 – 13 July 1839)
- Ramachandra Tondaiman (13 July 1839 – 15 April 1886)
- Martanda Bhairava Tondaiman (15 April 1886 – 28 May 1928)
- Rajagopala Tondaiman (28 October 1928 – 1 March 1948)
Maratha influences (1676–1855)
In 1676,
Rule of Poligars, Nizams and Nawabs
European settlements began to appear in the Tamil country during the Vijayanagara Empire. In 1605, the
During the Maratha rule of Thanjavur. After Ekoji, his three sons namely Shaji, Serfoji I, Thukkoji alias Thulaja I ruled Thanjavur. The greatest of the Maratha rulers was
With the demise of the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb in 1707, his empire dissolved amidst numerous succession wars and the vassals of the empire began to assert their independence. The administration of the southern districts of Tamil Nadu was fragmented with hundreds of Polygars or Palayakkarars governing a few villages each. These local chieftains often fought amongst each other over territory. This turned the political situation in the Tamil country and in South India in general into confusion and chaos. The European traders found themselves in a situation where they could exploit the prevailing confusion to their own advantage.[89]
European influences
Anglo-French conflicts
The French were relative newcomers to India. The
The conflict between the British and the French continued, this time in political rather than military terms. Both the
British Government control
Although the Company was becoming increasingly bold and ambitious in putting down resisting states, it was getting clearer day by day that the Company was incapable of governing the vast expanse of the captured territories. Opinion amongst the members of the
The next few decades were of rapid growth and expansion in the territories controlled by the British. The
In 1798 Lord Wellesley became the Governor-General. In the course of the next six years, Wellesley made vast conquests and doubled the Company's territory. He shut out the French from further acquisitions in India, destroyed several ruling powers in the Deccan and the Carnatic, took the Mughal Emperor under the company's protection and compelled Serfoji, the king of Thanjavur to cede control of his kingdom. The Madras Presidency was established so that the territory under direct Company control could be administered effectively. The direct administration began to cause resentment among the people. In 1806 the soldiers of the Vellore cantonment rebelled when William Bentinck, the Governor of Madras decreed that the native soldiers should abandon all caste marks. Fearing this act to be an attempt of forceful conversion to Christianity, the soldiers mutinied. The rebellion was suppressed but 114 British officers were killed and several hundred mutineers executed. Bentinck was recalled in disgrace.[96][97]
End of Company rule
The simmering discontent in the various districts of the company territories exploded in 1857 into the
British rule (1858–1947)
In 1858 the British Crown assumed direct rule in India. During the early years, the government was autocratic in many ways. The opinion of Indians in their own affairs was not considered by Britain as important. However, in due course, the British Raj began to allow Indians participation in local government. Viceroy
Failure of the summer monsoons and administrative shortcomings of the Ryotwari system resulted in a severe famine in the Madras Presidency during 1876–1877.[99] The government and several charitable institutions organised relief work in the city and the suburbs. Funds were also raised from Europeans in India and overseas for the famine relief. Humanitarians such as William Digby wrote angrily about the woeful failure of the British administration to act promptly and adequately in response to the wholesale suffering caused by the famine.[100] When the famine finally ended with the return of the monsoon in 1878, between three and five million people had perished.[99] In response to the devastating effects of the famine, the government organised a Famine Commission in 1880 to define the principles of disaster relief. The government also instituted a famine insurance grant, setting aside 1.5 million Rupees. Other civic works such as canal building and improvements in roads and railway were also undertaken to minimise the effects of any future famines.
Independence struggle
The growing desire for independence began to gradually gather pace in the country and its influence in Tamil Nadu generated a number of volunteers to the fight against the British colonial power in the
In 1916 Dr. T. M. Nair and Rao Bahadur Thygaraya Chetty released the Non-Brahmin Manifesto sowing the seeds for the Dravidian movements.[104] During the 1920s, two movements focused mainly on regional politics began in Tamil Nadu. One was the Justice Party, which won the local legislative elections held in 1921. The Justice Party was not focused on the Indian independence movement, rather on local issues such as affirmative action for socially backward groups. The other main movement was the anti-religious, anti-Brahmin, Self-Respect Movement led by E. V. Ramasami.[104] Further steps towards eventual self-rule were taken in 1935 when the British Government passed the All-India Federation Act of 1935. Fresh local elections were held and in Tamil Nadu the Congress party captured power defeating the Justice party. In 1938, Ramasami with C. N. Annadurai launched an agitation against the Congress ministry's decision to introduce the teaching of Hindi in schools.[105]
Post Independence period
The trauma of the
The Sri Lankan Civil War during the 1970s and the 80s saw large numbers of Sri Lankan Tamils fleeing to Tamil Nadu. The plight of Tamil refugees caused a surge of support from most of the Tamil political parties.[109] They exerted pressure on the Indian government to intercede with the Sri Lankan government on behalf of the Sri Lankan Tamilians. However, LTTE lost much of its support from Tamil Nadu following the assassination of Rajiv Gandhi on 21 May 1991 by an operative from Sri Lanka for the former prime minister's role in sending Indian peacekeepers to Sri Lanka to disarm the LTTE.[110][111]
The east coast of Tamil Nadu was one of the areas affected by the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami, during which almost 8000 people died in the disaster.[112] The sixth most populous state in the Indian Union, Tamil Nadu was the seventh-largest economy in 2005 among the states of India.[113] The growing demands for skilled labour has caused increased number of educational institutions in Tamil Nadu. The widespread application of caste-based affirmative action caused the state to have 69% of all educational and employment vacancies to be reserved to Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Other Backward Classes. Such caste-based reservations have huge public support in Tamil Nadu, with no popular protests organised against its implementation.[114]
Since the 1990s, Tamil Nadu has experienced significant economic growth, especially in the service sector, and has had significant increases in development indicators. Kalaiyarasan (2014) attributes this to the strong welfare measures implemented by successive state governments and a two-track focus on economic growth and grassroots development.[115]
Evolution of regional politics
The politics of Tamil Nadu have gone through three distinct phases since independence. The domination of the Congress Party after 1947 gave way to the Dravidian populist mobilization in the 1960s. This phase lasted until the end of the 1990s. The most recent phase saw the fragmentation of the
The Congress party, riding on the wave of public support stemming from the independence struggle, formed the first post-independence government in Tamil Nadu and continued to govern until 1967. In 1965 and 1968, DMK led widespread anti-Hindi agitations in the state against the plans of the Union Government to introduce Hindi in the state schools.
In 1967 DMK won the state election. DMK split into two in 1971, with MGR forming the splinter All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (AIADMK). Since then these two parties have dominated the politics of Tamil Nadu.[123] AIADMK, under MGR, retained control of the State Government over three consecutive assembly elections in 1977, 1980 and 1984. After MGR's death, AIADMK was split over the succession between various contenders. Eventually J. Jayalalithaa took over the leadership of AIADMK.
Several changes to the political balance in Tamil Nadu took place during the later half of the 1990s, eventually leading to the end of the duopoly of DMK and AIADMK in the politics of Tamil Nadu. In 1996, a split in the Congress party in Tamil Nadu eventuated in the formation of Tamil Maanila Congress (TMC). TMC aligned with the DMK, while another party Marumalarchi Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (MDMK), which split from DMK aligned with the AIADMK. These and several smaller political parties began to gain popular support. The first instance of a 'grand alliance' was during the 1996 elections for the National parliament, during which the AIADMK formed a large coalition of a number of smaller parties to counter the electoral threat posed by the alliance between the DMK and TMC. Since then the formation of alliances of a large number of political parties has become an electoral practice in Tamil Nadu.[124] The electoral decline of Congress party at the national level, which started during early 1990, forced the Congress to seek coalition partners from various states including Tamil Nadu. This paved the way for the Dravidian parties to be part of the Central Government.[125]
In the 2001 elections, Jaylalithaa became Chief Minister again, but due to legal cases against her, the Chief Ministership was taken up by loyalist O. Paneerselvam until she returned 6 months later. In the 2006 assembly elections however, the DMK won a majority and Karunanidhi became chief minister. During the 2011 election however, the DMK was beset by anti-incumbency and anger over the 2G scam, and Jaylalithaa became Chief Minister again. Unlike the rest of India, the 2014 Lok Sabha elections resulted in no significant increase in support for the Bharatiya Janata Party in Tamil Nadu and the AIADMK swept the state. In 2016, Jaylalithaa won another term, but soon after taking office died of a heart attack. After her death, Paneerselvam served again as caretaker Chief Minister until he was expelled from the party by general secretary V. K. Sasikala.[126] Then Edappadi Palaniswami, the newly-elected leader of the AIADMK legislature party, reached an agreement on chief ministership, and Palaniswami became chief minister in February 2017 with Paneerselvam as his deputy.[127] In 2018, Karunanidhi died and was succeeded by his son M.K. Stalin as DMK leader and leader of the opposition.[128] In the 2019 Lok Sabha elections, the DMK-led alliance swept the state winning 37 out of 38 seats.[129] The alliance also won the 2021 Legislative Assembly election, with 159 out of 234 seats. As a result, M.K. Stalin became the Chief Minister for the first time.[130]
See also
- Chronology of Tamil history
- Tamil inscriptions
- Tamizhi
- Tamil Heritage Foundation
- The Tamils are an ancient people...
- Political history of medieval Karnataka
Notes
- ^ "Chapter III – Profile of the State Tamil Nadu and Selected Public Sector Enterprises" (PDF). Shodhganga.
- ^ "Million years old Acheulian tools were found in Chennai" (Press release). newsreporter.in. 25 March 2011. Archived from the original on 10 July 2015. Retrieved 3 July 2012.
- ^ Pappu et al., Antiquity vol 77 no 297, September 2003
- ^ Tools of the Madras Industry have been found in the Kaveri and Vaigai beds —K.A.N. Sastri, Srinivasachari, Advanced History of India, p. 14.
- ^ "Science News : Archaeology – Anthropology : Sharp stones found in India signal surprisingly early toolmaking advances". 31 January 2018. Archived from the original on 9 February 2018. Retrieved 9 February 2018.
- ^ "The Washington Post : Very old, very sophisticated tools found in India. The question is: Who made them?". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 10 February 2018. Retrieved 9 February 2018.
- ^ "Religions and Religious Freedom in India", page 20
- ^ "Homo Sapiens (Archaic) Baby Fossil of the Middle Pleistocene | Rajendran | Ancient Asia". Archived from the original on 4 December 2014. Retrieved 10 March 2014.
- ^ "Over 2 lakh years old fossilised skull found". The Times of India. 31 March 2003.
- ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 10 March 2014.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) - ^ a b K.A.N. Sastri, A History of South India, p. 45.
- ^ K.A.N. Sastri, A History of South India, p. 46.
- ^ "Significance of Mayiladuthurai find". The Hindu. Chennai, India. 1 May 2006. Archived from the original on 17 June 2006. Retrieved 15 November 2006.
- Krishnagiri in Tamil Nadu— "Steps to preserve megalithic burial site". The Hindu. Chennai, India. 6 October 2006. Archived from the originalon 18 September 2008. Retrieved 15 November 2006.
- ^ K.A.N. Sastri, A History of South India Tamilnadu is stated as Kalabhras, pp. 49–51
- ^ Subramanian T.S. (17 February 2005) The Hindu. Retrieved 31 July 2007 Rudimentary Tamil-Brahmi script' unearthed at Adichanallur Archived 27 May 2014 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Subramanian T.S. (26 May 2004 ) The Hindu. Retrieved 31 July 2007 Skeletons, script found at ancient burial site in Tamil Nadu Archived 7 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ 'The most interesting pre-historic remains in Tamil India were discovered at Adichanallur. There is a series of urn burials. seem to be related to the megalithic complex. – Zvelebil, K.A., Companion Studies to the History of Tamil Literature – pp 21–22, Brill Academic Publishers.
- ISBN 9788131719589.
- ^ K.A.N. Sashtri, A History of South India, pp 109–112
- ^ 'There were three levels of redistribution corresponding to the three categories of chieftains, namely: the Ventar, Velir and Kilar in descending order. Ventar were the chieftains of the three major lineages, viz Cera, Cola and Pandya. Velir were mostly hill chieftains, while Kilar were the headmen of settlements...' —"Perspectives on Kerala History". P.J.Cherian (Ed). Kerala Council for Historical Research. Archived from the original on 26 August 2006.
- ^ Kanchan Sinha, Kartikeya in Indian art and literature, Delhi: Sundeep Prakashan (1979).
- ^ K.A.N. Sastri, A History of South India, p 129
- Satyaputras, the Keralaputras, as far as Tamraparni...' —"Ashoka's second minor rock edict". Colorado State University. Archived from the originalon 28 October 2013. Retrieved 15 November 2006.
- ^ K.A.N. Sastri, The CōĻas, 1935 p 20
- ^ "Hathigumpha Inscription". Epigraphia Indica, Vol. XX (1929–1930). Delhi, 1933, pp 86–89. Missouri Southern State University. Archived from the original on 17 November 2006. Retrieved 15 November 2006.
- ^ "Pattupattu Ten Tamil Idylls Chelliah J. V."
- ^ "Pathuppāttu – Perumpānātruppadai". 14 January 2013.
- Porunaraatruppadai and a number of individual poems in Akananuru and Purananuruhave been the main source for the information we attribute now to Karikala. See also K.A.N. Sastri, The Colas, 1935
- ^ "Poem: Purananuru - Part 224 by George L. III Hart".
- ^ Cilappatikaram (c. 6th century CE) which attributes northern campaigns and conquests to all the three monarchs of the Tamil country, gives a glorious account of the northern expeditions of Karikala, which took him as far north as the Himalayas and gained for him the alliance and subjugation of the kings of Vajra, Magadha and Avanti countries. There is no contemporary evidence either in Sangam literature or from the north Indian source for such an expedition.
- ^ "63 Nayanmars". Tamilnation.org. Retrieved 15 November 2006.
- Herakles—K.A.N. Sastri, A History of South India, p 23
- ^ "'Roman Maps and the Concept of Indian Gems". The Bead Museum, Inc. Archived from the original on 21 March 2006. Retrieved 15 May 2006.
- ^ 'Archaeologists from UCLA and the University of Delaware have unearthed the most extensive remains to date from sea trade between India and Egypt during the Roman Empire, adding to mounting evidence that spices and other exotic cargo travelled into Europe over sea as well as land.' "Archaeologists Uncover Ancient Maritime Spice Route Between India, Egypt". Veluppillai, Prof. A. dickran.net. Archived from the original on 9 October 2006. Retrieved 15 November 2006.
- ^ Archaeological evidence for the maritime contact between the Sangam age Cheras and the Roman empire has been found at Karur, which was the capital of Cheras. —R. Nagasami, Roman Karur
- ^ "India – Britannica Online Encyclopedia". Britannica.com. Retrieved 29 August 2012.
- ^ Kamil Veith Zvelebil, Companion Studies to the History of Tamil Literature, p 12
- ^ K.A.N. Sastri, A History of South India, OUP (1955) p 105
- ^ K.A.N. Sastri, A History of South India, OUP (1955) pp 118, 119
- ^ K.A.N. Sastri, A History of South India, OUP (1955) p 124
- ^ 'The vast quantities of gold and silver coins struck by Roman emperors up to Nero (54–68CE) found all over Tamil Nadu testify the extent of the trade, the presence of Roman settlers in the Tamil country'. K.A.N. Sastri, A History of South India, OUP (1955) pp 125–127
- ^ 'Kalabhraas were denounced as 'evil kings' (Kaliararar) —K.A.N. Sastri, A History of South India, p 130
- ^ Hermann Kulke, Dietmar Rothermund, A History of India, Routledge (UK), p 105
- ^ K.A.N. Sastri, A History of South India p 130
- Pallava domination of Simhavishnu. Sastri also categorically rejects the claims that these were the descendants of Karikala Chola —K.A.N. Sastri, The CōĻas, 1935 p 107
- ^ "A magnum opus on Tamil". www.worldgenweb.org.
- ^ "South Asian Writing Systems". Lawrence K Lo. Retrieved 15 November 2006.
- Tiruvalluvar, who was probably a Jain with knowledge of the Sanskritdidactic works of the north.
- ^ Pandya Kadungon and Pallava Simhavishnu overthrew the Kalabhras. Acchchutakalaba is likely the last Kalabhra king —K.A.N. Sastri, The CōĻas, 1935 p 102
- ^ K.A.N. Sastri, A History of South India pp 382
- ^ K.A.N. Sastri, A History of South India pp 333–335
- ^ K.A.N. Sastri, The CoLas, pp 102
- ^ K.A.N. Sastri, A History of South India p 387
- ^ There is an inscription from 1160 that the custodians of Siva temples who had social intercourses with Vaishnavites would forfeit their property. —K.A.N. Sastri, The CōĻas, 1935 pp 645
- ^ Some of the output of villages throughout the kingdom was given to temples that reinvested some of the wealth accumulated as loans to the settlements. The temple served as a centre for redistribution of wealth and contributed towards the integrity of the kingdom —John Keays, India a History, pp 217–218
- ^ K.A.N. Sastri, A History of South India pp 342–344
- ^ K.A.N. Sastri, A History of South India pp 91–92
- ^ Durga Prasad, History of the Andhras up to 1565 A. D., pp 68
- ^ Kamil V. Zvelebil (1987). "The Sound of the One Hand", Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 107, No. 1, p. 125-126.
- ^ Acri, Andrea. Esoteric Buddhism in Mediaeval Maritime Asia.
- ^ K.A.N. Sastri, A History of South India pp 140
- ^ "Pandya Dynasty". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Retrieved 15 November 2006.
- ^ "The Pandyas". Facts-About-India.com. Retrieved 26 January 2011.
- ^ K.A.N. Sastri, A History of South India p 140
- ^ K.A.N. Sastri, A History of South India p 145
- ^ K.A.N. Sastri, A History of South India pp 144–145
- ^ K.A.N. Sastri, A History of South India p 159
- ^ K.A.N. Sastri, The CoLas, 1935. pp 211–215
- ^ The kadaram campaign is first mentioned in Rajendra's inscriptions dating from his 14th year. The name of the Srivijaya king was Sangrama Vijayatungavarman —K.A.N. Sastri, The CoLas, 1935 pp 211–220
- Kampuchea) to Rajendra Chola which the Chola king caused to be inserted into the wall of the Chidambaram shrine —K.A.N. Sastri, The CoLas, 1935 p 325
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