History of Tanzania
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The modern-day African Great Lakes state of Tanzania dates formally from 1964, when it was formed out of the union of the much larger mainland territory of Tanganyika and the coastal archipelago of Zanzibar. The former was a colony and part of German East Africa from the 1880s to 1919 when, under the League of Nations, it became a British mandate. It served as a British military outpost during World War II, providing financial help, munitions, and soldiers. In 1947, Tanganyika became a United Nations Trust Territory under British administration, a status it kept until its independence in 1961. The island of Zanzibar thrived as a trading hub, successively controlled by the Portuguese, the Sultanate of Oman, and then as a British protectorate by the end of the nineteenth century.
Julius Nyerere, independence leader and "baba wa taifa" (father of the nation) for Tanganyika, ruled the country for decades, while Abeid Amaan Karume, governed Zanzibar as its president and Vice President of the United Republic of Tanzania. Following Nyerere's retirement in 1985, various political and economic reforms began. He was succeeded in office by President Ali Hassan Mwinyi.
Prehistory
Early Stone Age
Tanzania is home to some of the oldest
The first hominid skull in Olduvai Gorge was discovered by
Middle Stone Age
Later Stone Age and Pastoral Neolithic
Reaching back approximately 10,000 years in the
Iron Age
Approximately 2000 years ago,
One of Tanzania's most important Iron Age archeological sites is Engaruka in the Great Rift Valley, which includes an irrigation and cultivation system.
Early coastal history
Travellers and merchants from the Persian Gulf and Western India have visited the East African coast since early in the first millennium CE. Greek texts such as the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea and Ptolemy's Geography list a string of market places (emporia) along the coast. Finds of Roman-era coins along the coast confirm the existence of trade, and Ptolomey's Geography refers to a town of Rhapta as "metropolis" of a political entity called Azania. Archaeologists have not yet succeeded in identifying the location of Rhapta, although many believe it lies deeply buried in the silt of the delta of the Rufiji River. A long documentary silence follows these ancient texts, and it is not until Arab geographical treatises were written about the coast that our information resumes.
Remains of those towns' material culture demonstrate that they arose from indigenous roots, not from foreign settlement. And the language that was spoken in them, Swahili (now Tanzania's national language), is a member of the Bantu language family that spread from the northern Kenya coast well before significant Arab presence was felt in the region. By the beginning of the second millennium CE the Swahili towns conducted a thriving trade that linked Africans in the interior with trade partners throughout the Indian Ocean. From c. 1200 to 1500 CE, the town of Kilwa, on Tanzania's southern coast, was perhaps the wealthiest and most powerful of these towns, presiding over what some scholars consider the "golden age" of Swahili civilization. In the early 14th century, Ibn Battuta, a Berber traveller from North Africa, visited Kilwa and proclaimed it one of the best cities in the world. Islam was practised on the Swahili coast as early as the eighth or ninth century CE.[9][10]
In 1498, Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama became the first known European to reach the African Great Lakes coast; he stayed for 32 days.[11] In 1505 the Portuguese captured the island of Zanzibar.[12] Portuguese control lasted until the early eighteenth century, when Arabs from Oman established a foothold in the region. Assisted by Omani Arabs, the indigenous coastal dwellers succeeded in driving the Portuguese from the area north of the Ruvuma River by the early eighteenth century. Claiming the coastal strip, Omani Sultan Seyyid Said moved his capital to Zanzibar City in 1840.[12] He focused on the island and developed trade routes that stretched as far as Lake Tanganyika and Central Africa. During this time, Zanzibar became the centre for the Indian Ocean slave trade. Due to the Arab and Persian domination at this later time, many Europeans misconstrued the nature of Swahili civilization as a product of Arab colonization. However, this misunderstanding has begun to dissipate over the past 40 years as Swahili civilization is becoming recognized as principally African in origin.[13]
Tanganyika (1850–1890)
European exploration of the interior began in the mid-19th century. In 1848 the German missionary
At the
German East Africa
"A History of Tanzania" references that the Germans established a direct rule where German administrators controlled all aspects of the colony’s government. At the top of the administration was a governor who enforced laws, created local decrees, and controlled the military. The governor appointed district officers who were in charge of everything in their districts. Their responsibilities included collecting taxes, awarding punishment, and commanding the local police force.[17] Lands with high populations often had economic potential. In these areas, the Germans forced out the occupants so they could develop these fertile lands for themselves. All resistance to the Germans in the interior ceased and they could now set out to organize German East Africa. They continued brutally to exercise their authority with disregard and contempt for existing local structures and traditions. While the German colonial administration brought cash crops, railroads, and roads to Tanganyika, European rule provoked African resistance. Between 1891 and 1894, the Hehe—led by Chief Mkwawa—resisted German expansion,[18] but were eventually defeated. After a period of guerrilla warfare, Mkwawa was cornered and committed suicide in 1898.
Maji Maji resistance
Widespread discontent re-emerged, and in 1902 a movement against forced labour for a cotton scheme rejected by the local population started along the
Germans had occupied the area since 1897 and totally altered many aspects of everyday life. They were actively supported by the
World War I
Before the outbreak of the war, German East Africa had been prepared to resist any attack that could be made without extensive preparation. For the first year of hostilities, the Germans were strong enough to conduct offensive operations in their neighbours' territories by, for example, repeatedly attacking railways in
The geography of German East Africa also was a severe impediment to British and allied forces. The coastline offered few suitable points for landing and was backed by unhealthy swamps. The line of lakes and mountains to the west proved to be impenetrable. Belgian forces from the Belgian Congo had to be moved through Uganda. On the south, the Ruvuma River was fordable only its upper reaches. In the north, only one practicable pass about five miles wide existed between the Pare Mountains and Mount Kilimanjaro, and here the German forces had been digging in for eighteen months.[22]
Germany commenced hostilities in 1914 by unsuccessfully attacking from the town of Tanga. The British then attacked the town in November 1914 but were thwarted by General Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck's forces at the Battle of Tanga. The British Royal Navy occupied Mafia Island in January 1915. However, the "attack on Tanga and the numerous smaller engagements that followed [showed] the strength ... of [German forces] and made it evident that a powerful force must be organized before the conquest of [German East Africa] could be ... undertaken. Such an enterprise had ... to await more favourable conditions on European battlefields and elsewhere. But in July, 1915, the last German troops in S.W. Africa capitulated ... and the nucleus of the requisite force ... became available." British forces from the northeast and southwest and Belgian forces from the northwest steadily attacked and defeated German forces beginning in January 1916. In October 1916, General Smuts wrote, "With the exception of the Mahenge Plateau [the Germans] have lost every healthy or valuable part of their Colony".[22]
Cut-off from Germany, General Von Lettow by necessity conducted a guerilla campaign throughout 1917, living off the land and dispersing over a wide area. In December, the remaining German forces evacuated the colony by crossing the Ruvuma River into Portuguese Mozambique. Those forces were estimated at 320 German troops and 2,500 Askaris. 1,618 Germans and 5,482 Askaris were killed or captured during the last six months of 1917. In November 1918, his remaining force surrendered near present-day Mbala, Zambia consisting of 155 Europeans, 1,165 Askaris, 2,294 African porters etc., and 819 African women.[22]
Under the Treaty of Versailles, Germany relinquished all her overseas possessions, including German East Africa.[23] Britain lost 3,443 men in battle plus 6,558 men to disease.[16]: page 246 The equivalent numbers for Belgium were 683 and 1,300.[16]: page 246 Germany lost 734 Europeans and 1,798 Africans.[16]: page 246
Von Lettow's
British administration after World War I
In 1919, the population was estimated at 3,500,000.[citation needed]
The first British civilian administrator after the end of
Britain and Belgium signed an agreement regarding the border between Tanganyika and Ruanda-Urundi in 1924.[26]
The administration of the Territory continued to be carried out under the terms of the mandate until its transfer to the Trusteeship System under the Charter of the United Nations by the Trusteeship Agreement of 13 December 1946.
British rule through indigenous authorities
Governor Byatt took measures to revive African institutions by encouraging limited local rule. He authorized the formation in 1922 of political clubs such as the Tanganyika Territory African Civil Service Association, which in 1929 became the
Sir Donald Cameron became the governor of Tanganyika in 1925.[25]: page 5 "His work ... was of great significance in the development of colonial administrative policy, being associated especially with the vigorous attempt to establish a system of 'Indirect Rule' through the traditional indigenous authorities."[25]: page 5 He was a major critic of Governor Byatt's policies about indirect rule, as evidenced by his Native Administration Memorandum No. 1, Principles of Native Administration and their Application.[25]: page 6
In 1926, the Legislative Council was established with seven unofficial (including two Indians) and thirteen official members, whose function was to advise and consent to ordinances issued by the governor.[25]: pages 4–5 In 1945, the first Africans were appointed to the council.[25]: page 5 The council was reconstituted in 1948 under Governor Edward Twining, with 15 unofficial members (7 Europeans, 4 Africans, and 4 Indians) and 14 official members.[25]: page 9 Julius Nyerere became one of the unofficial members in 1954.[25]: page 9 The council was again reconstituted in 1955 with 44 unofficial members (10 Europeans, 10 Africans, 10 Indians, and 14 government representatives) and 17 official members.[25]: page 9
Governor Cameron in 1929 enacted the Native Courts Ordinance No. 5, which removed those courts from the jurisdiction of the colonial courts and provided for a system of appeals with final resort to the governor himself.[25]: page 6
Railway development
In 1928, the Tabora to Mwanza railway line was opened to traffic.[28][29] The line from Moshi to Arusha opened in 1930.[16]: page 136
1931 census
In 1931 a census established the population of
Health and education initiatives
Under British rule, efforts were undertaken to fight the
In 1926, the colonial administration provided subsidies to schools run by missionaries, and at the same time established its authority to exercise supervision and to establish guidelines. Yet in 1935, the education budget for the entire country of Tanganyika amounted to only US$290,000, although it is unclear how much this represented at the time in terms of purchasing power parity.
Tanganyika wheat scheme
The British Government decided to develop wheat growing to help feed a war-ravaged and severely rationed Britain and eventually Europe at the hoped-for Allied victory at the end of the Second World War. An American farmer in Tanganyika,
World War II
Two days after
During the war about 100,000 people from Tanganyika joined the
Transition to independence
In 1947, Tanganyika became a United Nations trust territory under British control. "Its geography, topography, climate, geopolitics, patterns of settlement and history made Tanganyika the most significant of all UN Trust Territories."[36]: page 11 But two-thirds of the population lived in one-tenth of the territory because of water shortages, soil erosion, unreliable rainfall, tsetse fly infestations, and poor communications and transportation infrastructures.[36]: page 11
Multi-ethnic population
In 1957, only 15 towns had more than 5,000 inhabitants, with the capital Dar es Salaam having the country's highest population of 128,742.[36]: page 12 Tanganyika was a multi-racial territory, which made it unique in the trusteeship world. Its total non-African population in 1957 was 123,310 divided as follows: 95,636 Asians and Arabs (subdivided as 65,461 Indians, 6,299 Pakistanis, 4,776 Goans, and 19,100 Arabs), 3,114 Somalis, and 3,782 "coloured" and "other" individuals. The white population, which included the Europeans (British, Italians, Greeks, and Germans) and white South Africans, totalled 20,598 individuals. Tanganyika's ethnic and economic make-up posed problems for the British. Their policy was geared to ensuring the continuance of the European presence as necessary to support the country's economy. But the British also had to remain responsive to the political demands of the Africans.[36]: page 13
Many Africans were government servants, business employees, labourers, and producers of important cash crops during this period. But the vast majority were subsistence farmers who produced barely enough to survive. The standards of housing, clothing, and other social conditions were "equally quite poor."[36]: page 12 The Asians and Arabs were the middle class and tended to be wholesale and retail traders. The white population were missionaries, professional and government servants, and owners and managers of farms, plantations, mines, and other businesses. "White farms were of primary importance as producers of exportable agricultural crops."[36]: page 13
Co-operative farming started
Britain, through its colonial officer
The disastrous Tanganyika groundnut scheme began in 1946 and was abandoned in 1951.
UN trust territory
After Tanganyika became a UN trust territory, the British felt extra pressure for political progress. The British principle of "gradualism" was increasingly threatened and was abandoned entirely during the last few years before independence. Five UN missions visited Tanganyika, the UN received several hundred written petitions, and a handful of oral presentations made it to the debating chambers in New York City between 1948 and 1960.[36]: page 16 The UN and the Africans who used the UN to achieve their purposes were very influential in driving Tanganyika towards independence. The Africans attended public gatherings in Tanganyika with UN representatives. There were peasants, urban workers, government employees, and local chiefs and nobles who personally approached the UN about local matters needing immediate action. And finally, there were Africans at the core of the political process who had the power to mould the future. Their goal was political advancement for Africans, with many supporting the nationalist movement, which had its roots in the African Association (AA). It was formed in 1929 as a social organization for African government servants in Dar es Salaam and Zanzibar. The AA was renamed the Tanganyika African Association (TAA) in 1948 and ceased being concerned with events in Zanzibar.[36]: page 17
African nationalism
Beginning in 1954, African nationalism centered on the Tanganyika African National Union (TANU), which was a political organization formed by Julius Nyerere in that year[36]: page 16 as the successor to the TAA.[36]: page 17 The TANU won the Legislative Council elections in 1958, 1959, and 1960, with Nyerere becoming chief minister after the 1960 election. Internal self-government started on 1 May 1961 followed by independence on 9 December 1961.[36]: page 16
Zanzibar
Independence and Union of Tanganyika and Zanzibar
In 1954,
Zanzibar received its independence from the United Kingdom on 10 December 1963, as a
It was at this time that the Tanganyika army revolted and Britain was asked by Julius Nyerere to send in troops. Royal Marines Commandos were sent by air from England via Nairobi and 40 Commando came ashore from the aircraft carrier HMS Bulwark. Several months were spent with Commandos touring the country disarming military outposts. When the successful operation ended, the Royal Marines left to be replaced by Canadian troops.
On 26 April 1964, Tanganyika united with Zanzibar to form the United Republic of Tanganyika and Zanzibar. The country was renamed the United Republic of Tanzania on 29 October of that year. The name Tanzania is a blend of Tanganyika and Zanzibar and previously had no significance. Under the terms of this union, the Zanzibar Government retains considerable local autonomy.
Recent history
To form a sole ruling party in both parts of the union,
Nyerere believed multiple political parties, in a country with hundreds of ethnic groups, were a threat to national unity and therefore sought ways to ensure a one party system.[40] In a post-colonial and unstable social environment, Nyerere 'well aware of the divisiveness of ethnic chauvinism moved to excise tribalism from national politics'.[41][42] To further his aim for national unity Nyerere established Kiswahili as the national language.[43]
Nyerere introduced African socialism, or Ujamaa, literal meaning 'family-hood'. Nyerere's government had made Ujamaa the philosophy that would guide Tanzania's national development; 'the government deliberately de-emphasized urban areas to deconcentrate and ruralize industrial growth (Darkoh, 1994). the main urban area of Tanzania, Dar es Salaam, was for several long decades the main victim of this de-emphasis, largely because it 'remained for Nyerere a reminder of a colonial legacy.[44]: page 44
Scope of the state expanded rapidly into virtually every sector. In 1967, nationalizations transformed the government into the largest employer in the country. It was involved in everything from retailing to import-export trade and even baking. This created an environment ripe for corruption. Cumbersome bureaucratic procedures multiplied and excessive tax rates set by officials further damaged the economy. Enormous amounts of public funds were misappropriated and put to unproductive use. Purchasing power declined at an unprecedented rate and even essential commodities became unavailable. A system of permits (vibali) allowed officials to collect huge bribes in exchange for the vibali. A foundation for
Nyerere's Tanzania had a close relationship with the
In October 1985, Nyerere handed over power to
In 1990, a coalition of ethnic and cultural groups of Zanzibar demanded a referendum on independence. They declared that the merger with the mainland Tanzania, based on the now dead ideology of socialism, had transformed Zanzibar from a bustling economic power to a poor, neglected appendage.[39] Their demands were neglected.
However, the ruling party comfortably won the elections amid widespread irregularities
One of the deadly
In 2008, a power surge cut off power to Zanzibar, resulting in the
In 2015, after the ten-year term of president Jakaya Kikwete, the presidential election was won by John Magufuli .[52] In October 2020, president Magufoli was re-elected in the election full of fraud and irregularities according to the opposition.[53] Chama cha Mapinduzi (CCM) has held power since independence in 1961. It is the longest-serving ruling party in Africa. Every president of Tanzania has represented the party.[54] According to Human Rights Watch since the election of President John Magufuli in December 2015, Tanzania has witnessed a marked decline in respect for free expression, association and assembly.[55]
On 19 March 2021, Vice President Samia Suluhu Hassan became the new president after the sudden death of President John Magufuli. She was the first female President of Tanzania.[56]
Recent archaeological discoveries
In February 2021, Polish archaeologists from Jagiellonian University announced the discovery of ancient rock art with anthropomorphic figures in a good condition at the Amak’hee 4 rockshelter site in Swaga Swaga Game Reserve in Tanzania.[57][58]
The paintings found at the rock shelter were made with a reddish dye and included buffalo heads, a giraffe head and neck, and domesticated cattle. They have been dated back to approximately several hundred years ago. Archaeologists estimated that these paintings may describe a ritual of the Sandawe people, although their present religion does not contain elements of anthropomorphization of buffaloes.[59][60][61]
See also
- History of Africa
- History of Zanzibar
- HIV/AIDS in Tanzania
- List of colonial heads of Tanganyika
- List of governors-general of Tanganyika
- List of human evolution fossils
- List of presidents of Tanganyika
- List of presidents of Tanzania
- List of presidents of Zanzibar
- List of prime ministers of Tanganyika
- List of prime ministers of Tanzania
- List of heads of government of Zanzibar
- List of sultans of Zanzibar
- Politics of Tanzania
- Tanganyika
- Timeline of Tanzanian history
- History of cities in Tanzania:
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Further reading
- Gibbons, Ann (2007). The First Human: The Race to Discover our Earliest Ancestor. Anchor Books. ISBN 978-1-4000-7696-3.
- Hyden, Goran (1980). Beyond Ujamaa in Tanzania: Underdevelopment and an Uncaptured Peasantry. Berkeley: University of California Press.
- Iliffe, John (1971). Agricultural Change in Modern Tanganyika (Historical Association of Tanzania Paper no. 10. (Nairobi: East African Publishing House, 1971), 47 pp.
- Kjekshus, Helge (1996). Ecology Control and Economic Development in East African History. London: James Currey.
- Koponen, Juhani (1988). People and Production in Late Pre-colonial Tanzania: History and Structures. Uppsala: Scandinavian Institute of International Studies.
- Koponen, Juhani (1994). Development for Exploitation: German Colonial Policies in Mainland Tanzania, 1884–1914.
- Paice, Edward (2007). Tip and Run: The Untold Tragedy of the Great War in Africa. London: Orion Publishing.
- Waters, Tony (2007). The Persistence of Subsistence Agriculture: Life Beneath the Level of the Marketplace. Lanham: Lexington Books.