History of Texas
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Indigenous people lived in what is now Texas more than 10,000 years ago, as evidenced by the discovery of the remains of prehistoric Leanderthal Lady. In 1519, the arrival of the first Spanish conquistadors in the region of North America now known as Texas found the region occupied by numerous Native American tribes. The name Texas derives from táyshaʼ, a word in the Caddoan language of the Hasinai, which means "friends" or "allies."[1][2][3][4] In the recorded history of what is now the U.S. state of Texas, all or parts of Texas have been claimed by six countries: France, Spain, Mexico, the Republic of Texas, the Confederacy during the Civil War, and the United States of America.
The first European settlement was established in 1681, along the upper
After Santa Anna's dissolution of the Constitution of 1824 and his political shift to the right, issues such as lack of access to courts, the militarization of the region's government (e.g., response to Saltillo-Monclova problem), and self-defense issues resulting in the confrontation in Gonzales, turned public sentiment in Mexican and Anglo Texans towards revolution. Santa Anna's invasion of the territory after putting down the rebellion in Zacatecas provoked conflict in 1836, and between 1835 and 1836, the Texian forces fought and won the Texas Revolution.
Although not recognized as such by Mexico, Texas declared itself an independent nation, the
In early Texas statehood, things such as cotton, ranching, and farming dominated the economy, along with railroad construction. After 1870, railroads were a major factor in the development of new cities away from rivers and waterways. Toward the end of the 19th century, timber became an important industry in Texas as well. In 1901, a petroleum discovery at
Precontact Indigenous history
Texas lies at the juncture of several major
- Ancestral Pueblo peoples from the upper Rio Granderegion, centered west of Texas
- Mound Builders of the Mississippian culture which spread throughout the Mississippi Valley and its tributaries; the Caddo nation are considered among its descendants
- Indigenous peoples of Aridoamerica, with south and western Texas being part of the region of Aridoamerica.[8] Some of these tribes had trade and cultural connections with the more densely populated Mesoamerica in Mexico and Central America. The influence of Teotihuacan, in Mexico, peaked around AD 500 and declined over the 8th to 10th centuries.
The
Beginning during the
Native Americans in East Texas began to settle in villages shortly after 500 BC, farming and building the first burial mounds. They were influenced by the Mississippian culture, which had major sites throughout the Mississippi basin.[9] In the Trans-Pecos area, populations were influenced by Mogollon culture.
Early
After Spanish explorers entered the area, Texas was largely divided between six cultural groups.
By the late 17th century, in Texas Panhandle region, the Comanches settled and later expanded their territories.[4]
Native Americans determined the fate of European explorers and settlers depending on whether a tribe was kind or warlike.
Early Spanish exploration
The first European to see Texas was
Between 1528 and 1535, four survivors of the Narváez expedition, including Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca and Estevanico, spent six and a half years in Texas as slaves and traders among various native groups. Cabeza de Vaca was the first European to explore the interior of Texas.
In 1543, the Hernando de Soto expedition entered Texas from the east, becoming the first Europeans to visit the Caddo peoples. Searching for an overland path to Mexico, the expedition turned back to the Mississippi River after leaving Caddo territory and finding nomadic tribes without food stores to sustain the Spanish.[19]
French colonization of Texas (1684–1689)
Although Álvarez de Pineda had claimed the area that is now Texas for Spain, the area was essentially ignored for over 160 years. Its initial settlement by Europeans occurred by accident. In April 1682, French nobleman René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle had claimed the entire Mississippi River Valley for France.[20] The following year, he convinced King Louis XIV to establish a colony near the Mississippi, essentially splitting Spanish Florida from New Spain.[21][22]
La Salle's colonization expedition left France on July 24, 1684, and soon lost one of its supply ships to Spanish
After the fort was constructed, one of the ships returned to France, and the other two were soon destroyed in storms, stranding the settlers. La Salle and his party searched overland for the Mississippi River, traveling as far west as the Rio Grande[22] and as far east as the Trinity River.[25] Disease and hardship laid waste to the colony, and by early January 1687, fewer than 45 people remained. That month, a third expedition launched a final attempt to find the Mississippi. The expedition experienced much infighting, and La Salle was ambushed and killed somewhere in East Texas.[26]
The Spanish learned of the French colony in late 1685. Feeling that the French colony was a threat to Spanish mines and shipping routes, King
The Frenchman guided the Spanish to the French fort in late April 1689.
Spanish Texas (1690–1821)
Establishment of Spanish colony
News of the destruction of the French fort "created instant optimism and quickened religious fervor" in Mexico City.
On January 23, 1691, Spain appointed the first governor of Texas, General Domingo Terán de los Ríos.[33] On his visit to Mission San Francisco in August, he discovered that the priests had established a second mission nearby, but were having little luck converting the natives to Christianity. The Indians regularly stole the mission cattle and horses and showed little respect to the priests.[34] When Terán left Texas later that year, most of the missionaries chose to return with him, leaving only three religious people and nine soldiers at the missions.[35] The group also left behind a smallpox epidemic.[32] The angry Caddo threatened the remaining Spaniards, who soon abandoned the fledgling missions and returned to Coahuila. For the next 20 years, Spain again ignored Texas.[36]
After a failed attempt to convince Spanish authorities to reestablish missions in Texas, in 1711 Franciscan missionary Francisco Hidalgo approached the French governor of Louisiana for help.[37] The French governor sent representatives to meet with Hidalgo. This concerned Spanish authorities, who ordered the reoccupation of Texas as a buffer between New Spain and French settlements in Louisiana.[38] In 1716, four missions and a presidio were established in East Texas. Accompanying the soldiers were the first recorded female settlers in Spanish Texas.[39]
The new missions were over 400 miles (644 km) from the nearest Spanish settlement, San Juan Bautista.
The following year, the
The new governor of Coahuila and Texas, the
Difficulties with the Native Americans
In the late 1720s, the viceroy of New Spain closed the presidio in East Texas and reduced the size of the garrisons at the remaining presidios,[49] leaving only 144 soldiers in the entire province. With no soldiers to protect them, the East Texas missions relocated to San Antonio.[50]
Although the missionaries had been unable to convert the Hasinai tribe of East Texas, they did become friendly with the natives. The Hasinai were bitter enemies of the Lipan Apache, who transferred their enmity to Spain and began raiding San Antonio and other Spanish areas.[51][52] A temporary peace was finally negotiated with the Apache in 1749,[53] and at the request of the Indians a mission was established along the San Saba River northwest of San Antonio.[54] The Apaches shunned the mission, but the fact that Spaniards now appeared to be friends of the Apache angered the Apache enemies, primarily the Comanche, Tonkawa, and Hasinai tribes, who promptly destroyed the mission.[55]
In 1762, France finally relinquished their claim to Texas by ceding all of Louisiana west of the Mississippi River to Spain as part of the treaty to end the
The Comanche agreed to a peace treaty in 1785.[59] The Comanche were willing to fight the enemies of their new friends, and soon attacked the Karankawa. Over the next several years the Comanche killed many of the Karankawa in the area and drove the others into Mexico.[60]
In January 1790, the Comanche also helped the Spanish fight a large battle against the Mescalero and Lipan Apaches at Soledad Creek west of San Antonio. The Apaches were resoundingly defeated and the majority of the raids stopped.[61] By the end of the 18th century, only a small number of the remaining hunting and gathering tribes within Texas had not been Christianized. In 1793, mission San Antonio de Valero was secularized, and the following year the four remaining missions at San Antonio were partially secularized.[62]
Encroachment
During the American Revolution, Texas and the Tejanos helped the Americans in the fights in British West Florida. Unlike East Florida, Texas supported U.S. independence by also fighting in New Orleans and other campaigns in the Gulf of Mexico.[63]
In 1799, Spain gave Louisiana back to France in exchange for the promise of a throne in central Italy. Although the agreement was signed on October 1, 1800, it did not go into effect until 1802. The following year, Napoleon sold Louisiana to the United States. The original agreement between Spain and France had not explicitly specified the borders of Louisiana, and the descriptions in the documents were ambiguous and contradictory.[64] The United States insisted that its purchase also included most of West Florida and all of Texas.[64]
Thomas Jefferson claimed that Louisiana stretched west to the Rocky Mountains and included the entire watershed of the Mississippi and Missouri Rivers and their tributaries, and that the southern border was the Rio Grande. Spain maintained that Louisiana extended only as far as Natchitoches, and that it did not include the Illinois Territory.[65] Texas was again considered a buffer province, this time between New Spain and the United States.[66] The disagreement would continue until the signing of the 1819 Adams–Onís Treaty, at which point Spain gave Florida to the United States in return for undisputed control of Texas.[67]
During much of the dispute with the United States, governance of New Spain was in question. In 1808, Napoleon forced the Spanish king to abdicate the throne and appointed
Spanish troops reacted harshly, looting the province and executing any Tejanos accused of having Republican tendencies. By 1820 fewer than 2,000 Hispanic citizens remained in Texas.
Spanish legacy
Spanish control of Texas was followed by Mexican control of Texas, and it can be difficult to separate the Spanish and Mexican influences on the future state. The most obvious legacy is that of the language; every major river in modern Texas, including the Red River, which was baptized by the Spaniards as Colorado de Texas, has a Spanish or Anglicized name, as do 42 of the
An additional obvious legacy is that of
The Spanish introduced European livestock, including cattle, horses, and mules, to Texas as early as the 1690s.[75] These herds grazed heavily on the native grasses, allowing mesquite, which was native to the lower Texas coast, to spread inland. Spanish farmers also introduced tilling and irrigation to the land, further changing the landscape.[76]
Texas eventually adopted much of the Anglo-American legal system, but some Spanish legal practices were retained, including homestead exemption, community property, and adoption.[77]
Comancheria
From the 1750s to the 1850s, the Comanche were the dominant group in the Southwest, and the domain they ruled was known as Comancheria. Confronted with Spanish, Mexican, and American outposts on their periphery in New Mexico, Texas, and Coahuila and Nueva Vizcaya in northern Mexico, the Comanche worked to increase their own safety, prosperity and power.[78] The population in 1810–1830 was 7,000 to 8,000.[79]
The Comanche used their military power to obtain supplies and labor from the Americans, Mexicans, and Indians through thievery, looting and killing, tribute, and kidnappings. There was much violence committed by and against Comanche, before and after the European settlement of Texas. Although they made a living partially through raiding and violence, along with hunting/gathering, especially buffalo hunting, the Comanche empire also supported a commercial network with long-distance trade. Dealing with subordinate Indians, the Comanche spread their language and culture across the region. In terms of governance, the Comanche were made up of allied bands with a loosely hierarchical social organization within bands.[80]
Their empire collapsed when their camps and villages were repeatedly decimated by
Mexican Texas (1821–1836)
In 1821, the
The same year, Mexico enacted the General Colonization Law, which enabled all heads of household, regardless of race or immigrant status, to claim land in Mexico.[86] Mexico had neither manpower nor funds to protect settlers from near-constant Comanche raids and it hoped that getting more settlers into the area could control the raids. The government liberalized its immigration policies, allowing for settlers from the United States to immigrate to Texas.[87]
The German settlement in Mexico goes back to the times they settled
The first empresarial grant had been made under Spanish control to Moses Austin. The grant was passed to his son Stephen F. Austin, whose settlers, known as the Old Three Hundred, settled along the Brazos River in 1822.[89] The grant was later ratified by the Mexican government.[90] Twenty-three other empresarios brought settlers to the state, the majority from the United States of America.[91]
Starting in 1821, and in spite of growing Mexican limitations on slavery, U.S. immigrants brought an increasing number of slaves into Texas. By 1825, 69 slave owners owned 443 slaves.
Bustamante outlawed the immigration of United States citizens to Texas in 1830.
Texans took advantage of the lack of oversight to agitate for more political freedom, resulting in the
Texas Revolution
The vague unrest erupted into armed conflict on October 2, 1835, at the Battle of Gonzales, when Texans repelled a Mexican attempt to retake a small cannon.[106][107] This launched the Texas Revolution, and over the next three months, the Texian Army successfully defeated all Mexican troops in the region.[108]
On March 2, 1836, Texans signed the Texas Declaration of Independence at Washington-on-the-Brazos, effectively creating the Republic of Texas. The revolt was justified as necessary to protect basic rights and because Mexico had annulled the federal pact. The majority of the colonists were from the United States; they said that Mexico had invited them to move to the country, but they were determined "to enjoy" the republican institutions to which they were accustomed in their native land.[109]
Many of the Texas settlers believed the war to be over and left the army after the initial string of victories.[110] The remaining troops were largely recently arrived adventurers from the United States; according to historian Alwyn Barr, the numerous American volunteers "contributed to the Mexican view that Texan opposition stemmed from outside influences."[111] The Mexican congress responded to this perceived threat by authorizing the execution of any foreigner found fighting in Texas; they did not want prisoners of war.[112]
As early as October 27, Mexican president
News of the defeats sparked the Runaway Scrape, where much of the population of Texas and the Texas provisional government fled east, away from the approaching Mexican army.[118] Many settlers rejoined the Texian army, then commanded by General Sam Houston. After several weeks of maneuvering, on April 21, 1836, the Texian Army attacked Santa Anna's forces near the present-day city of Houston at the Battle of San Jacinto.[119] They captured Santa Anna and forced him to sign the Treaties of Velasco, ending the war.[5][120][121]
Republic of Texas (1836–1845)
The
The internal politics of the Republic were based on the conflict between two factions. The nationalist faction, led by Mirabeau B. Lamar, advocated the continued independence of Texas, the expulsion of the Native Americans, and the expansion of Texas to the Pacific Ocean. Their opponents, led by Sam Houston, advocated the annexation of Texas to the United States and peaceful co-existence with Native Americans.
Although Texas governed itself, Mexico refused to recognize its independence.
To protect the Texas national archives, President Sam Houston ordered them out of Austin. Fearing that Houston planned to move the capital, Austin residents forced the archives back to Austin at gunpoint. The Texas Congress admonished Houston for the incident, and the incident solidified Austin as Texas's seat of government for the Republic and the future state.[124]
Statehood, war, and expansion (1845–1860)
On February 28, 1845, the U.S. Congress narrowly passed a bill that authorized the United States to
The Mexican government had long warned that annexation would mean war with the United States. When Texas joined the U.S., the Mexican government broke diplomatic relations with the United States. The United States now assumed the claims of Texas when it claimed all land north of the Rio Grande. In June 1845, President James K. Polk sent General Zachary Taylor to Texas, and by October, 3,500 Americans were on the Nueces River, prepared to defend Texas from a Mexican invasion. On November 10, 1845,[125] Polk ordered General Taylor and his forces south to the Rio Grande, into disputed territory that Mexicans claimed as their own. Mexico claimed the Nueces River—about 150 miles (240 km) north of the Rio Grande—as its border with Texas.
On April 25, 1846, a 2,000-strong Mexican cavalry detachment attacked a 70-man U.S. patrol that had been sent into the contested territory north of the Rio Grande and south of the Nueces River. The Mexican cavalry routed the patrol, killing 16 U.S. soldiers in what later became known as the Thornton Affair. Both nations declared war. In the ensuing Mexican–American War, there were no more battles fought in Texas, but it became a major staging point for the American invasion of northern Mexico.
One of the primary motivations for annexation was the Texas government's huge debts. The United States agreed to assume many of these upon annexation. However, the former Republic never fully paid off its debt until the Compromise of 1850. In return for $10 million, a large portion of Texas-claimed territory, now parts of Colorado, Kansas, Oklahoma, New Mexico, and Wyoming, was ceded to the Federal government.
Migration
Intensified migration to Texas after statehood raised the population to about 150,000. Societies such as the Texas Emigration and Land Company now pledged to settle colonists who would agree to constitute a militia for defense against the Indians; in return they would receive a grant of 320 acres of choice land. Most of the newcomers continued to migrate from the states of the lower South; slavery was granted legal protection by the Texas constitution of 1845. The Texas population by 1860 was quite diverse, with large elements of European whites (from the American South), African Americans (mostly slaves brought from the east), Tejanos (Hispanics with Spanish heritage), and about 20,000 recent German immigrants.[126]
The new state grew rapidly as migrants poured into the fertile cotton lands of east Texas.[127] With their investments in cotton lands and slaves, Texas planters established cotton plantations in the eastern districts. The central area of the state was developed more by subsistence farmers who seldom owned slaves.[128]
Texas in its Wild West days, attracted settlers who could shoot straight and possessed the zest for adventure, "for masculine renown, patriotic service, martial glory and meaningful deaths."[129]
German immigration
The Germans were the largest group immigrating directly from Europe.[130] According to the Handbook of Texas:
- The Germans who settled Texas were diverse in many ways. They included peasant farmers and intellectuals; Protestants, Catholics, Jews, and atheists; Prussians, Saxons, Hessians, and Alsatians; abolitionists and slaveholders; farmers and townsfolk; frugal, honest folk and ax murderers. They differed in dialect, customs, and physical features. A majority had been farmers in Germany, and most arrived seeking economic opportunities. A few dissident intellectuals fleeing the 1848 revolutions in Germany sought political freedom, but few, save perhaps the Wends, went for religious freedom. The German settlements in Texas reflected their diversity. Even in the confined area of the Hill Country, each valley offered a different kind of German. The Llano valley had stern, teetotaling German Methodists, who renounced dancing and fraternal organizations; the Pedernales valley had fun-loving, hardworking Lutherans and Catholics who enjoyed drinking and dancing; and the Guadalupe valley had atheist Germans descended from intellectual political refugees. The scattered German ethnic islands were also diverse. These small enclaves included Lindsay in Cooke County, largely Westphalian Catholic; Waka in Ochiltree County, Midwestern Mennonite; Hurnville in Clay County, Russian German Baptist; and Lockett in Wilbarger County, Wendish Lutheran.[131]
Czech immigration
The first Czech immigrants started their journey to Texas on August 19, 1851, headed by Jozef Šilar. Attracted to the rich farmland of Central Texas, Czechs settled in the counties of Austin, Fayette, Lavaca, and Washington. The
Civil War and Reconstruction (1860–1876)
In the summer of 1860, a slave panic erupted in North and East Texas amid rumors of arson by slaves and abolitionists. Between 30 and 100 blacks and whites were lynched by vigilantes in the so-called "Texas Troubles". The events were used to arouse support for secession.[133] Yet at least one fire was proven at the time to be due to a new kind of match that self-ignited in that season's unusual heat and wind, stopping the Denton lynch mob in that case.[134]
As an essential part of the southern cotton industry, farmers depended on slave labor to do the massive amount of field work. In 1860, 30% of the total state population of 604,215 were enslaved.[135] Slave owners were also politically dominant: During the 1860s, between 60 and 80% of state legislators came from a slave owning family, and 10–15% belonged to the Planter class.[136] In the statewide election on the secession ordinance, Texans voted to secede from the Union by a vote of 46,129 to 14,697 (a 76% majority). The Secession Convention immediately organized a government, replacing Sam Houston when he refused to take an oath of allegiance to the Confederacy.
Texas declared its secession from the United States on February 1, 1861, and joined the Confederate States of America on March 2, 1861. With few battles in its territory, Texas was mainly a "supply state" for the Confederate forces until mid-1863, when the Union capture of the Mississippi River made large movements of men, horses or cattle impossible. Texas regiments fought in every major battle throughout the war. After the capture of New Orleans in 1862, slave owners with means to move forced the resettlement of enslaved people to Texas to escape the Union Army's reach. The last battle of the Civil War, the Battle of Palmito Ranch, was fought in Texas on May 12, 1865. The 2nd Texas Cavalry Battalion (U.S.) (one of only two from the state) took part.
Unionism
Many Texan unionists supported the Confederacy after the war began, but many others also clung to their
Reconstruction
Even after news of the Emancipation Proclamation arrived in Galveston on June 19, 1865, creating the celebration of Juneteenth, slave owners withheld the news. It was not uncommon for them to delay telling the formerly enslaved people until after the harvest, according to historian Elizabeth Hayes Turner in her comprehensive essay, "Juneteenth: Emancipation and Memory".[139]" The State suffered little during the war, but trade and finance were disrupted. Angry returning veterans seized state property, and Texas went through a period of extensive violence and disorder. Most outrages took place in northern Texas; outlaws based in the Indian Territory plundered and murdered without distinction of party.[140]
President Andrew Johnson appointed Union General
Many free blacks were able to become businessmen and leaders. Through the young Republican Party, blacks rapidly gained political power. Indeed, blacks comprised 90% of the Texas Republican Party during the 1880s.[141] Norris Wright Cuney, an African American from Galveston, rose to the chairmanship of the Texas Republican Party and even the national committeeman.[142]
Democrats regain control after Reconstruction
Like other Southern states, by the late 1870s white Democrats regained control of the state legislature. They passed a
Within the Republican Party the Lily-white movement emerged, a movement to wrest control of the party by whites and eliminate black influence altogether. The movement had its origins in Texas but spread across the nation. This in addition to wider efforts to restrict the influence of non-whites rapidly reversed the fortunes of the black population.[144]
Historiography
During the 20th century, national historiographical trends influenced the scholarship on the Civil War in Texas. Beginning in the 1950s, historians focused on military campaigns in Texas and other areas of the Southwest, a region previously neglected. Since the 1970s, scholars have shifted their attention to South Texas, exploring how its relations with Mexico and Mexican Americans affected both Confederate and Union Civil War military operations. Also since the 1970s, the "New Social History" has stimulated research in war-related social, economic, and political changes. This historiographical trend is related to a growing interest in local and regional history.[145]
Late 19th century (1876–1899)
Racial violence continued by whites against blacks as they enforced
Land use politics
Much of Texas politics of the remainder of the 19th century centered on land use. Guided by the federal
New land use policies drafted during the administration of Governor John Ireland enabled individuals to accumulate land, leading to the formation of large cattle ranches. Many ranchers ran barbed wire around public lands, to protect their access to water and free grazing. This caused several range wars.[148] Governor Lawrence Sullivan Ross guided the Texas Legislature to reform the land use policies.[149]
The coming of the railroads in the 1880s ended the famous cattle drives and allowed ranchers to market their cattle after a short drive, and farmers move their cotton to market cheaply. They made Dallas and other cities the centers of commercial activity.[150] Ft. Worth became the gateway to the west, via the Fort Worth and Denver Railway.[151] However the passenger trains were often the targets of armed gangs.[152]
Governor
Under
Texas in prosperity, depression, and WWII (1900–1945)
In the aftermath of the Galveston disaster, action proceeded on building the Houston Ship Channel to create a more protected inland port. Houston quickly grew once the Channel was completed, and rapidly became the primary port in Texas. Railroads were constructed in a radial pattern to link Houston with other major cities such as Dallas-Fort Worth, San Antonio, and Austin.
By 1900, the Dallas population reached 38,000 as banking and insurance became major activities in the increasingly white-collar city, which was now the world's leading cotton center. It was also the world's center of harness making and leather goods. Businessmen took control of civic affairs; with little municipal patronage, there was only a small role for the Democratic Party to play. The predominantly black Republican Party was essentially closed out of politics by the disenfranchisement in 1901 of most blacks through imposition of a
Disenfranchisement
Determined to control politics in the state, reduce competition from Republicans and Populists, and close blacks out of politics, in 1901 the Democrat-dominated state legislature passed a
By the early 20th century, the Democratic Party in Texas started using a "
When the Supreme Court ruled in 1923 that white primaries established by political parties were unconstitutional, in 1927 the Texas state legislature passed a bill that authorized political parties to establish their internal practices. The Democratic Party reinstated the white primary. That law survived until 1944 before another Supreme Court case ruled that it was unconstitutional. After 1944, the
Population growth
Texas reached 4 million population in 1910, making it the fifth largest state, and continued to grow. It remained primarily rural, based on cotton farms and ranches, with 30% living in numerous villages and towns and a few cities.[161]
Galveston with 17,000 was the largest city in 1870; it recovered from the devastating hurricane of 1900, which killed 6,000 people, and reached 37,000 in 1910. Galveston became nationally famous for its modernized "commission form" of government that stressed efficiency and minimized patronage.[162]
The largest city in 1910 was San Antonio at 96,000. Houston (79,000 in 1910) was a rail and oil center; it competed with Dallas (92,000), the banking and merchandising center. Thanks to the meat packing plants that opened in Fort Worth in 1903, it reached 73,000 in 1910. El Paso counted 39,000; Austin, the capital, 30,000; and Waco 26,000. The Model T and other autos began arriving, and along with tractors they started to replace mules and horses on the farm. None of the cities had significant suburbs; instead they built street car systems to bring shoppers to the central business district.[163]
In 1911 an extremely bloody decade-long civil war broke out in Mexico. Hundreds of thousands of refugees fled to Texas, raising the Hispanic population from 72,000 in 1900 to 250,000 in 1920. The number reached 700,000 in 1930, 1,400,000 in 1960, and 4 million in 1990.[164]
Blacks grew in number but declined as a proportion, falling from 22% of 1890 population in 1890 to 16% in 1920. They were increasingly segregated in public places, and lost the right to vote. Physical intimidation occurred regularly.[165] Of the 468 lynching victims in the state between 1885, the peak, and the last episode in 1942, 339 were black, 77 white, 53 Hispanic, and 1 Indian.[166] Much improved law enforcement after 1920 meant the violence rapidly died out, but segregation only ended in 1964.
Dallas growth
Texans in 1909 marked an icon of progress with the construction of the first skyscraper west of the Mississippi.
Oil
On the morning of January 10, 1901,
Great Depression
The economy, which had experienced significant recovery since the Civil War, was dealt a double blow by
Farmers and ranchers were especially hard hit, as prices for cotton and livestock fell sharply. Beginning in 1934 and lasting until 1939, the Dust Bowl, an ecological disaster of severe wind and drought, caused an exodus from Texas and the surrounding plains, in which over 500,000 Americans were homeless, hungry and jobless.[169] Thousands left the region forever to seek economic opportunities in California. For the majority of farmers who remained, the New Deal's Agricultural Adjustment Act was a crash program started in 1933 that in two weeks signed up cotton growers, even as agents and committeemen faced poor roads, bureaucratic delays, inadequate supplies, balking mules, and language barriers. It brought recovery by the mid-1930s, raising cotton prices by controls on how much farmers could plant.[170]
World War II
World War II had a dramatic effect on Texas, as federal money poured in to build
Existing military bases in Texas were expanded and numerous new training bases were built:
The
During WWII, Texas became home to as many as 78,982 enemy prisoners, mainly Germans; it held 15% of the total POWs in the United States. There were fourteen prisoner-of-war camps in the state. The POWs in the camps were put to work to supplement the local farm labor lost to the war.[176][177] Though contemporary War Department officials claimed that government attempts at denazification of the prisoners were highly successful, Nazi influence upon prisons in individual camps was common for the duration of the POW program.[178] Walker examined Nazi activities in Texas POW camps during 1943–45 and found that the military authorities had failed to eradicate the influence of Nazi leaders.[178]
Previously a largely rural area, East Texas became more urban as workers were recruited for the oil, shipbuilding, and aircraft industries. East Texans made many contributions to the war effort, both at home and in the armed forces. High schools had patriotic programs as well, but so many teachers and older students left for the military or for defense jobs that budgets were cut, programs dropped, and the curriculum had to be scaled down. Hospitals reported a shortage of supplies and medical personnel, as many doctors and most of the younger nurses joined the services.[179]
Harmon General Hospital, one of the Army's largest, opened in Longview in November 1942 with 157 hospital buildings and a capacity of 2,939 beds. The facility was designed for the treatment of soldiers with central nervous system syphilis, psychiatric disorders, tropical illnesses, and dermatological diseases. At the end of the war, the facility was adapted for use as the campus of LeTourneau University.[180]
Nowhere were the wartime effects greater than in Houston, which in 1940 was a city of 400,000 population dependent on shipping and oil. The war dramatically expanded the city's economic base, thanks to massive federal spending. Energetic entrepreneurs, most notably George Brown, James Elkins and James Abercrombie, landed hundreds of millions of dollars in federal wartime investment in technologically complex facilities. Houston oil companies moved from being refiners and became sophisticated producers of petrochemicals. Especially important were synthetic rubber and high octane fuel, which retained their importance after the war. The war moved the natural gas industry from a minor factor to a major energy source; Houston became a major hub when a local firm purchased the federally financed Inch pipelines. Other major growth industries included steel, munitions, and shipbuilding.
Tens of thousands of new migrants streamed in from rural areas, straining the city's housing supply and the city's ability to provide local transit and schools. For the first time, high-paying jobs went to large numbers of women, blacks and Hispanics. The city's African-American community, emboldened by their newfound prosperity, increased its agitation for civil rights; they backed and funded the legal case of Smith v. Allwright (1944), in which the Supreme Court ruled against the latest version of the white primary in support of voting rights.[183]
Throughout East Texas, black family growth and dissolution came more rapidly than in peacetime; blacks were more mobile as an adjustment to employment opportunities. There was a more rapid shift to factory labor, higher economic returns, and a willingness of whites to tolerate the change in black economic status so long as the traditional "
Texas modernizes (1945–present)
1950s Texas drought
Beginning in 1949, Texas was hit with a devastating drought that extended until 1957. Rainfall decreased 30 to 50 percent, while temperatures rose, killing crops, livestock, and triggering a rise of dust storms. As a result, the number of Texas farms and ranches declined by nearly 100,000, and Texas experienced a period of mass urbanization as the rural population moved to the city to rebuild their livelihoods. The state's rural population declined from more than a third of the population to a quarter.[185] As a result, the Texas Water Development Board was created in 1957, and the state began a period of building a diverse system of water conservation plans. This included increasing access to groundwater, and creating lakes by damming rivers.[186]
JFK assassination
On Friday, November 22, 1963, in Dallas, Texas, at 12:30 pm Central Standard Time (18:30 UTC),
Higher education
During World War II the main universities like University of Texas and Texas A&M University gained a new national role. The wartime financing of university research, curricular change, campus trainee programs, and postwar veteran enrollments changed the tenor and allowed Texas schools to gain national stature.[189]
From 1950 through the 1960s, Texas modernized and dramatically expanded its system of higher education. Under the leadership of Governor Connally, the state produced a long-range plan for higher education, a more rational distribution of resources, and a central state apparatus that managed state institutions with greater efficiency. Because of these changes, Texas universities received federal funds for research and development during the John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson administrations.[190]
Economic and demographic change
Beginning around the mid-20th century, Texas began to transform from a rural and agricultural state to one that was urban and industrialized.
Shift to the Republican Party
Prior to the mid-20th century, Texas was essentially a one-party state, and the Democratic primary was viewed as "the real election". The Democratic Party had conservative and liberal factions, which became more pronounced after the New Deal.[192] Additionally, several factions of the party briefly split during the 1930s and 40s.[192]
The state's conservative white voters began to support Republican presidential candidates by the mid-20th century. After this period, they supported Republicans for local and state offices as well, and most white citizens became Republican Party members.[193] The party also attracted some minorities, but many have continued to vote for Democratic candidates. The shift to the Republican Party is much attributed to the fact that the Democratic Party became increasingly liberal during the 20th century, and thus was increasingly thought to be out-of-touch by the average Texas voter.[194] As Texas was always a conservative state, voters switched to the GOP, which now more closely reflected their beliefs.[194][195] Commentators have also attributed the shift to Republican political consultant Karl Rove, who managed numerous political campaigns in Texas in the 1980s and 90s.[195] Other stated reasons included court-ordered redistricting and the demographic shift in relation to the Sun Belt that favored the Republican Party and conservatism.[191]
The 2003 Texas redistricting of Congressional districts led by Republican Tom DeLay, was called by the New York Times "an extreme case of partisan gerrymandering".[196] A group of Democratic legislators, the "Texas Eleven", fled the state in a quorum-busting effort to prevent the legislature from acting, but was unsuccessful.[197] The state had already redistricted following the 2000 census. Despite these efforts, the legislature passed a map heavily in favor of Republicans, based on 2000 data and ignoring the estimated nearly one million new residents in the state since that date. Career attorneys and analysts at the Department of Justice objected to the plan as diluting the votes of African American and Hispanic voters, but political appointees overrode them and approved it.[196] Legal challenges to the redistricting reached the national Supreme Court in the case League of United Latin American Citizens v. Perry (2006), but the court ruled in favor of the state (and Republicans).[198]
In the
Native American self-Determination
In the late 20th century, Native American tribes regained federal recognition by organizing under the
- Alabama-Coushatta Tribe of Texas
- Kickapoo Traditional Tribe of Texas
- Ysleta del Sur Pueblo[203]
The state formed the Texas Commission for Indian Affairs in 1965 to oversee state-tribal relations; however, the commission was dissolved in 1989.[204]
COVID-19
The state of Texas confirmed its first case on February 13, 2020, and many of the state's largest cities recorded their first cases throughout March. As of late May 2021, there were 50,198 COVID-19 related deaths reported in that state. The death rate in Texas was 175 for every 100,000 people, while national COVID-19 death rate was 179 per 100,000.
On March 13, Governor Abbott declared a state of disaster for all counties in Texas, invoking emergency powers for his administration, and ordered state employees to remote work. Day cares, nursing homes, and prisons were asked to limit visitations. The state's first mobile testing center for COVID-19 opened in San Antonio. Colleges and universities throughout the state extended spring breaks with some transitioning to online instruction, including Baylor University, the University of Houston, the University of North Texas, the University of Texas at Austin, Texas State University, and Texas Tech University. School districts also announced temporary suspensions of classes statewide.[205][206][207]
See also
- Comanche history
- Forts of Texas
- History of vice in Texas
- History of slavery in Texas
- History of Texas forests
- History of the Southern United States
- History of the Western United States
- LGBT rights in Texas
- Education in Texas
- Texas divisionism
- Texas Historical Commission
- Texas Oil Boom
- Women's suffrage in Texas
- History of African Americans in Texas
- History of Mexican Americans in Texas
- Cities in Texas
- Timeline of Arlington, Texas
- Timeline of Austin, Texas
- Timeline of Dallas
- Timeline of El Paso, Texas
- Timeline of Houston
- Timeline of San Antonio
Footnotes
- ^ Fry, Phillip L. (March 7, 2016) [June 15, 2010]. "Texas, Origin of Name". Handbook of Texas (online ed.). Texas State Historical Association.
- ^ Richardson et al. (2005), p. 1
- ^ "Facts: The Government". Texas Almanac. November 20, 2017. Retrieved July 3, 2018.
- ^ a b Richardson et al. (2005), pp. 10–16
- ^ ISBN 978-0-292-75253-5
- ^ Manchaca (2001), p. 172
- ISBN 978-0-13-183550-4
- ^ López, José Antonio (January 1, 2017). "López: The seven sisters of Texas (Las siete hermanas de Texas)". Rio Grande Guardian. Retrieved October 30, 2023.
- ^ a b c Hester, Thomas R.; Turner, Ellen Sue (December 16, 2010). "Prehistory". Handbook of Texas (online ed.). Texas State Historical Association.
- ^ Sutherland, Kay (2006). Rock Paintings at Hueco Tanks State Historic Site (PDF) (Report). Austin: Texas Parks & Wildlife.
- ^ Lebo, Susan A.; Cliff, Maynard B. (April 30, 2019). "Pottery". Texas State Historical Association. Retrieved October 30, 2023.
- ^ Sturtevant, 659
- ISBN 0-19-822581-4(on-line text, ch. 1)
- ^ Brugge, David M. (1968). Navajos in the Catholic Church Records of New Mexico 1694 – 1875. Window Rock, Arizona: Research Section, The Navajo Tribe.
- ^ Richardson et al. (2005), p. 10
- ^ Richardson et al. (2005), pp. 10, 16
- ^ Weber (1992), p. 34
- ^ a b Chipman (1992), p. 243
- OCLC 981166517.
- ^ Chipman (1992), p. 72
- ^ Chipman (1992), pp. 73–74
- ^ a b c d Weber (1992), pp. 148–149
- ^ Chipman (1992), p. 75
- ^ a b Chipman (1992), p. 76
- ^ Chipman (1992), pp. 83–84
- ^ a b Chipman (1992), p. 84
- ^ a b Weber (1992), pp. 151–152
- ^ a b Weber (1992), p. 152
- ^ Chipman (1992), p. 83
- ^ Chipman (1992), p. 87
- ^ a b Chipman (1992), p. 89
- ^ a b Weber (1992), p. 154
- ^ Chipman (1992), pp. 93–94
- ^ Chipman (1992), p. 97
- ^ Chipman (1992), p. 98
- ^ Weber (1992), p. 155
- ^ Weber (1992), p. 159
- ^ Weber (1992), p. 160
- ^ Chipman (1992), p. 112
- ^ Chipman (1992), p. 113
- ^ Weber (1992), p. 163
- ^ Chipman (1992), p. 117
- ^ Weber (1992), pp. 165–166
- ^ Weber (1992), pp. 166–167
- ^ Weber (1992), p. 167
- ^ Chipman (1992), p. 123
- ^ Weber (1992), p. 168
- ^ Chipman (1992), p. 126
- ^ Chipman (1992), pp. 129–130
- ^ Chipman (1992), p. 131
- ^ Chipman (1992), p. 133
- ^ Weber (1992), p. 188
- ^ Weber (1992), p. 193
- ^ Chipman (1992), pp. 158–159
- ^ Weber (1992), p. 189
- ^ Weber (1992), p. 198
- ^ Weber (1992), p. 211
- ^ Weber (1992), p. 222
- ISBN 978-0-89096-661-7.
- ^ Weddle (1995), p. 164
- ^ Chipman (1992), p. 200
- ^ Chipman (1992), p. 202
- ^ "Texas and the American Revolution". December 29, 2020.
- ^ a b Weber (1992), p. 291
- ^ Weber (1992), p. 292
- ^ Weber (1992), p. 295
- ^ a b Weber (1992), p. 299
- ^ Weber (1992), p. 275
- ^ Weber (1992), p. 297
- ^ Weber (1992), p. 298
- ^ Weber (1992), p. 300
- ^ Chipman (1992), p. 242
- ^ Chipman (1992), p. 259
- ^ Chipman (1992), p. 255
- ^ Chipman (1992), p. 246
- ^ Chipman (1992), p. 247
- ^ Chipman (1992), pp. 252–254
- ^ ISBN 978-0-3001-5117-6.
- ^ Brown, William R. Jr. (January 1986). "Comancheria Demography, 1805–1830". Panhandle-Plains Historical Review. 59: 1–17.
- ISBN 978-1-4165-9105-4.
- JSTOR 30239220.
- S2CID 144608670.
- ^ Manchaca (2001), p. 161
- ^ Manchaca (2001), p. 162
- ^ Vazquez (1997), p. 51
- ^ Manchaca (2001), p. 187
- ^ Manchaca (2001), p. 164
- ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved February 13, 2021.
- ^ Manchaca (2001), p. 198
- ^ Edmondson (2000), p. 70
- ^ Manchaca (2001), pp. 198–199
- ^ Barr (1996), p. 15-16
- ^ Edmondson (2000), p. 80
- ^ a b Manchaca (2001), p. 200
- ^ Barr (1996), p. 15
- ^ Barr (1996), p. 17
- ^ Edmondson (2000), p. 135
- ^ Davis (2006), p. 77
- ^ Davis (2006), p. 85
- ^ Davis (2006), pp. 86–89
- ^ Vazquez (1997), p. 66
- ^ Davis (2006), p. 92
- ^ Lack (1992), p. 7
- ^ Vazquez (1997), p. 68
- ^ Vazquez (1997), p. 71
- ^ Vazquez (1997), p. 72
- ^ Hardin (1994), p. 12
- ^ Barr (1990), p. 64
- ^ Vazquez (1997), p. 74
- ^ Hardin (1994), p. 91
- ^ Barr (1990), p. 63
- ^ Scott (2000), p. 74
- ^ Hardin (1994), p. 98
- ^ Hardin (1994), p. 102
- ^ Hardin (1994), p. 120-121
- ^ Roell, Craig H. (April 13, 2016) [June 12, 2010]. "Coleto, Battle of". Handbook of Texas (online ed.). Texas State Historical Association..
- ^ "Remember Goliad!". Texas A&M University Press. Retrieved December 18, 2018.[permanent dead link]
- ^ Todish, Todish & Spring (1998), p. 68
- ^ Todish, Todish & Spring (1998), p. 69
- ^ Todish, Todish & Spring (1998), p. 70
- ^ Vazquez (1997), p. 77
- ^ Vazquez (1997), p. 76
- ^ Cutrer, Thomas W. (June 12, 2010). "Dawson Massacre". Handbook of Texas (online ed.). Texas State Historical Association.
- ^ "The Archives War". Texas Treasures- The Republic. The Texas State Library and Archives Commission. November 2, 2005. Retrieved January 3, 2009.
- ISBN 978-1-5086-7002-5.
- ^ Barnes F. Lathrop, Migration into East Texas, 1835–1860: A Study from the United States Census (Texas State Historical Association, 1949).
- ^ Gerhardt Britton, Karen; Elliott, Fred C.; Miller, E. A. (2010). "Cotton Culture". Handbook of Texas (online ed.). Texas State Historical Association.
- ISBN 978-0-8071-1505-3.
- ^ Jimmy L Bryan, Jr., "The Patriot-Warrior Mystique", in Alexander Mendoza and Charles David Grear, eds. Texans and War: New Interpretations of the State's Military History (2012) p 114.
- ^ Terry G. Jordan, German Seed in Texas Soil: Immigrant Farmers in Nineteenth-Century Texas (1966).
- ^ Handbook of Texas Online, Terry G. Jordan, "Germans", accessed March 12, 2018. Modified on March 7, 2016. Published by the Texas State Historical Association.
- ^ Machann, Clinton (2010). "Czechs". Handbook of Texas (online ed.). Texas State Historical Association.
- ^ Reynolds, Donald E. (June 15, 2010). "Texas Troubles". Handbook of Texas Online. Texas State Historical Association.
- ^ Edmond Franklin Bates (1918). History and Reminiscences of Denton County. McNitzky Print. Company. pp. 348–.
- ^ "Historical Census Browser, 1860 U.S. Census". University of Virginia. Archived from the original on August 23, 2007. Retrieved March 15, 2008.
- ^ Bellani, Hager, Maurer: The Long Shadow of Slavery, Journal of Economic History, 81.1, p. 265f.
- JSTOR 30237490.
- ^ Galbraith, Kate. (February 1, 2011). Sam Houston, Texas Secession – and Robert E. Lee. The Texas Tribune. Retrieved September 21, 2021.
- ^ Exlibris Group
- ISBN 978-0-231-92556-3.
- ^ AFRICAN AMERICANS AND POLITICS from the Handbook of Texas Online
- ^ LATE NINETEENTH-CENTURY TEXAS from the Handbook of Texas Online
- ^ Ericson, Joe E.; Wallace, Ernest (June 12, 2010). "Constitution of 1876". Handbook of Texas (online ed.). Texas State Historical Association.
- ^ Lily-White Movement from the Handbook of Texas Online Texas State Historical Association.
- JSTOR 30242265.
- ^ a b Dulaney, W. Marvin (June 9, 2010). "African Americans". Handbook of Texas (online ed.). Texas State Historical Association.
- ^ Dethloff, Henry C. (June 15, 2010). "Texas A&M University". Handbook of Texas (online ed.). Texas State Historical Association.
- ^ Hendrickson (1995), p. 112
- ISBN 978-0-89096-142-1
- ^ Reed, S. G. (1941). A History of the Texas Railroads: And of Transportation Conditions Under Spain and Mexico and the Republic and the State.
- ^ Richard C. Overton, Gulf To Rockies: The Heritage of the Fort Worth and Denver–Colorado and Southern Railways, 1861–1898 (2015).
- JSTOR 30240564.
- ^ Yelderman, Pauline (June 15, 2010). "Jaybird-Woodpecker War". Handbook of Texas (online ed.). Texas State Historical Association.
- ISBN 978-1-84212-425-3.
- ^ Hendrickson (1995), p. 127
- ISBN 978-1-56308-182-8
- ^ Turner (1997), p. 187
- JSTOR 791091.
- ^ a b "5.3: Historical Barriers to Voting". Texas Politics. Liberal Arts Instructional Technology Services, University of Texas at Austin. 2006. Archived from the original on October 4, 2015. Retrieved November 2, 2015.
- ^ "Turnout in Presidential Elections: Texas, the South and the Nation, 1848–2012". Texas Politics. Liberal Arts Instructional Technology Services, University of Texas at Austin. 2006. Retrieved November 2, 2015.
- ^ Texas Almanac 2008-2009 (2008) pp.411–413."
- ^ Bradley R. Rice. "The Galveston Plan of City Government by Commission: The Birth of a Progressive Idea" in Politics and Government: A Collection of Essays ed by Neil L. Shumsky (1996) pp. 528+.
- ^ David G. McComb, The City in Texas: A History (U of Texas Press, 2015).
- ^ Arnoldo De León, "Mexican Americans" Handbook of Texas (2023) online
- ^ Alwyn Barr, Black Texans: A History of African Americans in Texas, 1528-1995 (U of Oklahoma Press, 1996).
- ^ Charges of murder or attempted murder caused 40% percent of the lynchings; rape or attempted rape accounted for 26%. John R. Ross, "Lynching" in Handbook of Texas Online (2008)
- ^ Jay C. Henry (1993). Architecture in Texas: 1895–1945. U of Texas Press. p. 133.
- ISBN 978-0-8165-0366-7.
- ^ "First Measured Century: James Gregory Interview". PBS.org. Retrieved November 2, 2015.
- JSTOR 30239222.
- ISBN 978-0-9293-9829-7.
- ISBN 978-0-8761-1259-5..
- JSTOR 4492180.
- ISBN 978-1-5716-8554-4.
- ISSN 1077-2979.
- ISBN 978-1-58544-318-5.
- ^ Krammer, Arnold P. (June 15, 2010). "German Prisoners of War". Handbook of Texas (online ed.). Texas State Historical Association.
- ^ a b Walker, Richard P. (2006). "The Swastika and the Lone Star: Nazi Activity in Texas POW Camps". Military History of the West. 36. University of North Texas: 54–88.
- ^ Wooster, Ralph (2007). "East Texas in World War II". East Texas Historical Journal. 45 (2). Nacogdoches: Stephen F. Austin State University: 41–56.
- ^ Durham, Ken (2000). "Harmon General Hospital". East Texas Historical Journal. 38 (1). Nacogdoches: Stephen F. Austin State University: 35–42.
- ^ Brady, Kevin M. (2006). "A University at War: The Impact of World War II on Baylor University". Military History of the West. 36. University of North Texas: 34–53.
- ^ McCullough, John W. (2007). "Pre-Flights on the Tech Campus: Texas Tech's World War II Pre-Flight Pilots (1943–1944)". West Texas Historical Association Yearbook. 83: 19–34.
- ^ Levengood, Paul Alejandro (1999). For the Duration and Beyond: World War II and the Creation of Modern Houston, Texas (PDF) (PhD dissertation). Rice University.
- JSTOR 42879865.
- ^ Tedesco, John (September 11, 2015). "1950s drought plagued Texas for seven long years". San Antonio Express-News. Retrieved March 4, 2016.
- ^ Mashhood, Farzad (August 4, 2011). "Current drought pales in comparison with 1950s 'drought of record". Statesman. Statesman Media. Retrieved March 4, 2016.
- ISBN 978-0-3930-4525-3.
- ISBN 978-0-8061-8992-5.
- ^ Penney, Matthew Tyler (2007). 'Instruments of National Purpose' World War II and Southern Higher Education: Four Texas Universities as a Case Study (PDF) (PhD dissertation). Rice University.
- ^ Blanton (2005)
- ^ a b c d e f Calvert, Robert A. (June 15, 2010). "Texas Since World War II". Texas State Historical Association. Retrieved January 19, 2017.
- ^ a b "Political Parties". Handbook of Texas Online. June 15, 2010. Retrieved December 16, 2016.
- ^ Risen, Clay (March 5, 2006). "How the South was won". The Boston Globe. Archived from the original on January 16, 2010. Retrieved November 23, 2022.
- ^ a b "History of Texas Voters". newschannel10.com. November 8, 2016. Retrieved December 16, 2016.
- ^ a b "How Texas Became a "Red" State – Frontline". PBS. April 12, 2005. Retrieved December 16, 2016.
- ^ a b "The Texas Gerrymander". The New York Times. March 1, 2006. Retrieved January 7, 2009.
- ^ Ridder, Knight (July 29, 2003). "11 Texas Senate Democrats Take Cue from House, Bolt to Avoid Redistricting". Houston Chronicle. Retrieved January 7, 2009.[dead link]
- ^ The Associated Press (June 28, 2006). "Justices Back Most G.O.P. Changes to Texas Districts". The New York Times. Retrieved June 28, 2006.
- ^ a b Fernandez, Manny (May 27, 2014). "Lieutenant Governor Loses Texas Runoff as Tea Party Holds Sway". The New York Times. Retrieved December 3, 2016.
- ^ Koppel, Nathan (January 21, 2015). "Texas Lt. Gov. Dan Patrick Moves Quickly to Advance Conservative Agenda". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved December 16, 2016.
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Bibliography
- Bagur, Jacques D. (2012). Antebellum Jefferson, Texas: Everyday Life in an East Texas Town. Denton: University of North Texas Press. ISBN 978-1-5744-1265-9.
- ISBN 978-0-8061-2878-8
- Barr, Alwyn (1990), Texans in Revolt: the Battle for San Antonio, 1835, Austin: University of Texas Press, OCLC 20354408
- Blanton, Carlos Kevin (2005). "The Campus and the Capitol: John B. Connally and the Struggle over Texas Higher Education Policy, 1950–1970". Southwestern Historical Quarterly. 108 (4): 468–497. ISSN 0038-478X.
- Campbell, Randolph B. An empire for slavery: The peculiar institution in Texas, 1821–1865 (LSU Press, 1991)
- Chipman, Donald E. (1992), Spanish Texas, 1519–1821, Austin: ISBN 978-0-292-77659-3
- Davis, William C. (2006) [2004], Lone Star Rising: The Revolutionary Birth of the Texas Republic, College Station: Texas A&M University Press, ISBN 978-1-58544-532-5
- Edmondson, J.R. (2000), The Alamo Story: From History to Current Conflicts, Plano: Republic of Texas Press, ISBN 978-1-55622-678-6
- ISBN 978-0-292-73086-1
- Hendrickson, Kenneth E. Jr. (1995), The Chief of Executives of Texas: From Stephen F. Austin to John B. Connally, Jr., College Station: ISBN 978-0-89096-641-9
- Lack, Paul D. (1992), The Texas Revolutionary Experience: A Political and Social History 1835–1836, College Station: Texas A&M University Press, ISBN 978-0-89096-497-2
- McComb, David G. The City in Texas: A History (University of Texas Press, 2015) 342 pp.
- Mendoza, Alexander, and Charles David Grear, eds. Texans and War: New Interpretations of the State's Military History 2012 excerpt
- Scott, Robert (2000). After the Alamo. Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-585-22788-7.
- Smith, Franklin (1991), Joseph E. Chance (ed.), The Mexican War Journal of Captain Franklin Smith, Jackson, Mississippi: University Press of Mississippi
- Storey, John W., and Mary L. Kelley, eds. Twentieth Century Texas: A Social and Cultural History (2008); 15 specialized articles by scholars
- ISBN 978-0-8420-2662-8
- Todish, Timothy J.; Todish, Terry; Spring, Ted (1998), Alamo Sourcebook, 1836: A Comprehensive Guide to the Battle of the Alamo and the Texas Revolution, Austin: Eakin Press, ISBN 978-1-57168-152-2
- ISBN 978-0-300-05198-8
Further reading
Surveys
- Handbook of Texas Online (2010), thousands of articles by scholars; the most useful starting point
- Campbell, Randolph B. Gone to Texas: a History of the Lone Star State (Oxford University Press, 2003, 500 pages)
- De León, Arnoldo, Gregg Cantrell, Robert A. Calvert. The History of Texas (2002); short survey by scholars
- Garrison, George P. Texas: A Contest of Civilizations (1903) old textbook by scholar online edition
- Hendrickson Jr., Kenneth E. Chief Executives of Texas: From Stephen F. Austin to John B. Connally, Jr (1995)
- Wuthnow, Robert. Rough Country: How Texas Became America's Most Powerful Bible-Belt State (2014), by a leading sociologist.
Geography and environment
- Albert, Bruce M. "Climate, fire, and land-use history in the oak-pine-hickory forests of northeast Texas during the past 3500 years." Castanea 72.2 (2007): 82–91.
- Doughty, Robin W. "Settlement and Environmental Change in Texas, 1820–1900", Southwestern Historical Quarterly 1986 89(4): 423–442
- Gould, Lewis L. Lady Bird Johnson and the Environment (1988)
- Guthrie, William Keith. "Flood alley: An environmental history of flooding in Texas", Ph.D. dissertation, The University of Kansas, 2006, 397 pages; AAT 3243474
- Gutmann, Myron P. and Christie G. Sample. "Land, Climate, and Settlement on the Texas Frontier", Southwestern Historical Quarterly 1995 99(2): 136–172
- ISBN 0-03-029305-7
- Meinig, D. W. Imperial Texas: An Interpretive Essay in Cultural Geography, University of Texas Press, 1969, 145 pages.
- Platt, Harold L. City Building in the New South: The Growth of Public Services in Houston, Texas, 1830–1910 (1983) covers waste removal, sewage and clean water
- Pratt, Joseph A. "Growth or a Clean Environment? Responses to Petroleum-Related Pollution in the Gulf Coast Refining Region", Business History Review 1978 52(1): 1–29
- Rhinehart, Marilyn Dubberly. "History of the forestry movement in Texas, 1900-1950' (Dissertation, 1972) online
- Schmidly David J. Texas Natural History: A Century of Change (2002) online
- Stephens, A. Ray. Texas: A Historical Atlas (U. of Oklahoma Press, 2010) 432pp; ISBN 978-0-8061-3873-2
- Steely, James Wright. Parks for Texas: Enduring Landscapes of the New Deal (1999) 274 pp.
- Webb, Walter Prescott. More Water for Texas (1954)
- Webb, Walter Prescott. The Great Plains: A Study in Institutions and Environment (1931) online
Ethnicity and minorities
- Alonzo, Armando C. Tejano Legacy: Rancheros and Settlers in South Texas, 1734–1900 (1998)
- Barr, Alwyn. Black Texans: A History of African Americans in Texas, 1528–1995 (1996)
- Blackwelder, Julia Kirk. Women of the Depression: Caste and Culture in San Antonio 1984. excerpt and text search
- Buitron Jr., Richard A. The Quest for Tejano Identity in San Antonio, Texas, 1913–2000 (2004) excerpt and text search
- Crouch, Barry, et al. The Dance of Freedom: Texas African Americans during Reconstruction (2007)
- De Leon, Arnoldo. Mexican Americans in Texas: A Brief History (2nd ed. 1999).
- Deleón, Arnoldo. "Whither Tejano History: Origins, Development, and Status", Southwestern Historical Quarterly 2003 106(3): 348–364
- Deutsch, Sarah No Separate Refuge: Culture, Class, and Gender on the Anglo-Hispanic Frontier in the American Southwest, 1880–1940 1987
- Dysart, Jane. "Mexican Women in San Antonio, 1830–1860: The Assimilation Process" JSTOR 968057.
- García, Richard A. Rise of the Mexican American Middle Class: San Antonio, 1929-19411991
- Glasrud, Bruce A. and Merline Pitre. Black Women in Texas History (2008)
- Hinojosa, Gilberto M. "The Enduring Hispanic Faith Communities: Spanish and Texas Church Historiography", Journal of Texas Catholic History and Culture 1990 1(1): 20–41
- Matovina, Timothy M. Tejano Religion and Ethnicity, San Antonio, 1821-1860(1995)
- Anglos and Mexicans in the Making of Texas, 1836–1986(1987).
- Márquez, Benjamin. LULAC: The Evolution of a Mexican American Political Organization (1993)
- Quintanilla, Linda J., "Chicana Activists of Austin and Houston, Texas: A Historical Analysis" (University of Houston, 2005). Order No. DA3195964.
- San Miguel, Guadalupe Jr. "Let All of Them Take Heed": Mexican Americans and the Campaign for Educational Equality in Texas, 1910–1981(1987).
- Stewart, Kenneth L., and Arnoldo De León. Not Room Enough: Mexicans, Anglos, and Socioeconomic Change in Texas, 1850–1900 (1993)
- Storey, John W., and Mary L. Kelley, eds. Twentieth Century Texas: A Social and Cultural History (2008)
- Taylor, Paul S. Mexican Labor in the United States. 2 vols. 1930–1932, on Texas
- Taylor, Quintard. "Texas: The South Meets the West, The View Through African American History", Journal of the West (2005) 44#2 pp 44–52.
- de la Teja, Jesús F. San Antonio de Béxar: A Community on New Spain's Northern Frontier (1995).
- Tijerina, Andrés. Tejano Empire: Life on the South Texas Ranchos (1998).
- Tijerina, Andrés. Tejanos and Texas under the Mexican Flag, 1821–1836 (1994),
- Trevino, Roberto R. The Church in the Barrio: Mexican American Ethno-Catholicism in Houston. (2006). 308pp.
- Willett, Donald, and Stephen Curley, eds. Invisible Texans: Women and Minorities in Texas History (2005) 236pp ISBN 0-07-287163-6
- Winegarten, Ruthe et al. eds. Black Texas Women: A Sourcebook (1996), primary sources
- Zamora, Emilio et al. eds. Mexican Americans in Texas History: Selected Essays (2000) 226pp ISBN 0-87611-174-6
Historiography
- Bell, Walter F. "Civil War Texas: A Review of the Historical Literature", Southwestern Historical Quarterly 2005 109(2): 204–232.
- Buenger, Walter L. and Arnoldo De León, ed. Beyond Texas through Time: Breaking Away from Past Interpretations (Texas A&M Press, 2011), essays by scholars online
- Buenger, Walter L. and Robert A. Calvert eds. Texas through Time: Evolving Interpretations (Texas A&M Press, 1991), essays by scholars
- Cantrell, Gregg and Elizabeth Hayes Turner, eds. Lone Star Pasts: Memory and History in Texas (Texas A&M Press, 2007), essays by scholars
- Cox, Patrick L., and Kenneth E. Hendrickson Jr., eds. Writing the Story of Texas (University of Texas Press, 2013) 310 pp. Scholarly essays about Charles Ramsdell, Eugene Barker, Walter Prescott Webb, and Earnest Winkler, as well as Llerna Friend, J. Frank Dobie, J. Evetts Haley, Robert Maxwell, Carlos Castañeda, Robert Cotner, Joe B. Frantz, Ruthe Winegarten, and David Weber. online review
- Crouch, Barry A. "'Unmanacling' Texas Reconstruction: A Twenty-Year Perspective", Southwestern Historical Quarterly 1990 93(3): 275–302
- Cummins, Light Townsend, and Alvin R. Bailey Jr. eds A Guide to the History of Texas (1988)
- Deleón, Arnoldo. "Whither Tejano History: Origins, Development, and Status", Southwestern Historical Quarterly 2003 106(3): 348–364
- Glasrud, Bruce A., and Cary D. Wintz. Discovering Texas History (University of Oklahoma Press, 2014). online review
- Hinojosa, Gilberto M. "The Enduring Hispanic Faith Communities: Spanish and Texas Church Historiography", Journal of Texas Catholic History and Culture 1990 1(1): 20–41
- Poyo, Gerald E. and Gilberto M. Hinojosa. "Spanish Texas and Borderlands Historiography in Transition: Implications for United States History", Journal of American History 1988 75(2): 393–416
- Sneed, Edgar P. "A Historiography of Reconstruction in Texas: Some Myths and Problems", Southwestern Historical Quarterly 1969 72(4): 435–448
- Wooster, Ralph A. and Robert A. Calvert, eds. Texas Vistas (1987) reprinted scholarly essays
Business, labor and economics
- Campbell, Randolph B., and Richard G. Lowe. Wealth and Power in Antebellum Texas (1977).
- Glasrud, Bruce A., and James C. Maroney, eds. Texas Labor History (Texas A&M University Press, 2013) 444 pp.
Gender and social history
- Downs, Fane, and Nancy Baker Jones, eds. Women and Texas History: Selected Essays (1993).
- Enstam, Elizabeth York. Women and the Creation of Urban Life: Dallas, Texas, 1843–1920. (1998). 284 pp.
- Jones, Nancy Baker, and Ruthe Winegarten. Capitol women: Texas female legislators, 1923–1999 (U of Texas Press, 2000).
- McArthur, Judith N., and Harold L. Smith. Texas Through Women's Eyes: The Twentieth-century Experience (U of Texas Press, 2010).
- McComb, David G. The City in Texas: A History. (U of Texas Press, 2015).
- Matovina, Timothy M. Tejano religion and ethnicity: San Antonio, 1821–1860 (U of Texas Press, 2014).
- Taylor, A. Elizabeth. Citizens at Last: The Woman Suffrage Movement in Texas (1987).
- Turner, Elizabeth Hayes, Stephanie Cole, and Rebecca Sharpless, eds. Texas Women: Their Histories, Their Lives (U of Georgia Press, 2015).
- Turner, Elizabeth Hayes (1997), Women, Culture, and Community: Religion and Reform in Galveston, 1880–1920, New York: ISBN 978-0-19-508688-1
- WHITE, MICHAEL ALLEN. "HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN TEXAS 1860-1884" (PhD dissertation, Baylor University; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 1969. 7008023).
- Winegarten, Ruthie, ed. (2014). Black Texas Women: A Sourcebook. University of Texas Press. pp. 44–69. ISBN 978-0-292-78556-4., primary sources.
Pre-1865
- Hubert Howe Bancroft. The Works of Hubert Howe Bancroft.
- Bell, Walter F., "Civil War Texas: A Review of the Historical Literature", Southwestern Historical Quarterly, 109 (Oct. 2005), 205–32.
- Campbell, Randolph B. An Empire for Slavery: The Peculiar Institution in Texas, 1821–1865 (1989).
- Campbell, Randolph B., and Richard G. Lowe. Wealth and Power in Antebellum Texas (1977).
- Carroll, Mark M. Homesteads Ungovernable: Families, Sex, Race, and the Law in Frontier Texas, 1823–1860 (2001).
- Chipman, Donald E. Spanish Texas, 1519–1821 (1992)
- De Leon, Arnoldo. The Tejano Community, 1836–1900 (1982).
- Grear, Charles David. Why Texans Fought in the Civil War (2010) 239 pages; shows how kinship ties elsewhere in the South spurred many Texans to fight for the Confederacy.
- Howell, Kenneth W., ed. The Seventh Star of the Confederacy: Texas during the Civil War. (Denton: University of North Texas Press, 2009). 348 pp. ISBN 978-1-57441-259-8essays by scholars
- Jewett; Clayton E. Texas in the Confederacy: An Experiment in Nation Building (2002)
- Jordan, Terry G. German Seed in Texas Soil: Immigrant Farmers in Nineteenth Century Texas (1966).
- Pace, Robert F., and Donald S. Frazier. Frontier Texas: History of a Borderland to 1880 (Abilene: State House Press, 2004) 272pp. ISBN 1-880510-83-9
- Poyo, Gerald E., ed. Tejano Journey, 1770–1850 (1996).
- Silverthorne, Elizabeth. Plantation Life in Texas (1986).
- Wooster, Ralph. Texas and Texans in the Civil War (1996).
Reconstruction
- Campbell, Randolph B. Grass-Roots Reconstruction in Texas, 1865–1880 (1997).
- Crouch, Barry A. "'Unmanacling' Texas Reconstruction: A Twenty-Year Perspective", Southwestern Historical Quarterly 1990 93(3): 275–302
- Crouch, Barry A. The Freedmen's Bureau and Black Texans. (1992).
- Crouch; Barry A. "The 'Chords of Love': Legalizing Black Marital and Family Rights in Postwar Texas" The Journal of Negro History, Vol. 79, 1994
- Gould, Lewis N. Progressives and Prohibitionists: Texas Democrats in the Wilson Era (1973).
- Howell, Kenneth W., ed. Still the Arena of Civil War: Violence and Turmoil in Reconstruction Texas, 1865–1874 (University of North Texas Press, 2012) 445 pp. scholarly essays
- McArthur, Judith N. Creating the New Woman: The Rise of Southern Women's Progressive Culture in Texas, 1893–1918. (1998).
- Moneyhon, Carl H. Edmund J. Davis of Texas: Civil War General, Republican Leader, Reconstruction Governor (Texas Christian University Press, 2010) 337 pp. ISBN 978-0-87565-405-8
- Moneyhon, Carl H. Texas after the Civil War: The Struggle of Reconstruction. Texas A. & M. U. Press, 2004. 237 pp.
- Moneyhon, Carl H. "George T. Ruby and the Politics of Expediency in Texas", in Howard N. Rabinowitz, ed. Southern Black Leaders of the Reconstruction Era (1982) pp 363–92.
- Pitre, Merline. Through Many Dangers, Toils, and Snares: The Black Leadership of Texas, 1868–1900 Eakin Press, 1985.
- Ramsdell, Charles William. Reconstruction in Texas (1910). full text online Dunning school
- Ramsdell, Charles W., "Presidential Reconstruction in Texas ", Southwestern Historical Quarterly, (1907) v.11#4 277 – 317.
- Rice, Lawrence D. The Negro in Texas, 1874–1900 (1971)
- Richter, William L. Overreached on All Sides: The Freedmen's Bureau Administrators in Texas, 1865–1868 1991.
- Smallwood, James M.; Crouch, Barry A.; and Peacock, Larry. Murder and Mayhem: The War of Reconstruction in Texas. Texas A. & M. U. Press, 2003. 182 pp.
- Sneed, Edgar P. "A Historiography of Reconstruction in Texas: Some Myths and Problems", Southwestern Historical Quarterly 1969 72(4): 435–448
- Work, David, "United States Colored Troops in Texas during Reconstruction, 1865–1867", Southwestern Historical Quarterly, 109 (Jan. 2006), 337–57.
- Harper, Cecil Jr (June 12, 2010). "Freedmen's Bureau in Texas". Handbook of Texas (online ed.). Texas State Historical Association.
1876–1920
- Barr, Alwyn. Reconstruction to Reform: Texas Politics, 1876–1906 (1971)
- Buenger, Walter L. The Path to a Modern South: Northeast Texas between Reconstruction and the Great Depression (2001)
- Campbell, Randolph B. Grass-Roots Reconstruction in Texas, 1865–1880 (1997).
- Gould, Lewis N. Progressives and Prohibitionists: Texas Democrats in the Wilson Era (1973).
- Jordan, Terry G. Trails to Texas: Southern Roots of Western Cattle Ranching (1981).
- McArthur, Judith N. Creating the New Woman: The Rise of Southern Women's Progressive Culture in Texas, 1893–1918. (1998).
- Martin, Roscoe C. The People's Party in Texas: A Study in Third Party Politics (1933).
- Pitre, Merline. Through Many Dangers, Toils, and Snares: The Black Leadership of Texas, 1868–1900 Eakin Press, 1985.
- Rice, Lawrence D. The Negro in Texas, 1874–1900 (1971)
- Sneed, Edgar P. "A Historiography of Reconstruction in Texas: Some Myths and Problems", Southwestern Historical Quarterly 1969 72(4): 435–448
- Spratt, John Stricklin. The Road to Spindletop: Economic Change in Texas, 1875–1901. (1955).
- Utley, Robert M. Lone Star Justice: The First Century of the Texas Rangers (2002).
- Wooster, Ralph. Texas and Texans in the Great War (2010) 256pp
1920–present
- Abel, Joseph. "African Americans, Labor Unions, and the Struggle for Fair Employment in the Aircraft Manufacturing Industry of Texas, 1941–1945", Journal of Southern History 77 (Aug. 2011), 595–638.
- Blackwelder, Julia Kirk. Women of the Depression: Caste and Culture in San Antonio, 1929–1939 (1984).
- Brown, Norman D. Hood, Bonnet, and Little Brown Jug: Texas Politics, 1921–1928 (1984).
- Caro, Robert A. The Years of Lyndon Johnson, 2 vols. (1990, 1991)
- Cox, Patrick. Ralph W. Yarborough, The People's Senator. (2001).
- Cunningham, Sean P. Cowboy Conservatism: Texas and the Rise of the Modern Right. (2010).
- Dallek, Robert. Lone Star Rising: Lyndon Johnson and His Times, 1908–1960. (1991).
- Davidson, Chandler. Race and Class in Texas Politics. (1990).
- Foley, Neil. The White Scourge: Mexicans, Blacks, and Poor Whites in Texas Cotton Culture. University of California Press, 1997.
- Green, George Norris. The Establishment in Texas Politics: The Primitive Years, 1938–1957 (1979).
- Hurt, Harry. "The Most Powerful Texans. The Power Game in Texas: How It Works and Who Calls the Shots." Texas Monthly (April 1976)
- Knaggs, John R. Two-Party Texas: The John Tower Era, 1961–1984 Eakin Press, 1986.
- Lee, James Ward, et al., eds. 1941: Texas Goes to War. University of North Texas Press, 1991.
- Miller, Char. Deep in the Heart of San Antonio: Land and Life in South Texas. Trinity University Press 2004.
- Olien, Diana Davids, and Roger M. Olien. Oil in Texas: The Gusher Age, 1895–1945 (2002)
- Patenaude, Lionel V. Texans, Politics, and the New Deal (1983).
- Perryman, M. Ray. Survive and Conquer, Texas in the '80s: Power—Money—Tragedy ... Hope! Dallas: Taylor Publishing Company, 1990.
- Reston, James. The Lone Star: The Life of John Connally (1989)
- Volanto, Keith J. Texas, Cotton, and the New Deal (2005).
- Volanto, Keith. "Where are the New Deal Historians of Texas?: A Literature Review of the New Deal Experience in Texas." East Texas Historical Journal 48+2 (2010): 7+ online
- Whisenhunt, Donald W. The Depression in Texas: The Hoover Years Garland Publishing, 1983.
- Wooster, Ralph. Texas and Texans in World War II (2005) 296pp
- Wuthnow, Robert. Rough Country: How Texas Became America's Most Powerful Bible-Belt State (2014), emphasis on religion as a political force
External links
History of Texas.
- Texas Historical Commission
- Texas Digital Newspaper Program
- Texas State Historical Association
- The Texas State History Museum
- Texas Archive of the Moving Image
- Texas Untamed: Wild at Heart – slideshow by Life magazine
- Focus on Texas History: Colonization through Annexation (online collection of primary documents from Center of American History at the University of Texas at Austin)
- The Portal to Texas History
- Alvin R. Bailey Jr. and Light Townsend Cummins, eds. A Guide to the History of Texas. Greenwood Press. 1988.
- Texas Heritage Society
- Texas Independence Website
- Lawrence T. Jones III Texas Photographs, DeGolyer Library
- Texas: Photographs, Manuscripts, and Imprints, DeGolyer Library
- George W. Cook Dallas/Texas Image Collection, DeGolyer Library
- John Miller Morris Real Photographic Postcards and Photographs of Texas, DeGolyer Library
- Local History & Genealogy Reference Services, "Texas", Resources for Local History and Genealogy by State, Bibliographies & Guides, Washington DC: Library of Congress