History of Tamil Nadu

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

The region of Tamil Nadu in the southeast of modern India, shows evidence of having had continuous human habitation from 15,000 BCE to 10,000 BCE.[1][2] Throughout its history, spanning the early Upper Paleolithic age to modern times, this region has coexisted with various external cultures.

The three ancient Tamil dynasties namely

Sri Vijaya
kingdom in Southeast Asia.

Rapid changes in the political situation of the rest of India occurred due to

independence of India, after the Telugu and Malayalam parts of Madras state were separated from Tamilagam state in 1956, it was renamed as Tamil Nadu
on January 14, 1969 by the state government.

Prehistoric period

Palaeolithic

For most of the

In

homo sapiens arrived from Africa.[5][6]

A discovery of a rare fossilized baby brain in

flake tools and blade-like tools using a variety of stones. From about 10,000 years ago, humans made still smaller tools called Microlithic tools. The material used by the early humans to make these tools were jasper, agate, flint, quartz, etc. In 1949, researchers found such microliths in Tirunelveli district.[11] Archaeological evidence suggests that the microlithic period lasted between 6000–3000 BCE.[12]

Neolithic

In Tamil Nadu, the Neolithic period had its advent around 2500 BCE. Humans of the Neolithic period made their stone tools in finer shapes by grinding and polishing. A Neolithic axe head with ancient writing on it has been found in North Tamil Nadu Near Palar river.[13] The Neolithic humans lived mostly on small flat hills or on the foothills in small, more or less permanent settlements but for periodical migration for grazing purposes. They gave the dead proper burials within urns or pits. They were also starting to use copper for making certain tools or weapons.

Iron Age

During the

Megalithic burial sites, which are found in several hundreds of places.[14] On the basis of both some excavations and the typology of the burial monuments, it has been suggested that there was a gradual spread of the Iron Age sites from the north to the south. Comparative excavations carried out in Adichanallur in Thirunelveli District and in Northern India have provided evidence of a southward migration of the Megalithic culture.[15]

The earliest clear evidence of the presence of the megalithic urn burials are those dating from around 1800 BCE, which have been discovered at various places in Tamil Nadu, notably at Adichanallur, 24 km from Tirunelveli, where archaeologists from the Archaeological Survey of India unearthed 157 urns, including 15 containing human skulls, skeletons and bones, plus husks, grains of rice, charred rice and Neolithic Celts. One urn has writing inside, which, according to archaeologists from the Archaeological Survey of India, resembles early Tamil-Brahmi script, confirming it of the Neolithic period 2800 years ago.[16] Adhichanallur has been announced as an archaeological site for further excavation and studies.[17][18]

Mentions of the political situation of Tamil Nadu before the common era are found in Ashoka's edicts dated c.3rd century BCE and, vaguely, in the Hathigumpha inscription dated c.2nd century BCE.

Early history

Ancient Tamil Nadu contained three monarchical states, headed by kings called Vendhar and several tribal chieftaincies, headed by the chiefs called by the general denomination Vel or

Shaivite, Vaishnavism and Shaktism
during the first five centuries.

The names of the three dynasties, Cholas, Pandyas, and Cheras, are mentioned in the Pillars of Ashoka (inscribed 273–232 BCE) inscriptions, among the kingdoms, which though not subject to Ashoka, were on friendly terms with him.[24][25] The king of Kalinga, Kharavela, who ruled around 150 BCE, mentioned in the famous Hathigumpha inscription of the confederacy of the Tamil kingdoms that had existed for over 100 years.[26]

Yathothkari Perumal Temple is one of the 108 Divya Desams and is mentioned in the Sangam Text Perumpāṇāṟṟuppaṭai as the god sleeping on a serpent bed at the town Thiruvekka.[27][28]

Kocengannan was another famous early Chola king who has been extolled in a number of poems of the Sangam period. He was even made a Saiva saint during the medieval period.[32]

Pandyas ruled initially from

Pattupattu) that give a glimpse into the society and commercial activities in the Pandyan kingdom during the Sangam age. The early Pandyas
went into obscurity at the end of the 3rd century CE during the incursion of the Kalabhras.

The kingdom of the

These early kingdoms sponsored the growth of some of the oldest extant literature in Tamil. The classical Tamil literature, referred to as Sangam literature is attributed to the period between 500 BCE and 300 CE.[38][39] The poems of Sangam literature, which deal with emotional and material topics, were categorised and collected into various anthologies during the medieval period. These Sangam poems paint the picture of a fertile land and of a people who were organised into various occupational groups. The governance of the land was through hereditary monarchies, although the sphere of the state's activities and the extent of the ruler's powers were limited through the adherence to the established order (dharma).[40] The people were loyal to their kings and roving bards, musicians and dancers gathered at the royal courts of the generous kings. The arts of music and dancing were highly developed and popular. Musical instruments of various types are mentioned in the Sangam poems. The amalgamation of the southern and the northern styles of dancing started during this period and is reflected fully in the epic Cilappatikaram.[41]

Internal and external trade was well organised and active. Evidence from both archaeology and literature speaks of a flourishing foreign trade with the

Puhar on the east coast and Muziris on the west coast of south India were emporia of foreign trade, where huge ships moored, offloading precious merchandise.[42] This trade started to decline after the 2nd century CE and the direct contact between the Roman empire and the ancient Tamil country was replaced by trade with the Arabs and the Auxumites
of East Africa. Internal trade was also brisk and goods were sold and bartered. Agriculture was the main profession of a vast majority of the populace.

Interregnum (300–600)

After the close of the Sangam era, from about 300 to about 600 CE, there was an almost total lack of information regarding occurrences in the Tamil land. Some time about 300 CE, the whole region was upset by the appearance of the Kalabhras. These people are described in later literature as 'evil rulers' who overthrew the established Tamil kings and got a stranglehold of the country.

Jain literature.[44]

Historians speculate that these people followed Buddhist or

Astika schools) adhered by the majority of inhabitants of the Tamil region during the early centuries CE.[45] As a result, Hindu scholars and authors who followed their decline in the 7th and 8th century may have expunged any mention of them in their texts and generally tended to paint their rule in a negative light. It is perhaps due to this reason, the period of their rule is known as a 'Dark Age'—an interregnum. Some of the ruling families migrated northwards and found enclaves for themselves away from the Kalabhras.[46] Jainism and Buddhism
, took deep roots in the society, giving birth to a large body of ethical poetry.

Writing became very widespread and

Tirukkural were also written during this period.[49] The patronage of the Jain and Buddhist scholars by the Kalabhra kings influenced the nature of the literature of the period, and most of the works that can be attributed to this period were written by the Jain and Buddhist authors. In the field of dance and music, the elite started patronising new polished styles, partly influenced by northern ideas, in the place of the folk styles. A few of the earliest rock-cut temples belong to this period. Brick temples (known as kottam, devakulam, and palli) dedicated to various deities are referred to in literary works. Kalabhras were displaced around the 7th century by the revival of Pallava and Pandya power.[50]

Even with the exit of the Kalabhras, the Jain and Buddhist influence still remained in Tamil Nadu. The early Pandya and the Pallava kings were followers of these faiths. The Hindu reaction to this apparent decline of their religion was growing and reached its peak during the later part of the 7th century.

Age of empires (600–1300)

The medieval period of the history of the Tamil country saw the rise and fall of many kingdoms, some of whom went on to the extent of empires, exerting influences both in India and overseas. The Cholas who were very active during the Sangam age were entirely absent during the first few centuries.[53] The period started with the rivalry between the Pandyas and the Pallavas, which in turn caused the revival of the Cholas. The Cholas went on to become a great power. Their decline saw the brief resurgence of the Pandyas. This period was also that of the re-invigorated Hinduism during which temple building and religious literature were at their best.[54]

The

Brihadisvara temple of Thanjavur and exquisite bronze sculptures. Temples dedicated to Siva and Vishnu received liberal donations of money, jewels, animals, and land, and thereby became powerful economic institutions.[56]
Mutharaiyar who ruled the central part of Tamil Nadu between 600 - 900 CE. The Cauvery Delta regions were mostly ruled by the Muthraiyar Kings having Woraiyur as their Capital. Vijayalayachola conquered Tanjore from Dhancheya Muhuraiyar King who established the Tanjore City. Among the noted Muthariyar King, Perumbidugu alias Swaran Maran Muthraiyar who conquered consequently 14 battles and known as the Emperor in Tamil Nadu (Perarasar). He and his ancestors built many cave temples in Tiruchirappalli and Pudukottai regions. Among them Kuvavan Sathan alias Videl Vidugu Muthraiyar built many cave temples in Pudukottai Region. Mutharaiyars and ancestors are known as Muthuraja in central of part of Tamil Nadu particularly Tiruchirappalli.

Kulothunga Chola I was an early example of a biographical work.[57]

Pallavas

Pallavas
. (c. eighth century CE)

The 7th century Tamil Nadu saw the rise of the

Kaveri River
. The Pallavas were at their finest during the reigns of Narasimhavarman I and Pallavamalla
UNESCO World Heritage Site. Many sources describe Bodhidharma, the founder of the Zen school of Buddhism in China, as a prince of the Pallava dynasty.[60] Alongside Bodhidharma, another monk, Vajrabodhi is said to have been the son of a Tamil aristocrat, travelled from Tamil Nadu to the Tang capital of Chang'an, via Sri Lanka and Srivijaya, after mastering the art of Tantric Buddhism. He took a plethora of new theological beliefs to a China that was largely following Confucianism or Daoism. Vajrabodhi's contribution to the growth of Tantric Buddhism in China has been recorded by one of his lay disciples, Lü Xiang.[61][11]

During the 6th and the 7th centuries, the western Deccan saw the rise of the

) in 760. Pallavas were also in constant conflict with the Pandyas and their frontier shifted along the river Kaveri. The Pallavas had the more difficult existence of the two as they had to fight on two fronts—against the Pandyas as well as the Chalukyas.

Pandyas

Pandyan Empire

Pandya

Kalabhras in the south.[63] Kadungon and his son Maravarman Avanisulamani revived the Pandya power. Pandya Cendan extended their rule to the Chera country. His son Arikesari Parantaka Maravarman (c. 650–700) had a long and prosperous rule. He fought many battles and extended the Pandya power. Pandya was well known since ancient times, with contacts, even diplomatic, reaching the Roman Empire; during the 13th century, Marco Polo mentioned it as the richest empire in existence.[64]

The

Chalukya Vikramaditya II and attacked the Pallava king Nandivarman II.[65] Varagunan I defeated the Pallavas in a battle on the banks of the Kaveri. The Pallava king Nandivarman sought to restrain the growing power of the Pandyas and went into an alliance with the feudal chieftains of Kongu and Chera countries. The armies met in several battles and the Pandya forces scored decisive victories in them. Pandyas under Srimara Srivallaba also invaded Sri Lanka and devastated the northern provinces in 840.[66]

The Pandya power continued to grow under Srimara and encroached further into the Pallava territories. The Pallavas were now facing a new threat in the form of the

Vaigai. The Pandyas suffered further defeats at the hands of the Pallava Nripatunga at Arisil (c. 848). From then the Pandyas had to accept the overlordship of the Pallavas.[67]

Cholas

Around 850, out of obscurity rose

Mutharaiyar dynasty and eventually established the imperial line of the medieval Cholas. Vijayalaya revived the Chola dynasty and his son Aditya I helped establish their independence. He invaded Pallava kingdom in 903 and killed the Pallava king Aparajita in battle, ending the Pallava reign.[68] The Chola kingdom under Parantaka I
expanded to cover the entire Pandya country. However, towards the end of his reign, he suffered several reverses by the Rashtrakutas who had extended their territories well into the Chola kingdom.

Rajendra Chola
(c. 1030).

The Cholas went into a temporary decline during the next few years due to weak kings, palace intrigues and succession disputes. Despite a number of attempts, the Pandya country could not be completely subdued and the Rashtrakutas were still a powerful enemy in the north. However, the Chola revival began with the accession of Rajaraja Chola I in 985. Cholas rose as a notable military, economic and cultural power in Asia under Rajaraja and his son

Rajendra Chola I. The Chola territories stretched from the islands of Maldives in the south to as far north as the banks of the river Ganges in Bengal. Rajaraja Chola conquered peninsular South India, annexed parts of Sri Lanka and occupied the islands of Maldives. Rajendra Chola extended the Chola conquests to the Malayan archipelago by defeating the Srivijaya kingdom.[69] He defeated Mahipala, the king of Bihar and Bengal, and to commemorate his victory he built a new capital called Gangaikonda Cholapuram (the town of Cholas who conquered the Ganges). At its peak, the Chola Empire extended from the island of Sri Lanka in the south to the Godavari basin in the north. The kingdoms along the east coast of India up to the river Ganges acknowledged Chola suzerainty. Chola navies invaded and conquered Srivijaya in the Malayan archipelago.[70] Chola armies exacted tribute from Thailand and the Khmer kingdom of Cambodia.[71] During the reign of Rajaraja and Rajendra, the administration of the Chola empire matured considerably. The empire was divided into a number of self-governing local government units, and the officials were selected through a system of popular elections.[72]

Brihadishwara Temple

Throughout this period, the Cholas were constantly troubled by the ever-resilient

Tungabhadra river as the boundary between the two empires. However, the bone of contention between these two powers was the growing Chola influence in the Vengi
kingdom. The Cholas and Chalukyas fought many battles and both kingdoms were exhausted by the endless battles and a stalemate existed.

Marital and political alliances between the

Kadava chieftain Kopperunchinga I even captured Rajendra and held him prisoner. At the close of Rajendra's reign (1279), the Pandyan empire was at the height of prosperity and had completely absorbed the Chola kingdom.[74]
The Cholas also found a place in the very famous novel by Kalki titled Ponniyin Selvan which portrays the whole Chola history with Rajaraja Cholan ( Ponniyin Selvan, Arul Mozhi Varman, Vallavarayan Vanthiyaththevan, Karikalar, Nandhini, Kundhavi) as the characters of the novel.

Cheras

The Cheras were an ancient Dravidian royal dynasty of Tamil origin who ruled in regions of Tamil Nadu and Kerala in India. Together with the Chola and the Pandyas, it formed the three principal warring Iron Age kingdoms of southern India in the early centuries of the Common Era. over a wide area comprising Venad, Kuttanad, Kudanad, Pazhinad, and more. In other words, they governed the area between Alappuzha in the south to Kasargod in the north. This included Palghat, Coimbatore, Salem, and Kollimalai. The capital was Vanchi, which the Romans who actively traded with the Cheras knew as Muzris.

Chera Empire
.

By the early centuries of the Common Era, civil society and statehood under the Cheras were developed in present-day western Tamil Nadu. The location of the Chera capital is generally assumed to be at modern Karur (identified with the Korra of Ptolemy). The Chera kingdom later extended to the plains of Kerala, the Palghat gap, along the river Perar and occupied land between the river Perar and river Periyar, creating two harbour towns, Tondi (Tyndis) and Muciri (Muziris), where the Roman trade settlements flourished.

The Cheras were in continuous conflict with the neighboring Cholas and Pandyas. The Cheras are said to have defeated the combined armies of the Pandyas and the Cholas and their ally states. They also made battles with the Kadambās of Banavasi and the Yavanas (the Greeks) on the Indian coast. After the 2nd century AD, the Cheras' power decayed rapidly with the decline of the lucrative trade with the Romans.

The Tamil poetic collection called Sangam literature describes a long line of Chera rulers dated to the first few centuries AD. It records the names of the kings, the princes, and the court poets who extolled them. The internal chronology of this literature is still far from settled, and at present, a connected account of the history of the period cannot be derived. Uthiyan Cheralathan, Nedum Cheralathan and Senguttuvan Chera are some of the rulers referred to in the Sangam poems. Senguttuvan Chera, the most celebrated Chera king, is famous for the legends surrounding Kannagi, the heroine of the Tamil epic Silapathikaram.

The Chera kingdom owed its importance to trade with West Asia, Greece, and Rome. Its geographical advantages, like the abundance of exotic spices, the navigability of the rivers connecting the Ghat mountains with the Arabian Sea, and the discovery of favorable Monsoon winds which carried sailing ships directly from the Arabian coast to Chera kingdom, combined to produce a veritable boom in the Chera foreign trade.

The Later Cheras ruled from the 9th century. Little is known about the Cheras between the two dynasties. The second dynasty, Kulasekharas ruled from a city on the banks of River Periyar called Mahodayapuram (Kodungallur). Though never regained the old status in the Peninsula, Kulasekharas fought numerous wars with their powerful neighbors and diminished to history in the 12th century as a result of continuous Chola and Rashtrakuta invasions. The Chera Dynasty was supported by Tamil warriors such as Villavar, Vanavar and Malayar clans.[citation needed]

The Chera rulers of Venadu, based at the port Quilon in southern Kerala, trace their relations back to the later/second Cheras. Ravi Varma Kulasekhara, ruler of Venadu from 1299 to 1314, is known for his ambitious military campaigns to former Pandya and Chola territories.

Pandya revival

After being overshadowed by the Pallavas and Cholas for centuries, the Pandiyas revived their fortunes in the 13th century and the Pandya power extended from the Telugu territories along the banks of the Godavari river to the northern half of Sri Lanka. When Kulasekara Pandyan I died in 1308, a conflict stemming from succession disputes arose amongst his sons – the legitimate Sundara Pandya and the illegitimate Vira Pandya (who was favoured by the king) fought each other for the throne. Soon Madurai fell into the hands of the invading armies of the Delhi Sultanate (which initially gave protection to the vanquished Sundara Pandyan).

Delhi Sultanate

Pratāparudra II. The Kākatiya army under the command of Muppidi Nāyaka marched to Kanchi and captured the city.[77][78]

Vijayanagar and Nayak period (1300–1650)

Tirumalai Nayak Palace, Madurai

The 14th-century invasion by the Delhi Sultans caused a retaliatory reaction from the Hindus, who rallied to build a new kingdom, called the Vijayanagara Empire. Bukka, with his brother Harihara, founded the Vijayanagara Empire based in the city of Vijayanagara in Karnataka.[79] Under Bukka the empire prospered and continued to expand towards the south. Bukka and his son Kampana conquered most of the kingdoms of southern India. In 1371 the Vijayanagar empire defeated the short-lived Madurai Sultanate, which had been established by the remnants of the invading Khalji army.[80] Eventually the empire covered the entire south India. Vijayanagara empire established local governors called Nayaks to rule in the various territories of the empire.

Tanjore painting
from this era.
From the collection of the V&A Museum.

The Vijayanagar Empire declined in 1565 defeated by the

Tarangambadi.[83]
This laid the foundation of future European involvement in the affairs of the country. The success of the Dutch inspired the English to seek trade with Thanjavur, which was to lead to far-reaching repercussions. Vijaya Raghava (1631–1676) was the last of the Thanjavur Nayaks. Nayaks reconstructed some of the oldest temples in the country and their contributions can be seen even today. Nayaks expanded the existing temples with large pillared halls, and tall gateway towers, which is representative of the religious architecture of this period.

In Madurai,

Thirumalai Nayak was the most famous Nayak ruler. He patronised art and architecture creating new structures and expanding the existing landmarks in and around Madurai. On Thirumalai Nayak's death in 1659, the Madurai Nayak kingdom began to break up. His successors were weak rulers and invasions of Madurai recommenced. The Nayakas manned their forces with primarily Kallar and Marava warriors.[84]

Tondaiman period (1680–1948)

Polygar Wars
, the kingdom was brought under the Company's protection in 1800 as per the system of Subsidiary Alliance. The state was placed under the control of the Madras Presidency from 1800 until 1 October 1923, when the Madras States Agency was abolished, and until 1948 it was under the political control of the Government of India.

Pudukkottai State covered a total area of 1,178 square miles (3,050 km2) and had a population of 438,648 in 1941. It extended over the whole of the present-day Pudukkottai district of Tamil Nadu (with the exception of Aranthangi taluk which was then a part of Tanjore district). The town of Pudukkottai was its capital.

List of kings of Pudukkottai

Ramachandra Tondaiman, king of Pudukkottai, at his durbar, ca. 1858

Maratha influences (1676–1855)

In 1676,

established his own rule in Thanjavur
. This particular Bhonsle dynasty ruled Thanjavur until 1855, when the kingdom was annexed by the British Raj.

Chhatrapati Sambhaji. The Mughals captured Gingee
in 1698.

Rule of Poligars, Nizams and Nawabs

European settlements began to appear in the Tamil country during the Vijayanagara Empire. In 1605, the

Aravidu Dynasty), Peda Venkata Raya, based in Chandragiri and Vellore Fort. With his approval the English began to exercise sovereign rights over their strip of land.[87]

During the Maratha rule of Thanjavur. After Ekoji, his three sons namely Shaji, Serfoji I, Thukkoji alias Thulaja I ruled Thanjavur. The greatest of the Maratha rulers was

Saraswati Mahal Library at his palace. The incursion of the Muslim armies from the north forced a southward migration of Hindus from the central Deccan and the Andhra countries to seek shelter under the Nayak and the Maratha kings. The famous Carnatic music composer Tyagaraja (1767–1847), along with the Trinity of Carnatic music flourished in the Thanjavur district during this time.[88]

Fort St. George, Chennai (18th century etching)

With the demise of the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb in 1707, his empire dissolved amidst numerous succession wars and the vassals of the empire began to assert their independence. The administration of the southern districts of Tamil Nadu was fragmented with hundreds of Polygars or Palayakkarars governing a few villages each. These local chieftains often fought amongst each other over territory. This turned the political situation in the Tamil country and in South India in general into confusion and chaos. The European traders found themselves in a situation where they could exploit the prevailing confusion to their own advantage.[89]

European influences

Anglo-French conflicts

Nawab of the Carnatic
(1717–1795)

The French were relative newcomers to India. The

Pondichéry. In Europe the War of the Austrian Succession began in 1740 and eventually the British and the French forces in India were caught up in the conflict. There were numerous naval battles between the two navies along the Coromandel coast. The French led by La Bourdonnais attacked the poorly defended Fort St. George in Madras in 1746 and occupied it. Robert Clive was one of the prisoners of war from this battle. The war in Europe ended in 1748 and with the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle Madras was restored to the British.[90]

The conflict between the British and the French continued, this time in political rather than military terms. Both the

firman (decree) recognising the British possessions in southern India.[91]

British Government control

Madras Presidency, 1909

Although the Company was becoming increasingly bold and ambitious in putting down resisting states, it was getting clearer day by day that the Company was incapable of governing the vast expanse of the captured territories. Opinion amongst the members of the

British Government
.

The next few decades were of rapid growth and expansion in the territories controlled by the British. The

Kattabomman, a local Palayakkarar chieftain in the Tirunelveli district, rebelled against the taxes imposed by the Company administration in the 1790s. After the First Polygar War (1799–1802), he was captured and hanged in 1799. A year later, the Second Polygar War was fought by Oomaithurai was involved in the Polygar Wars against the East India Company. In the first Poligar war, he was captured and imprisoned in Palayamkottai Central Prison
. In February 1801, he escaped from Palayamkottai Central Prison and rebuilt the Panchalankurichi fort which had been razed in the first war. In the second Poligar war that followed, Oomaithurai allied himself with Maruthu brothers (who ruled Sivagangai) and was part of a grand alliance against the Company which included Dheeran Chinnamalai and Kerala Verma. The Company forces led by Lt. Colonel Agnew laid siege to the Panchalankurichi fort and captured it in May 1801 after a prolonged siege and artillery bombardment. Oomaithurai escaped the fall of the fort and joined Marudu brothers at their jungle fort at Kalayar Kovil. The Company forces pursued him there and eventually captured Kalayar Kovil in October 1801. Oomaithurai along with the Marudu brothers was hanged on 16 November 1801.[94][95]

In 1798 Lord Wellesley became the Governor-General. In the course of the next six years, Wellesley made vast conquests and doubled the Company's territory. He shut out the French from further acquisitions in India, destroyed several ruling powers in the Deccan and the Carnatic, took the Mughal Emperor under the company's protection and compelled Serfoji, the king of Thanjavur to cede control of his kingdom. The Madras Presidency was established so that the territory under direct Company control could be administered effectively. The direct administration began to cause resentment among the people. In 1806 the soldiers of the Vellore cantonment rebelled when William Bentinck, the Governor of Madras decreed that the native soldiers should abandon all caste marks. Fearing this act to be an attempt of forceful conversion to Christianity, the soldiers mutinied. The rebellion was suppressed but 114 British officers were killed and several hundred mutineers executed. Bentinck was recalled in disgrace.[96][97]

End of Company rule

The simmering discontent in the various districts of the company territories exploded in 1857 into the

Crown
.

British rule (1858–1947)

In 1858 the British Crown assumed direct rule in India. During the early years, the government was autocratic in many ways. The opinion of Indians in their own affairs was not considered by Britain as important. However, in due course, the British Raj began to allow Indians participation in local government. Viceroy

Madras Legislative Council.[98] The non-cooperation movement started under Mahatma Gandhi's leadership led the British government to pass the Government of India Act (also known as Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms) of 1919. The first elections were held for the local assemblies in 1921.[98]

Illustrated London News
(1877)

Failure of the summer monsoons and administrative shortcomings of the Ryotwari system resulted in a severe famine in the Madras Presidency during 1876–1877.[99] The government and several charitable institutions organised relief work in the city and the suburbs. Funds were also raised from Europeans in India and overseas for the famine relief. Humanitarians such as William Digby wrote angrily about the woeful failure of the British administration to act promptly and adequately in response to the wholesale suffering caused by the famine.[100] When the famine finally ended with the return of the monsoon in 1878, between three and five million people had perished.[99] In response to the devastating effects of the famine, the government organised a Famine Commission in 1880 to define the principles of disaster relief. The government also instituted a famine insurance grant, setting aside 1.5 million Rupees. Other civic works such as canal building and improvements in roads and railway were also undertaken to minimise the effects of any future famines.

Independence struggle

The growing desire for independence began to gradually gather pace in the country and its influence in Tamil Nadu generated a number of volunteers to the fight against the British colonial power in the

Aurobindo was one such living in Pondicherry in 1910. The poet Subramania Bharati was a contemporary of Aurobindo.[101] Bharathi wrote numerous poems in Tamil extolling the revolutionary cause. He also published the journal India from Pondicherry. Both Aurobindo and Bharathi were associated with other Tamil revolutionaries like V. O. Chidambaram Pillai.[101] Tamils formed a significant percentage of the members of the Indian National Army (INA), founded by Subhas Chandra Bose to fight the British occupation in India.[102][103] Lakshmi Sahgal from Tamil Nadu was a prominent leader in the INA's Rani of Jhansi Regiment
.

In 1916 Dr. T. M. Nair and Rao Bahadur Thygaraya Chetty released the Non-Brahmin Manifesto sowing the seeds for the Dravidian movements.[104] During the 1920s, two movements focused mainly on regional politics began in Tamil Nadu. One was the Justice Party, which won the local legislative elections held in 1921. The Justice Party was not focused on the Indian independence movement, rather on local issues such as affirmative action for socially backward groups. The other main movement was the anti-religious, anti-Brahmin, Self-Respect Movement led by E. V. Ramasami.[104] Further steps towards eventual self-rule were taken in 1935 when the British Government passed the All-India Federation Act of 1935. Fresh local elections were held and in Tamil Nadu the Congress party captured power defeating the Justice party. In 1938, Ramasami with C. N. Annadurai launched an agitation against the Congress ministry's decision to introduce the teaching of Hindi in schools.[105]

Post Independence period

state of Tamil Nadu in India was created in 1969 when erstwhile Madras State
was renamed.

The trauma of the

Malabar coastal districts became part of the new state of Kerala, and the Madras state assumed its present shape. The Madras state was named Tamil Nadu (literally The Land of Tamils or Tamil Country) in 1969.[107][108]

The Sri Lankan Civil War during the 1970s and the 80s saw large numbers of Sri Lankan Tamils fleeing to Tamil Nadu. The plight of Tamil refugees caused a surge of support from most of the Tamil political parties.[109] They exerted pressure on the Indian government to intercede with the Sri Lankan government on behalf of the Sri Lankan Tamilians. However, LTTE lost much of its support from Tamil Nadu following the assassination of Rajiv Gandhi on 21 May 1991 by an operative from Sri Lanka for the former prime minister's role in sending Indian peacekeepers to Sri Lanka to disarm the LTTE.[110][111]

The east coast of Tamil Nadu was one of the areas affected by the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami, during which almost 8000 people died in the disaster.[112] The sixth most populous state in the Indian Union, Tamil Nadu was the seventh-largest economy in 2005 among the states of India.[113] The growing demands for skilled labour has caused increased number of educational institutions in Tamil Nadu. The widespread application of caste-based affirmative action caused the state to have 69% of all educational and employment vacancies to be reserved to Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Other Backward Classes. Such caste-based reservations have huge public support in Tamil Nadu, with no popular protests organised against its implementation.[114]

Since the 1990s, Tamil Nadu has experienced significant economic growth, especially in the service sector, and has had significant increases in development indicators. Kalaiyarasan (2014) attributes this to the strong welfare measures implemented by successive state governments and a two-track focus on economic growth and grassroots development.[115]

Evolution of regional politics

The politics of Tamil Nadu have gone through three distinct phases since independence. The domination of the Congress Party after 1947 gave way to the Dravidian populist mobilization in the 1960s. This phase lasted until the end of the 1990s. The most recent phase saw the fragmentation of the

Dravidians) comprising Tamil Nadu and parts of Andhra, Karnataka and Kerala.[118] The increased involvement of the Indian National Congress party in Madras during the late 1950s and the strong pan-Indian emotions whipped up by the Sino-Indian War in 1962 led to the demand for Dravida Nadu losing some of its immediacy. Consequently, in 1963, when the Sixteenth Amendment to the Constitution of India, precluded secessionist parties from contesting elections, the DMK chose to formally drop its demand for an independent Dravida Nadu, focusing instead on securing greater functional autonomy within the framework of the Indian Constitution.[119]

The Congress party, riding on the wave of public support stemming from the independence struggle, formed the first post-independence government in Tamil Nadu and continued to govern until 1967. In 1965 and 1968, DMK led widespread anti-Hindi agitations in the state against the plans of the Union Government to introduce Hindi in the state schools.

MG Ramachandran (MGR) who later became the Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu, was one such stage and movie actor.[122]

In 1967 DMK won the state election. DMK split into two in 1971, with MGR forming the splinter All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (AIADMK). Since then these two parties have dominated the politics of Tamil Nadu.[123] AIADMK, under MGR, retained control of the State Government over three consecutive assembly elections in 1977, 1980 and 1984. After MGR's death, AIADMK was split over the succession between various contenders. Eventually J. Jayalalithaa took over the leadership of AIADMK.

Several changes to the political balance in Tamil Nadu took place during the later half of the 1990s, eventually leading to the end of the duopoly of DMK and AIADMK in the politics of Tamil Nadu. In 1996, a split in the Congress party in Tamil Nadu eventuated in the formation of Tamil Maanila Congress (TMC). TMC aligned with the DMK, while another party Marumalarchi Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (MDMK), which split from DMK aligned with the AIADMK. These and several smaller political parties began to gain popular support. The first instance of a 'grand alliance' was during the 1996 elections for the National parliament, during which the AIADMK formed a large coalition of a number of smaller parties to counter the electoral threat posed by the alliance between the DMK and TMC. Since then the formation of alliances of a large number of political parties has become an electoral practice in Tamil Nadu.[124] The electoral decline of Congress party at the national level, which started during early 1990, forced the Congress to seek coalition partners from various states including Tamil Nadu. This paved the way for the Dravidian parties to be part of the Central Government.[125]

In the 2001 elections, Jaylalithaa became Chief Minister again, but due to legal cases against her, the Chief Ministership was taken up by loyalist O. Paneerselvam until she returned 6 months later. In the 2006 assembly elections however, the DMK won a majority and Karunanidhi became chief minister. During the 2011 election however, the DMK was beset by anti-incumbency and anger over the 2G scam, and Jaylalithaa became Chief Minister again. Unlike the rest of India, the 2014 Lok Sabha elections resulted in no significant increase in support for the Bharatiya Janata Party in Tamil Nadu and the AIADMK swept the state. In 2016, Jaylalithaa won another term, but soon after taking office died of a heart attack. After her death, Paneerselvam served again as caretaker Chief Minister until he was expelled from the party by general secretary V. K. Sasikala.[126] Then Edappadi Palaniswami, the newly-elected leader of the AIADMK legislature party, reached an agreement on chief ministership, and Palaniswami became chief minister in February 2017 with Paneerselvam as his deputy.[127] In 2018, Karunanidhi died and was succeeded by his son M.K. Stalin as DMK leader and leader of the opposition.[128] In the 2019 Lok Sabha elections, the DMK-led alliance swept the state winning 37 out of 38 seats.[129] The alliance also won the 2021 Legislative Assembly election, with 159 out of 234 seats. As a result, M.K. Stalin became the Chief Minister for the first time.[130]

See also

Notes

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  4. ^ Tools of the Madras Industry have been found in the Kaveri and Vaigai beds —K.A.N. Sastri, Srinivasachari, Advanced History of India, p. 14.
  5. ^ "Science News : Archaeology – Anthropology : Sharp stones found in India signal surprisingly early toolmaking advances". 31 January 2018. Archived from the original on 9 February 2018. Retrieved 9 February 2018.
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  19. .
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References

Further reading