History of Virginia
History of Virginia |
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The written history of Virginia begins with documentation by the first
The Virginia Company colony was looking for gold and spices, and land to grow crops, however they would find no fortunes in the area, and struggled to maintain a food supply. The settlement survived the famine during the harsh winter of 1609, which forced colonists to eat leather from their clothes and boots, and resort to cannibalism.[1] In 1610, survivors abandoned Jamestown, although they returned after meeting a resupply convoy in the James River. Soon thereafter during the early 17th century, tobacco emerged as a profitable export. It was chiefly grown on plantations, using primarily enslaved labor for the intensive hand labor involved. After 1662, the colony turned black slavery into a hereditary racial caste. Jamestown would serve as the Colony of Virginia's capital from 1607 to 1699, until the capital was moved to Williamsburg, Virginia, from 1699 to 1780. Since 1780, Virginia's capital city has been Richmond, Virginia.
By 1750, the primary cultivators of the cash crop were West African
In 1776, Virginia and the rest of the American Colonies, would declare independence from Great Britain, helping form the United States. Virginia planters had a major role in gaining independence and in the development of Democratic-Republican ideals of the United States. They were important in the Declaration of Independence, writing the Constitutional Convention (and preserving protection for the slave trade), and establishing the Bill of Rights. In 1780, the capital of Virginia moved to Richmond, Virginia, where it has remained since. Virginia was the tenth state to ratify the U.S. Constitution on June 25, 1788. The state of Kentucky separated from Virginia in 1792. Four of the first five U.S. presidents were Virginians: George Washington, the "Father of his country"; and after 1800, "The Virginia Dynasty" of presidents for 24 years: Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, and James Monroe.
During the first half of the 19th century, tobacco prices declined and tobacco lands lost much of their fertility. Planters adopted mixed farming, with an emphasis on wheat and livestock, which required less labor. The Constitutions of 1830 and 1850 expanded suffrage but did not equalize white male apportionment statewide. The population grew slowly from 700,000 in 1790, to 1 million in 1830, to 1.2 million in 1860. Virginia was the largest state population wise to join the
From the early to mid-20th century, the state was dominated by the
From the late 20th century and into the 21st century, the contemporary economy of Virginia continued to grow and become more diversified, with added high-tech industries and defense-related businesses. Virginia's changing demography makes for closely divided voting in national elections, but it is still generally conservative in state politics. In the 2010 U.S. census, Virginia's population reached 8 million people.
Precontact
For milliennia before the arrival of the Europeans,
Indigenous peoples
In 16th century, what is now Virginia was occupied by three main linguistics groups:
Also, communities from
Algonquian
Rountree wrote that "empire" more accurately describes the political structure of the Powhatan. In the late 16th and early 17th centuries, a chief named
The Piscataway were pushed north on the Potomac River early in their history, coming to be cut off from the rest of their people. While some stayed, others chose to migrate west. Their movements are generally unrecorded in the historical record, but they reappear at Fort Detroit in modern-day Michigan by the end of the 18th century. These Piscataways are said to have moved to Canada and probably merged with the Mississaugas, who had broken away from the Anishinaabeg and migrated southeast into that same region. Despite that, many Piscataway stayed in Virginia and Maryland until the modern day. Other members of the Piscataway also merged with the Nanticoke.
The Nanticoke seem to have been largely confined to Indian towns[12] but relocated to New York in 1778. Afterward, they dissolved, with groups joining the Iroquois and Lenape.[13]
The English forced the Chowanoke onto reservation lands in 1677, where they remained until the early 19th century. By 1821, they had merged with other tribes and were generally dissolved.
Eastern Siouan
Many of the Siouan-speaking peoples of the state seem to have originally been a collection of smaller tribes with uncertain affiliation. Names recorded throughout the 17th century were the Monahassanough, Rassawek, Mowhemencho, Monassukapanough, Massinacack, Akenatsi, Mahoc, Nuntaneuck, Nutaly, Nahyssan, Sapon, Monakin, Toteros, Keyauwees, Shakori, Eno, Sissipahaw, Monetons and Mohetons living and migrating throughout what is now West Virginia, Virginia, North Carolina and South Carolina.[14][15][16][17][18] All were said to have spoken, at least two distinct languages—Saponi (which appears to be a missing link language existing between the Chiwere and Dhegihan variants) and Catawba (which is most closely related to Biloxi and the Gulf Coast Siouan languages).[19][20][21] John Smith was the first to note two groups in the Virginian interior—the Monaghans and the Monahoacs. The words came from the Powhatan[22] and translations are uncertain; however, Monaghan seems similar to a known Lenape word, Monaquen, which means "to scalp."[23] They were also commonly referred to as the Eastern Blackfoot, which explains why some Saponi today identify as the Siouan-Blackfoot people,[14][24] and later still as the Christannas.
As far as can be assumed, however, it seems that they were arranged thus—from east to west along the north shore of the James River, just inland of the Powhatan, would have been the Eno, Shakori and Saponi. Around the source of the river (and probably holding some of the river's islands a ways back east) should have been the Occaneechi, or Akenatsi. They were believed to have been the "grandfather" tribe of the region, a term among native peoples for any tribe highly respected and venerated for being the first or oldest people of their kind. West of the Occaneechi and primarily located in what is now West Virginia were, at least, two more tribes believed to have been related—the Moneton of the Kanawha River and the Tutelo of the Bluestone River, which separates West Virginia from Kentucky. About midway along the southern shores of the James River should have been the Sissipahaw. They were probably the only Eastern Siouan tribe in the state who would have spoken a form of Catawba language, rather than Saponi/ Tutelo. North of them were the Manahoac, or Mahock. The Keyauwee are also of note. It is difficult to say whether they were a subtribe of others mentioned, a newly formed tribe, or from somewhere else.
Originally existing along the entirety of the current western border of Virginia and up through some of the southwestern mountains of West Virginia and Kentucky, they seem to have first been driven east by the Iroquoian Westo during the Beaver Wars.[25][26] Historians have since come to note that the Westo were almost definitely the Erie and Neutrals/ Chonnonton, who had conquered wide swathes of what is now northern and eastern Ohio approximately during the 1630s and were subsequently conquered and driven out by the Iroquois Confederacy around 1650. The Tutelo of West Virginia first seem to be noted as living north of the Saponi, in northern Virginia in around 1670.[27] Later in the Beaver Wars, the Iroquois lost their new lands in Ohio and Michigan to the French and their new native allies around the western Great Lakes. Sometime during the 1680s–90s,[28] the Iroquois started pushing south and declared war on the Saponi related tribes, pushing them down into North Carolina. It is noted in 1701 that the Saponi, Tutelo, Occaneechi, Shakori and Keyauwee were then going to form a confederacy to take back their homeland. The writer assumes that all five tribes were driven south, but the Tutelos are noted as allies from the "western mountains."[29] This is the same year that the Iroquois surrendered to the French, but it appears that hostilities with the Saponi continued long term. The Iroquois were soon after convinced by the English to start selling off all their extended lands, which were nearly impossible for them to hold. All they kept was a string of territory along the Susquahanna River in Pennsylvania.
The Saponi attempted to return to their lands but were unable to do so. Around 1702, the Governor of the Virginia Colony gave them reservation land and opened Fort Christanna nearby. All the tribes appear to have returned, except the Keyauwee, who remained among the Catawba. They came to be known as the Christanna People at this time. This fort offered economic and educational aid to the locals, but after the fort closed in 1718, the Saponi dispersed. With continued conflicts between the Saponi and Iroquois in the region, the governors of Virginia, Pennsylvania and New York joined to organize a peace treaty, which did ultimately end the conflict. Sometime around 1722, the Tutelo and some other Saponis migrated to the Iroquoian-held Pennsylvania territory and settled there, among many other refugees of local tribes who had been destroyed, absorbed into Colonial society, or simply moved on without them.[30][31] In 1753, the Iroquois reorganized them all into Tutelo, Delaware and Nanticoke Tribes, relocated them to New York and gave them full honors among the Confederacy, despite none of them being Iroquoian.[32] After the American Revolution, these tribes accompanied them to Canada. Later, the descendants of the Tutelos migrated again to Ohio, becoming the Saponi and Tutelo Tribes of Ohio. Many of the other Siouan peoples of Virginia were also noted to have merged with the Catawba and Yamasee tribes.[33]
Iroquoian peoples
While mainly noted in Virginia, it appears that the Tuscarora migrated into the region from the Delmarva Peninsula early in the 17th century. John Smith noted them on an early map as the Kuskarawocks.[34] (They may have also absorbed the Tockwoghs, who also appear on the map and were most likely Iroquoian.) After an extended war with the English, the Tuscarora began leaving for New York and began merging with the Iroquois in groups around 1720, continuing approximately until the Iroquois were banished to Canada following the American Revolution.[35]
The Meherrin aided the Tuscarora in that war but did not follow them north. In 1717, the English gave them a reservation just south of the North Carolina border. The North Carolina government contested their land rights and tried to take them away due to a surveyor's error that caused both Native and English settlers to claim parts of the reservation. However, they managed to, more or less, stay put well into the modern day. The Nottoway also managed to largely stay in the vicinity of Virginia until the modern day without much conflict or loss of heritage.
Although the Beaver Wars were primarily centered in Ohio, the Iroquois Confederacy of New York were also in a long-strung conflict with the Susquehannocks of central Pennsylvania, as was the English colony of Maryland, although the two were not known to be allies themselves. Sometime around the 1650s or 1660s, Maryland made peace with and allied themselves to the Susquehannocks, thus the Iroquois labelled them an enemy as well, despite being allied with England by this time. After ending their war with the Susquehannocks in 1674, however, the Iroquois went on a more or less inexplicable rampage against Maryland and its remaining Native allies, which included the Piscataways and the Eastern Siouans tribes. The Eastern Siouans were forced out of the state during the 1680s. After the Beaver Wars officially ended in 1701, the Iroquois sold off their extended holdings—including their land in Virginia—to the English.[27]
In the mid 17th century, around 1655–1656, an Iroquoian group known as the
Other tribes of note
The first Spanish and English explorers appear to have greatly overestimated the size of the Cherokee, placing them as far north as Virginia. However, many historians now believe that there was a large, mixed race/ mixed language confederacy in the region, called the Coosa. The Spanish also gave them the nicknames Chalaques and Uchis during the 16th century and the English turned Chalaques into Cherokees.[38] The Cherokees we know today were among these people, but lived much further south and both the Cherokee language (of Iroquoian origin) and the Yuchi language (Muskogean) have been heavily modified by Siouan influence and carry many Siouan borrow words.[39][40] This nation would have existed throughout parts of the states of Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, North and South Carolina and Georgia, with cores of different culture groups organized at different extremes of the territory and, probably, speaking Yuchi as a common tongue.
After the Westo punched straight through them, they seem to have split along the line of the Tennessee River to create the Cherokee to the south and the Yuchi to the north.[41] Then, following the Yamasee War (1715–1717), the Yuchi were force across Appalachia[42] and split again, into the Coyaha and the Chisca. The French, seeing an opportunity for new allies, ingratiated themselves with the Chisca and had them relocated to the heart of the Illinois Colony to live among the Algonquian Ilinoweg. Later, as French influence along the Ohio River waned, the tribe seems to have split away again, taking many Ilinoweg tribes with them, and moved back to Kentucky, where they became the Kispoko. The Kispoko later became the fourth tribe of Shawnee.[43]
Meanwhile, the Coyaha reforged their alliance with the Cherokee and brought in many of the smaller Muskogean tribes of Alabama (often referred to as the Mobilians) to form the Creek Confederacy. While this tribe would go on to have great historical influence to the remaining Colonial Era and the early history of the United States, they never returned to Virginia.[44]
Furthermore, alike the Sawannos, it seems many splinter groups fractured off from the core group and moved into places like West Virginia and Kentucky. Afterwards, those lands seemed to be filled with native peoples who claimed "Cherokee" ancestry yet had no organized tribal affiliation. The descendants of those people live throughout West Virginia, Pennsylvania, Kentucky, and Ohio today. However, it also seems probable that these populations married into the surviving Monongahela and other Siouan groups, yet the populations must have been quite small on both sides to allow that these peoples never reformed a government and remained nomadic for a great deal of time afterwards.
Early European exploration
This section needs additional citations for verification. (February 2016) |
After their discovery of the New World in the 15th century, European states began trying to establish New World colonies. England, the
Spanish
In 1540, a party led by two Spaniards, Juan de Villalobos and Francisco de Silvera, sent by Hernando de Soto, entered what is now Lee County in search of gold.[45] In the spring of 1567, Hernando Moyano de Morales, a sergeant of Spanish explorer Juan Pardo, led a group of soldiers northward from Fort San Juan in Joara, a native town in what is now western North Carolina, to attack and destroy the Chisca village of Maniatique near present-day Saltville.[46] The attack near Saltville was the first recorded battle in Virginia history.[47]
Another Spanish party, captained by Antonio Velázquez in the caravel Santa Catalina, explored to the lower Chesapeake Bay region of Virginia in mid-1561 under the orders of Ángel de Villafañe.[48][49] During this voyage, two Kiskiack or Paspahegh[50] youths, including Don Luis were taken back to Spain.[48] In 1566, an expedition sent from Spanish Florida by Pedro Menéndez de Avilés reached the Delmarva Peninsula. The expedition consisted of two Dominican friars, thirty soldiers and Don Luis, in a failed effort to set up a Spanish colony in the Chesapeake, believing it to be an opening to the fabled Northwest Passage.[51][52]
In 1570, Spanish
English
The Roanoke Colony was the first English colony in the New World. It was founded at Roanoke Island in what was then Virginia, now part of Dare County, North Carolina. Between 1584 and 1587, there were two major groups of settlers sponsored by Sir Walter Raleigh who attempted to establish a permanent settlement at Roanoke Island, and each failed. The final group disappeared completely after supplies from England were delayed three years by a war with Spain. Because they disappeared, they were called "The Lost Colony."
The name Virginia came from information gathered by the Raleigh-sponsored English explorations along what is now the North Carolina coast. Philip Amadas and Arthur Barlowe reported that a regional "king" named
On the second voyage, Raleigh learned that, while the chief of the
Virginia Company of London
After the death of Queen Elizabeth I, in 1603 King
Jamestown
First landing
In December 1606, the London Company dispatched a group of 104 colonists in three ships: the Susan Constant, Godspeed, and Discovery, under the command of Captain Christopher Newport. After a long, rough voyage of 144 days, the colonists finally arrived in Virginia on April 26, 1607, at the entrance to the Chesapeake Bay. At Cape Henry, they went ashore, erected a cross, and did a small amount of exploring, an event which came to be called the "First Landing."
Under orders from London to seek a more inland location safe from Spanish raids, they explored the
Settlement
After weeks of exploration, the colonists selected a location and founded Jamestown on May 14, 1607. It was named in honor of King James I (as was the river). However, while the location at Jamestown Island was favorable for defense against foreign ships, the low and marshy terrain was harsh and inhospitable for a settlement. It lacked drinking water, access to game for hunting, or much space for farming. While it seemed favorable that it was not inhabited by the Native Americans, within a short time, the colonists were attacked by members of the local Paspahegh tribe.
The colonists arrived ill-prepared to become self-sufficient. They had planned on trading with the Native Americans for food, were dependent upon periodic supplies from England, and had planned to spend some of their time seeking gold. Leaving the Discovery behind for their use, Captain Newport returned to England with the Susan Constant and the Godspeed and came back twice during 1608 with the First Supply and Second Supply missions. Trading and relations with the Native Americans was tenuous at best, and many of the colonists died from disease, starvation, and conflicts with the natives. After several failed leaders, Captain
After Smith's return to England in August 1609, there was a long delay in the scheduled arrival of supplies. During the winter of 1609/10 and continuing into the spring and early summer, no more ships arrived. The colonists faced what became known as the
Back in England, the Virginia Company was reorganized under its Second Charter, ratified on May 23, 1609, which gave most leadership authority of the colony to the governor, the newly appointed
The economy of the Colony was another problem. Gold had never been found, and efforts to introduce profitable industries in the colony had all failed until John Rolfe introduced his two foreign types of tobacco: Orinoco and Sweet Scented. These produced a better crop than the local variety and with the first shipment to England in 1612, the customers enjoyed the flavor, thus making tobacco a cash crop that established Virginia's economic viability.
The First Anglo-Powhatan War ended when Rolfe married Pocahontas in 1614.
Plantation beginnings
George Yeardley took over as Governor of Virginia in 1619. He ended one-man rule and created a representative system of government with the General Assembly, the first elected legislative assembly in the New World.
Also in 1619, the Virginia Company sent 90 single women as potential wives for the male colonists to help populate the settlement. That same year the colony acquired a group of "twenty and odd" Angolans, brought by two English privateers. They were probably the first Africans in the colony. They, along with many European
In some areas, individual rather than communal land ownership or leaseholds were established, providing families with motivation to increase production, improve standards of living, and gain wealth. Perhaps nowhere was this more progressive than at Sir Thomas Dale's ill-fated Henricus, a westerly-lying development located along the south bank of the James River, where natives were also to be provided an education at the Colony's first college.
About 6 miles (9.7 km) south of the falls at present-day Richmond, in Henrico Cittie, the Falling Creek Ironworks was established near the confluence of Falling Creek, using local ore deposits to make iron. It was the first in North America.
Virginians were intensely individualistic at this point, weakening the small new communities. According to Breen (1979) their horizon was limited by the present or near future. They believed that the environment could and should be forced to yield quick financial returns. Farms were scattered and few villages or towns were formed. This extreme individualism led to the failure of the settlers to provide defense for themselves against the Indians, resulting in two massacres.[58]
Conflict with natives
By this time, the remaining Powhatan Empire was led by Chief Opechancanough, chief of the Pamunkey, and brother of Chief Powhatan. He had earned a reputation as a fierce warrior under his brother's chiefdom. Soon, he gave up on hopes of diplomacy, and resolved to eradicate the English colonists.
On March 22, 1622, the Powhatan killed about 400 colonists in the
At Jamestown, a warning by an Indian boy named Chanco to his employer, Richard Pace, helped reduce total deaths. Pace secured his plantation and rowed across the river during the night to alert Jamestown, which allowed colonists some defensive preparation. They had no time to warn outposts, which suffered deaths and captives at almost every location. Several entire communities were essentially wiped out, including Henricus and Wolstenholme Towne at Martin's Hundred. At the Falling Creek Ironworks, which had been seen as promising for the Colony, two women and three children were among the 27 killed, leaving only two colonists alive. The facilities were destroyed.
Despite the losses, two thirds of the colonists survived; after withdrawing to Jamestown, many returned to the outlying plantations, although some were abandoned. The English carried out reprisals against the Powhatan and there were skirmishes and attacks for about a year before the colonists and Powhatan struck a truce.
The colonists invited the chiefs and warriors to Jamestown, where they proposed a toast of liquor. Dr. John Potts and some of the Jamestown leadership had poisoned the natives' share of the liquor, which killed about 200 men. Colonists killed another 50 Indians by hand.
The period between the coup of 1622 and another Powhatan attack on English colonists along the James River (see
Royal colony
In 1624, the Virginia Company's charter was revoked and the colony transferred to royal authority as a crown colony, but the elected representatives in Jamestown continued to exercise a fair amount of power. Under royal authority, the colony began to expand to the North and West with additional settlements.
In 1634, a new system of local government was created in the Virginia Colony by order of the King of England. Eight shires were designated, each with its own local officers; these shires were renamed as counties only a few years later.
Governor Berkeley and English Civil War
The first significant attempts at exploring the Trans-Allegheny region occurred under the administration of Governor
The colonists defined the 1644 coup as an "uprising". Chief Opechancanough expected the outcome would reflect what he considered the morally correct position: that the colonists were violating their pledges to the Powhatan. During the 1644 event, Chief Opechancanough was captured. While imprisoned, he was murdered by one of his guards. After the death of Opechancanough and following the repeated colonial attacks in 1644 and 1645, the remaining Powhatan tribes had little alternative but to accede to the demands of the settlers.[60]
Most Virginia colonists were loyal to the crown (Charles I) during the
Many royalists fled to Virginia after their defeat in the English Civil War. Some intermarried with existing plantation families to establish influential families in Virginia such as the Washingtons, Randolphs, Carters and Lees. However, most 17th-century immigrants were indentured servants, merchants or artisans. After the
Bacon's Rebellion
Governor Berkeley, who remained popular after his first administration, returned to the governorship at the end of Commonwealth rule. However, Berkeley's second administration was characterized with many problems. Disease, hurricanes, Indian hostilities, and economic difficulties all plagued Virginia at this time. Berkeley established autocratic authority over the colony. To protect this power, he refused to have new legislative elections for 14 years in order to protect a House of Burgesses that supported him. He only agreed to new elections when rebellion became a serious threat.
Berkeley finally did face a rebellion in 1676. Indians had begun attacking encroaching settlers as they expanded to the north and west. Serious fighting broke out when settlers responded to violence with a counterattack against the wrong tribe, which further extended the violence. Berkeley did not assist the settlers in their fight. Many settlers and historians believe Berkeley's refusal to fight the Indians stemmed from his investments in the fur trade. Large scale fighting would have cut off the Indian suppliers Berkeley's investment relied on.
In response to Berkeley's harsh repression of the rebels, the English government removed him from office. After the burning of Jamestown, the capital was temporarily moved to Middle Plantation, located on the high ground of the Virginia Peninsula equidistant from the James and York Rivers.[63]
Building of Williamsburg
Local leaders had long desired a school of higher education, for the sons of planters, and for educating the Indians. An earlier attempt to establish a permanent university at
The rebuilt statehouse in Jamestown burned again in 1698. After that fire, upon suggestion of college students, the colonial capital was permanently moved to nearby Middle Plantation again, and the town was renamed Williamsburg, in honor of the king. Plans were made to construct a capitol building and plan the new city according to the survey of Theodorick Bland.
Tobacco plantations
As the English increasingly used tobacco products,
Social structure
In terms of the white population, the top five percent or so were planters who possessed growing wealth and increasing political power and social prestige. They controlled the local Anglican church, choosing ministers and handling church property and disbursing local charity. They sought elected and appointed offices.[64] About 60 percent of white Virginians were part of a broad middle class that owned substantial farms; By the second generation, death rates from malaria and other local diseases had declined so much that a stable family structure was possible. The bottom third owned no land and verged on poverty. Many were recent arrivals, or recently released from indentured servitude.[65] Social stratification was most severe in the Northern Neck, where the Fairfax family had been given a proprietorship. In some districts there 70 percent of the land was owned by a handful of families, and three-fourths of the whites had no land at all. In the frontier districts, large numbers of Irish and German Protestants had settled, often moving down from Pennsylvania. Tobacco was not important there; farmers focused on hemp, grain, cattle, and horses. Entrepreneurs had begun to mine and smelt the local iron ores.[66]
Sports occupied a great deal of attention at every social level, starting at the top. In England hunting was sharply restricted to landowners and enforced by armed gameskeepers. In America, game was more than plentiful. Everyone—including servants and slaves—could and did hunt. Poor men with a good rifle aim won praise; rich gentlemen who were off target won ridicule. In 1691, Sir Francis Nicholson, the governor, organized competitions for the "better sort of Virginians onely who are Batchelors," and he offered prizes "to be shot for, wrastled, played at backswords, & Run for by Horse and foott."[67] Horse racing was the main event. The typical farmer did not own a horse in the first place, and racing was a matter for gentlemen only, but ordinary farmers were spectators and gamblers. Selected slaves often became skilled horse trainers. Horse racing was especially important for knitting the gentry together. The race was a major public event designed to demonstrate to the world the superior social status of the gentry through expensive breeding, training, boasting and gambling, and especially winning the races themselves.[68] Historian Timothy Breen explains that horse racing and high-stakes gambling were essential to maintaining the status of the gentry. When they publicly bet a large sum on their favorite horse, it told the world that competitiveness, individualism, and materialism where the core elements of gentry values.[69]
Historian Edmund Morgan (1975) argues that Virginians in the 1650s—and for the next two centuries—turned to slavery and a racial divide as an alternative to class conflict. "Racism made it possible for white Virginians to develop a devotion to the equality that English republicans had declared to be the soul of liberty." That is, white men became politically much more equal than was possible without a population of low-status slaves.[70]
By 1700, the population reached 70,000 and continued to grow rapidly from a high birth rate, low death rate, importation of slaves from the Caribbean, and immigration from Britain and Germany, as well as from Pennsylvania. The climate was mild, the farmlands were cheap and fertile.[71]
Early to mid-1700s: Westward expansion
In 1716, Governor Alexander Spotswood led the Knights of the Golden Horseshoe Expedition, reaching the top ridge of the Blue Ridge Mountains at Swift Run Gap (elevation 2,365 feet (721 m)).[72][73] Spotswood promoted Germanna, a settlement of German immigrants brought over for the purpose of iron production, in modern-day Orange County.[74]
A series of early explorations starting in the 1670s determined a potential route for western expansion in the Shenandoah Valley and it was determined that the region should be settled to create a protection bottleneck for the rest of the Virginia Colony from potentially hostile Natives relatively early on, but this was impeded by confused land claims between Virginia, Maryland and Pennsylvania, individual persons who had petitioned for land in the region over top of one another and failed to settle, as well as that of the remnants of the Susquehannocks themselves,[75] living with the Iroquois Confederacy following their conquering in the 1660s, and was further complicated as the Beaver Wars spread into the region of western Virginia between 1670 and 1701. Pennsylvania usually sided with the Native claims and removed trespassers, until the Iroquois ceded all control over the region to the English in the Treaty of Albany in 1722.[76] There were also several, small, nomadic tribes wandering the general region, collectively referred to as Cherokees and going by names such as Shenandoah, Canaragay, Tomahittan, Shattara, etc., as well as the Lenape, who had claimed land between the Potomac and Monongahela Rivers after giving up land claims in New Jersey around 1690, and would continue living there until the 1760s, when they were removed as punishment for other Lenape in Ohio attacking English settlements during the French-Indian Wars.[77]
By the 1730s, the
As colonial settlement moved into the
In the late 1740s and the second half of the 18th century, the British angled for control of the Ohio Country.
British colonists and land speculators objected to the proclamation boundary since the British government had already assigned land grants to them. Many settlements already existed beyond the proclamation line,
Religion
The Church of England was legally established in the colony in 1619, and the Bishop of London sent in 22 Anglican clergyman by 1624. In practice, establishment meant that local taxes were funneled through the local parish to handle the needs of local government, such as roads and poor relief, in addition to the salary of the minister. There never was a bishop in colonial Virginia, and in practice the local vestry, consisting of gentry laymen controlled the parish.[94] By the 1740s, the Anglicans had about 70 parish priests around the colony.
Missionaries were sent to the Indians but they had little success apart from the Nansemond tribe, which had converted in 1638. The other Powhatan tribes converted to Christianity around 1791.[95]
The stress on personal piety opened the way for the
The spellbinding preacher
The Baptists and Presbyterians were subject to many legal constraints and faced growing persecution; between 1768 and 1774, about half of the Baptists ministers in Virginia were jailed for preaching, in defiance of England's
Historians have debated the implications of the religious rivalries for the American Revolution. The struggle for religious toleration was played out during the American Revolution, as the Baptists, in alliance with Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, worked successfully to disestablish the Anglican church.[101] After the American victory in the war, the Anglican establishment sought to reintroduce state support for religion. This effort failed when non-Anglicans gave their support to Jefferson's "Bill for Establishing Religious Freedom", which eventually became law in 1786 as the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom. With freedom of religion the new watchword, the Church of England was dis-established in Virginia. It was rebuilt as the Episcopal Church in the United States, with no connection to Britain.
American Revolution
Antecedents
Revolutionary sentiments first began appearing in Virginia shortly after the French and Indian War ended in 1763. The Virginia legislature had passed the Two-Penny Act to stop clerical salaries from inflating. King George III vetoed the measure, and clergy sued for back salaries. Patrick Henry first came to prominence by arguing in the case of Parson's Cause against the veto, which he declared tyrannical.
The British government had accumulated a great deal of debt through spending on its wars. To help payoff this debt, Parliament passed the
The Stamp Act was repealed, but additional taxation from the
In 1773, because of a renewed attempt to extradite Americans to Britain,
After the House of Burgesses expressed solidarity with the actions in Massachusetts, the Governor,
War begins
On April 20, 1775, Dunmore ordered the gunpowder removed from the Williamsburg Magazine to a British ship. Patrick Henry led a group of Virginia militia from
On December 9, 1775, Virginia militia moved on the governor's forces at the Battle of Great Bridge, winning a victory in the small action there. Dunmore responded by bombarding Norfolk with his ships on January 1, 1776. After the Battle of Great Bridge, little military conflict took place on Virginia soil for the first part of the American Revolutionary War. Nevertheless, Virginia sent forces to help in the fighting to the North and South, as well as the frontier in the northwest.
Independence
The Fifth Virginia Convention met on May 6 and declared Virginia a free and independent state on May 15, 1776. The convention instructed its delegates to introduce a resolution for independence at the Continental Congress.
War returns to Virginia
The British briefly brought the war back to coastal Virginia in May 1779. Fearing the vulnerability of Williamsburg, Governor Thomas Jefferson moved the capital farther inland to Richmond in 1780. However, in December, Benedict Arnold, who had betrayed the Revolution and become a general for the British, attacked Richmond and burned part of the city before the Virginia Militia drove his army out of the city.
Arnold moved his base of operations to Portsmouth and was later joined by troops under General
Cornwallis moved down the
As a result of the defeat, the king lost control of Parliament and the new British government offered peace in April 1782. The Treaty of Paris of 1783 officially ended the war.
Early Republic and antebellum period
Victory in the Revolution brought peace and prosperity to the new state, as export markets in Europe reopened for its tobacco.
While the old local elites were content with the status quo, younger veterans of the war had developed a national identity. Led by George Washington and James Madison, Virginia played a major role in the Constitutional Convention of 1787 in Philadelphia. Madison proposed the Virginia Plan, which would give representation in Congress according to total population, including a proportion of slaves. Virginia was the most populous state, and it was allowed to count all of its white residents and 3/5 of the enslaved African Americans for its congressional representation and its electoral vote. (Only white men who owned a certain amount of property could vote.) Ratification was bitterly contested; the pro-Constitution forces prevailed only after promising to add a Bill of Rights. The Virginia Ratifying Convention approved the Constitution by a vote of 89–79 on June 25, 1788, making it the tenth state to enter the Union.[102]
Madison played a central role in the new Congress, while Washington was the unanimous choice as first president. He was followed by the Virginia Dynasty, including Thomas Jefferson, Madison, and James Monroe, giving the state four of the first five presidents.
Slavery and freedmen in Antebellum Virginia
In 1772, a Virginia House of Burgesses committee, including Thomas Jefferson and Benjamin Harrison V, had submitted a petition to King George of England, requesting that he abolish the slave trade. The King rejected it.[103] The Revolution that followed meant change and sometimes political freedom for enslaved African Americans, too. Tens of thousands of slaves from southern states, particularly in Georgia and South Carolina, escaped to British lines and freedom during the war. Thousands left with the British for resettlement in their colonies of Nova Scotia and Jamaica; others went to England; others disappeared into rural and frontier areas or the North.[104]
Inspired by the Revolution and evangelical preachers, numerous slaveholders in the Chesapeake region manumitted some or all of their slaves, during their lifetimes or by will. From 1,800 persons in 1782, the total population of free blacks in Virginia increased to 12,766 (4.3 percent of blacks) in 1790, and to 30,570 in 1810; the percentage change was from free blacks' comprising less than one percent of the total black population in Virginia, to 7.2 percent by 1810, even as the overall population increased.[105] One planter, Robert Carter III freed more than 450 slaves in his lifetime, more than any other planter. George Washington freed all of his slaves at his death.[106]
Many free blacks migrated from rural areas to towns such as
Twice slave rebellions broke out in Virginia:
Westward emigration
As the new nation of the United States of America experienced growing pains and began to speak of
A second influence: the lands seemed to be more fertile in the west. Virginia's heavy farming of tobacco for 200 years had depleted its soils.[109]
The 1803
Cultural preservation
Historians estimate that one million Virginians left the commonwealth between the Revolution and the Civil War.
Cultural divide between Tidewater planters and Western Virginia farmers
As the western reaches of Virginia were developed in the first half of the 19th century, the vast differences in the agricultural basis, cultural, and transportation needs of the area became a major issue for the Virginia General Assembly. In the older, eastern portion, slavery contributed to the economy. While planters were moving away from labor-intensive tobacco to mixed crops, they still held numerous slaves and their leasing out or sales was also part of their economic prospect. Slavery had become an economic institution upon which planters depended. Watersheds on most of this area eventually drained to the Atlantic Ocean. In the western reaches, families farmed smaller homesteads, mostly without enslaved or hired labor. Settlers were expanding the exploitation of resources: mining of minerals and harvesting of timber. The land drained into the Ohio River Valley, and trade followed the rivers.
Representation in the state legislature was heavily skewed in favor of the more populous eastern areas and the historic planter elite. This was compounded by the partial allowance for slaves when counting population; as neither the slaves nor women had the vote, this gave more power to white men. The legislature's efforts to mediate the disparities ended without meaningful resolution, although the state held a constitutional convention on representation issues. Thus, at the outset of the American Civil War, Virginia was caught not only in national crisis, but in a long-standing controversy within its own boundaries. While other border states had similar regional differences, Virginia had a long history of east–west tensions which finally came to a head; it was the only state to divide into two separate states during the War.
Infrastructure and Industrial Revolution
After the Revolution, various infrastructure projects began to be developed, including the
In the 1830s, railroads began to be built in Virginia. In 1831, the
Petersburg became a manufacturing center, as well as a city where free black artisans and craftsmen could make a living. In 1860, half its population was black and of that, one-third were free blacks, the largest such population in the state.
Iron industry
With extensive iron deposits, especially in the western counties, Virginia was a pioneer in the iron industry. The first ironworks in the new world was established at Falling Creek in 1619, though it was destroyed in 1622. There would eventually grow to be 80 ironworks, charcoal furnaces and forges with 7,000 hands at any one time, about 70 percent of them slaves. Ironmasters hired slaves from local slave owners because they were cheaper than white workers, easier to control, and could not switch to a better employer. But the work ethic was weak, because the wages went to the owner, not to the workers, who were forced to work hard, were poorly fed and clothed, and were separated from their families. Virginia's industry increasingly fell behind Pennsylvania, New Jersey and Ohio, which relied on free labor. Bradford (1959) recounts the many complaints about slave laborers and argues the over-reliance on slaves contributed to the failure of the iron-masters to adopt improved methods of production for fear the slaves would sabotage them. Most of the blacks were unskilled manual laborers, although Lewis (1977) reports that some were in skilled positions.[114][115]
Civil War
Virginia at first refused to join the Confederacy but did so after President Lincoln on April 15 called for troops from all states; that meant Federal troops crossing Virginia on the way south to subdue South Carolina. On April 17, 1861, the convention voted to secede, and voters ratified the decision on May 23. Immediately the
Because of its strategic significance, the Confederacy relocated its capital to Richmond. Richmond was at the end of a long supply line and as the highly symbolic capital of the Confederacy became the main target of round after round of invasion attempts.[116] A major center of iron production during the civil war was located in Richmond at Tredegar Iron Works, which produced most of the artillery for the war. The city was the site of numerous army hospitals. Libby Prison for captured Union officers gained an infamous reputation for the overcrowded and harsh conditions, with a high death rate.[117] Richmond's main defenses were trenches built surrounding it down towards the nearby city of Petersburg. Saltville was a primary source of Confederate salt (critical for food preservation) during the war, leading to the two Battles of Saltville.
The first major battle of the Civil War occurred on July 21, 1861. Union forces attempted to take control of the railroad junction at
Men from all economic and social levels, both slaveholders and nonslaveholders, as well as former Unionists, enlisted in great numbers on both sides. Areas, especially in the west and along the border, that sent few men to the Confederacy were characterized by few slaves, poor economies, and a history of reinal[check spelling] antagonism to the Tidewater.[118]
West Virginia breaks away
The western counties could not tolerate the Confederacy. Breaking away, they first formed the Union state of Virginia (recognized by Washington); it is called the
The state and national governments in Richmond did not recognize the new state, and Confederates did not vote there. The Confederate government in Richmond sent in Robert E. Lee. But Lee found little local support and was defeated by Union forces from Ohio. Union victories in 1861 drove the Confederate forces out of the Monongahela and Kanawha valleys, and throughout the remainder of the war the Union held the region west of the Alleghenies and controlled the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad in the north. The new state was not subject to Reconstruction.[124]
Later war years
For the remainder of the war, many major battles were fought across Virginia, including the Seven Days Battles, the Battle of Fredericksburg, the Battle of Chancellorsville, the Battle of Brandy Station
Over the course of the War, despite occasional tactical victories and spectacular counter-stroke raids, Confederate control of many regions of Virginia was gradually lost to Federal advance. By October 1862 the northern 9th and 10th Congressional districts along the Potomac were under Union control. Eastern Shore, Northern, Middle and Lower Peninsula and the 2nd congressional district surrounding Norfolk west to Suffolk were permanently Union-occupied by May. Other regions, such as the Piedmont and Shenandoah Valley, regularly changed hands through numerous campaigns.
In 1864, the Union Army planned to attack Richmond by a direct overland approach through Overland Campaign and the Battle of the Wilderness, culminating in the Siege of Petersburg which lasted from the summer of 1864 to April 1865. By November 6, 1864, Confederate forces controlled only four of Virginia's 16 congressional districts in the region of Richmond-Petersburg and their Southside counties.[125]
In April 1865, Richmond was burned by a retreating
Reconstruction
Virginia had been devastated by the war, with the infrastructure (such as railroads) in ruins; many plantations burned out; and large numbers of refugees without jobs, food or supplies beyond rations provided by the Union Army, especially its Freedmen's Bureau.[126]
Historian Mary Farmer-Kaiser reports that white landowners complained to the Bureau about unwillingness of freedwomen to work in the fields as evidence of their laziness, and asked the Bureau to force them to sign labor contracts. In response, many Bureau officials "readily condemned the withdrawal of freedwomen from the work force as well as the 'hen pecked' husbands who allowed it." While the Bureau did not force freedwomen to work, it did force freedmen to work or be arrested as vagrants. Furthermore, agents urged poor unmarried mothers to give their older children up as apprentices to work for white masters. Farmer-Kaiser concludes that "Freedwomen found both an ally and an enemy in the bureau."[127]
There were three phases in Virginia's Reconstruction era: wartime, presidential, and congressional.[128] Immediately after the war President Andrew Johnson recognized the Francis Harrison Pierpont government as legitimate and restored local government. The Virginia legislature passed Black Codes that severely restricted Freedmen's mobility and rights; they had only limited rights and were not considered citizens, nor could they vote. The state ratified the 13th amendment to abolish slavery and revoked the 1861 ordnance of secession. Johnson was satisfied that Reconstruction was complete.
Other Republicans in Congress refused to seat the newly elected state delegation; the Radicals wanted better evidence that slavery and similar methods of serfdom had been abolished, and the freedmen given rights of citizens. They also were concerned that Virginia leaders had not renounced Confederate nationalism. After winning large majorities in the 1866 national election, the Radical Republicans gained power in Congress. They put Virginia (and nine other ex-Confederate states) under military rule. Virginia was administered as the "First Military District" in 1867–69 under General John Schofield Meanwhile, the Freedmen became politically active by joining the pro-Republican Union League, holding conventions, and demanding universal male suffrage and equal treatment under the law, as well as demanding disfranchisement of ex-Confederates and the seizure of their plantations. McDonough, finding that Schofield was criticized by conservative whites for supporting the Radical cause on the one hand, and attacked on the other by Radicals for thinking black suffrage was premature on the other, concludes that "he performed admirably' by following a middle course between extremes.[129]
Increasingly a deep split opened up in the republican ranks. The moderate element had national support and called itself "True Republicans." The more radical element set out to disfranchise whites—such as not allowing a man to hold office if he was a private in the Confederate army, or had sold food to the Confederate government, plus land reform. About 20,000 former Confederates were denied the right to vote in the 1867 election.[130] In 1867, radical James Hunnicutt (1814–1880), a white preacher, editor and Scalawag (white Southerners supporting Reconstruction) mobilized the black Republican vote by calling for the confiscation of all plantations and turning the land over to Freedmen and poor whites. The "True Republicans" (the moderates), led by former Whigs, businessmen and planters, while supportive of black suffrage, drew the line at property confiscation. A compromise was reached calling for confiscation if the planters tried to intimidate black voters.[131] Hunnicutt's coalition took control of the Republican Party, and began to demand the permanent disfranchisement of all whites who had supported the Confederacy. The Virginia Republican party became permanently split, and many moderate Republicans switched to the opposition "Conservatives".[132] The Radicals won the 1867 election for delegates to a constitutional convention.[133]
The 1868 constitutional convention included 33 white Conservatives, and 72 Radicals (of whom 24 were Blacks, 23 Scalawag, and 21
Under pressure from national Republicans to be more moderate, General Schofield continued to administer the state through the Army. He appointed a personal friend, Henry H. Wells as provisional governor. Wells was a Carpetbagger and a former Union general. Schofield and Wells fought and defeated Hunnicutt and the Scalawag Republicans. They took away contracts for state printing orders from Hunnicutt's newspaper. The national government ordered elections in 1869 that included a vote on the new Underwood constitution, a separate one on its two disfranchisement clauses that would have permanently stripped the vote from most former rebels, and a separate vote for state officials. The Army enrolled the Freedmen (ex-slaves) as voters but would not allow some 20,000 prominent whites to vote or hold office. The Republicans nominated Wells for governor, as Hunnicutt and most Scalawags went over to the opposition.[137]
The leader of the moderate Republicans, calling themselves "True Republicans," was William Mahone (1826–1895), a railroad president and former Confederate general. He formed a coalition of white Scalawag Republicans, some blacks, and ex-Democrats who formed the Conservative Party. Mahone recommended that whites had to accept the results of the war, including civil rights and the vote for Freedmen. Mahone convinced the Conservative Party to drop its own candidate and endorse Gilbert C. Walker, Mahone's candidate for governor. In return, Mahone's people endorsed Conservatives for the legislative races. Mahone's plan worked, as the voters in 1869 elected Walker and defeated the proposed disfranchisement of ex-Confederates.[138]
When the new legislature ratified the 14th and 15th amendments to the U.S. Constitution, Congress seated its delegation, and Virginia Reconstruction came to an end in January 1870. The Radical Republicans had been ousted in a non-violent election.[139] Virginia was the only southern state that did not elect a civilian government that represented more Radical Republican principles. Suffering from widespread destruction and difficulties in adapting to free labor, white Virginians generally came to share the postwar bitterness typical of the southern attitudes.[140] Historian Richard Lowe argues that the obstacles faced by the Radical Republican movement made their cause hopeless:
- ...even more damaging to Republicans' prospects than their poverty, their inexperience in state politics, their isolation from potential allies, and their identification with the heated[check spelling] North was the perverse and powerful racism that ran so powerfully through the white community. The great majority of the Old Dominion's white citizens could not take seriously a political party composed primarily of former slaves.[141]
Gilded Age
Readjustment, public education, segregation
A division among Virginia politicians occurred in the 1870s, when those who supported a reduction of Virginia's pre-war debt ("Readjusters") opposed those who felt Virginia should repay its entire debt plus interest ("Funders"). Virginia's pre-war debt was primarily for infrastructure improvements overseen by the Virginia Board of Public Works, much of which were destroyed during the war or in the new State of West Virginia.
After his unsuccessful bid for the Democratic nomination for governor in 1877, former confederate General and railroad executive
The Readjuster Party was successful in electing its candidate,
In 1888, the exception to Readjustor and Democratic control was John Mercer Langston, who was elected to Congress from the Petersburg area on the Republican ticket. He was the first black elected to Congress from the state, and the last for nearly a century. He served one term. A talented and vigorous politician, he was an Oberlin College graduate. He had long been active in the abolitionist cause in Ohio before the Civil War, had been president of the National Equal Rights League from 1864 to 1868, and had headed and created the law department at Howard University, and acted as president of the college. When elected, he was president of what became Virginia State University.
While the Readjustor Party faded, the goal of public education remained strong, with institutions established for the education of schoolteachers. In 1884, the state acquired a bankrupt women's college at Farmville and opened it as a normal school. Growth of public education led to the need for additional teachers. In 1908, two additional normal schools were established, one at Fredericksburg and one at Harrisonburg, and in 1910, one at Radford.
After the Readjuster Party disappeared, Virginia Democrats rapidly passed legislation and constitutional amendments that effectively
Railroad and industrial growth
In addition to those that were rebuilt, new railroads developed after the Civil War. In 1868, under railroad baron
In the 1880s, the Pocahontas Coalfield opened up in far southwest Virginia, with others to follow, in turn providing more demand for railroads transportation. In 1909, the Virginian Railway opened, built for the express purpose of hauling coal from the mountains of West Virginia to the ports at Hampton Roads. The growth of railroads resulted in the creation of new towns and rapid growth of others, including Clifton Forge, Roanoke, Crewe and Victoria. The railroad boom was not without incident: the Wreck of the Old 97 occurred just north of Danville, Virginia, in 1903, later immortalized by a popular ballad.
With the invention of the cigarette rolling machine, and the great increase in smoking in the early 20th century, cigarettes and other tobacco products became a major industry in Richmond and Petersburg. Tobacco magnates such as Lewis Ginter funded a number of public institutions.
Progressive Era
The Progressive Era after 1900 brought numerous reforms, designed to modernize the state, increase efficiency, apply scientific methods, promote education and eliminate waste and corruption.
A key leader was Governor
The
Virginia has a long history of agricultural reformers, and the Progressive Era stimulated their efforts. Rural areas suffered persistent problems, such as declining populations, widespread illiteracy, poor farming techniques, and debilitating diseases among both farm animals and farm families. Reformers emphasized the need to upgrade the quality of elementary education. With federal help, in they set up a county agent system (today the Virginia Cooperative Extension) that taught farmers the latest scientific methods for dealing with tobacco and other crops, and farm house wives how to maximize their efficiency in the kitchen and nursery.[144]
Some upper-class women, typified by Lila Meade Valentine of Richmond, promoted numerous Progressive reforms, including kindergartens, teacher education, visiting nurses programs, and vocational education for both races. Middle-class white women were especially active in the Prohibition movement.[145] The woman suffrage movement became entangled in racial issues—whites were reluctant to allow black women the vote—and was unable to broaden its base beyond middle-class whites. Virginia women got the vote in 1920, the result of a national constitutional amendment.[146]
In higher education, the key leader was
While the progressives were modernizers, there was also a surge of interest in Virginia traditions and heritage, especially among the aristocratic
Attended by numerous federal dignitaries, and serving as the launch point for the
Interwar
Temperance became an issue in the early 20th century. In 1916, a statewide referendum passed to outlaw the consumption of alcohol. This was overturned in 1933.[151]
In 1926, Dr.
Shenandoah National Park was constructed from newly gathered land, as well as the Blue Ridge Parkway and Skyline Drive. The Civilian Conservation Corps played a major role in developing that National Park, as well as Pocahontas State Park. By 1940, new highway bridges crossed the lower Potomac, Rappahannock, York, and James Rivers, bringing to an end the long-distance steamboat service which had long served as primary transportation throughout the Chesapeake Bay area. Ferryboats remain today in only a few places.
Byrd machine
Blacks comprised a third of the population but lost nearly all their political power. The electorate was so small that from 1905 to 1948 government employees and officeholders cast a third of the votes in state elections. This small, controllable electorate facilitated the formation of a powerful statewide political machine by
WWII through mid-20th century
The economic stimulus of
Cold War and Space Age
In addition to general postwar growth, the
Virginia also witnessed American efforts in the
The new U.S. Interstate highway system begun in the 1950s and the new
Civil rights era and Massive Resistance
In 1944,
Senator Harry Byrd, the state's dominant politician, was long a champion of constitutional rights against expansion of federal power. He deployed two doctrines in a last ditch battle against racial integration after the Brown decision of 1954: interposition and massive resistance. The first doctrine proclaimed that the U.S. Constitution allowed the states to interpose state sovereignty blocking rulings of federal courts from taking effect on local school boards. The new doctrine of
The first black students attended the
Late 20th century to present
By the 1980s,
On January 13, 1990,
Virginia served as a major center for information technology during the early days of the Internet and network communication. Internet and other communications companies clustered in the
In 2006, former Governor of Virginia Mark Warner gave a speech and interview in the massively multiplayer online game Second Life, becoming the first politician to appear in a video game.[167] In 2007, Virginia speedily passed the nation's first spaceflight act by a vote of 99–0 in the House of Delegates.[168] Northern Virginia company Space Adventures is currently the only company in the world offering space tourism. In 2008, Virginia became the first state to pass legislation on Internet safety, with mandatory educational courses for 11-to-16 year-olds.[169]
In 2013, by a slight margin in the
Virginia history on stamps
Stamps of Virginia events and landmarks include the Jamestown founding, Mount Vernon, and Stratford Hall.
See also
- Colonial South and the Chesapeake
- Colony of Virginia
- Constitution of Virginia
- Women's suffrage in Virginia
- List of former counties, cities, and towns of Virginia
- History of the Southern United States
- History of Virginia on stamps
- List of newspapers in Virginia#Defunct newspapers
- Virginia Conventions
- Native American tribes in Virginia
- First Africans in Virginia
- History of slavery in Virginia
- Tobacco in the American colonies
References
- ^ Wade, Nicholas (May 1, 2013). "Girl's Bones Bear Signs of Cannibalism by Starving Virginia Colonists". The New York Times.
- ^ Charles H. Ambler and Festus P. Summers, West Virginia, the mountain state (1958) pp 48–52, 55
- ^ Lombard, Hamilton. (January 27, 2020). Population growth in Virginia slowest in a century as out-migration continues. statchatva.org. Retrieved January 14, 2022.
- ^ "Archaeological evidence also indicates that Native Americans occupied the area as early as 6500 BC." "State Historical Highway Marker 'Pocahontas Island' To Be Dedicated in Petersburg", Petersburg, VA Official Website, Posted on: June 16, 2015, archived article accessed February 25, 2016
- region's savanna.
- ^ Virginia Indian Tribes, University of Richmond Archived March 9, 2005, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Clarence Walworth Alvord and Lee Bidgood, 1912.
- Anishinaabe language: danakamigaa: "activity-grounds", i.e. "land of much events [for the People]" "NIAHD Journals". Archived from the original on October 22, 2008. Retrieved April 12, 2019.)
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link - ^ Edward Bland, The Discoverie of New Brittaine
- ^ "The Shawnee Tribe and War of 1812". SchoolworkHelper.net. Retrieved August 17, 2017.
- ^ Wood, Karenne (editor). The Virginia Indian Heritage Trail, 2007.
- ^ "Restore Handsell".
- ^ Pritzker 441
- ^ a b "LEARN NC has been archived".
- ^ Hodge, F. W. (1910). The Handbook of American Indians North of Mexico. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office.
- ^ Mooney, James, The Siouan Tribes of the Southeast. Smithsonian Institution. Washington, D.C., Government Printing Office, 1894.
- ^ Brashler 1987
- ^ Kent 2001
- ^ Hale, Horatio "Tutelo Tribe & Language" (1883)
- ^ Owen-Dorsey, James & Swanton, John R. "A Dictionary of Biloxi & Ofo" (1912)
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- ^ "Saponi Nation of Ohio".
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- ^ "Discoveries of John Lederer," reprinted by O.H. Harpel, Cincinnati (1879)
- ^ a b Batt's "Journal & Relation of a New Discovery" N.Y. Hist. Col. Vol. III, p. 191 (1671)
- ^ "Lambreville to Bruyas Nov. 4,1696" N.Y. Hist. Col. Vol. III, p. 484
- ^ Lawson's "History of Carolina" reprinted by Stroller & Marcom. Raleigh, 1860, p. 384
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- ^ "Life of Brainerd" p. 167
- ^ N.Y. Hist. Col. Vol. VI, p. 811
- ^ Mooney, J. (1894). The Siouan Tribes of the East. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office.
- ^ "Captain Smith Virginia Map". sonofthesouth.net. Retrieved August 1, 2023.
- ^ "The Tuscarora and the Iroquois League". Native American Netroots.
- ^ "EARLY INDIAN MIGRATION IN OHIO". GenealogyTrails.com. Retrieved August 17, 2017.
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- ^ "Yuchi Language Primer" (2007) Yuchi.org
- ^ cherokeelessons.com/pdf/Cherokee Lessons 978-0-557-68640-7.pdf
- ^ Oatis, Steven J. "A Colonial Complex: South Carolina's Frontiers in the Era of the Yamasee War, (1680–1730)
- ^ Oatis, A Colonial Complex
- ^ Charles Augustus Hanna, 1911 The Wilderness Trail, Vol II, 1911, pp. 93–95.
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- ^ Berrier, Ralph Jr. (September 20, 2009). "The slaughter at Saltville". The Roanoke Times. Archived from the original on September 11, 2012. Retrieved October 9, 2011.
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- ^ ISBN 978-0-8173-5336-0. Retrieved June 30, 2012.
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- ^ Raleigh, History of the World: "For when some of my people asked the name of that country, one of the savages answered 'Win-gan-da-coa', which is as much as to say, 'You wear good clothes.'
- ^ T. H. Breen, "Looking Out for Number One: Conflicting Cultural Values in Early Seventeenth-Century Virginia," South Atlantic Quarterly, Summer 1979, Vol. 78 Issue 3, pp. 342–360
- ^ J. Frederick Fausz, "The 'Barbarous Massacre' Reconsidered: The Powhatan Uprising of 1622 and the Historians," Explorations in Ethnic Studies, vol 1 (Jan. 1978), 16–36
- ^ Gleach p. 199
- ^ John Esten Cooke, Virginia: A History of the People (1883) p. 205.
- ISBN 978-0-8139-2609-4, p.44-45
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- ISBN 978-0813117492.
- ^ Alan Taylor, American Colonies: The Settling of North America (2002) p 157.
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- ^ Quoted in Nancy L. Struna, "The Formalizing of Sport and the Formation of an Elite: The Chesapeake Gentry, 1650-1720s." Journal of Sport History 13#3 (1986) p 219. online Archived August 22, 2017, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Struna, The Formalizing of Sport and the Formation of an Elite pp 212–16.
- ^ Timothy H. Breen, "Horses and gentlemen: The cultural significance of gambling among the gentry of Virginia." William and Mary Quarterly (1977) 34#2 pp: 239–257. online
- ^ Edmund Morgan, American Slavery, American Freedom: The Ordeal of Colonial Virginia (1975) p 386
- ^ Heinemann, Old Dominion, New Commonwealth (2007) 83–90
- ^ Gene Wilhelm, Jr., "Folk Culture History of the Blue Ridge Mountains" Appalachian Journal (1975) 2#3 in JSTOR
- ^ Delma R. Carpenter, "The Route Followed by Governor Spotswood in 1716 across the Blue Ridge Mountains." Virginia Magazine of History and Biography, (1965): 405–412. in JSTOR
- ^ Rob Sherwood, "Germanna's Treasure Trove of History: A Journey of Discovery." Inquiry 13.1 (2008): 45–55. online
- ^ The Allegheny Frontier; Rice, Otis K.; 1970; pgs 17–18
- ^ "Excerpts from the Treaty of Albany (1722) | World History Commons".
- ^ Zeisberger, David, David Zeisberger's History of the Northern American Indians in 18th Century Ohio, New York and Pennsylvania, pg 43; Wennawoods Publishing, 1999
- ^ "The Route of the Three Notch'd Road : A Preliminary Report" (PDF). Virginiadot.org. Retrieved April 16, 2015.
- ^ "The Route of the Three Notch'd Road : A Preliminary Report" (PDF). 3chopt.com. Retrieved April 16, 2015.
- ^ Encyclopedia Virginia article: "Backcountry Frontier of Colonial Virginia" online
- ^ Encyclopedia Virginia article: "Backcountry Frontier of Colonial Virginia" http://www.encyclopediavirginia.org/Backcountry_Frontier_of_Colonial_Virginia#start_entry
- Fall Line into the Piedmont, the dispute over the inland edge of the Northern Neck grant became an issue. Settlers seeking clear title had to know whether to file paperwork and pay fees to the colonial government in Williamsburg or the land office of the Fairfax family. If the colony could extinguish the Northern Neck grant somehow, revenues would flow to Williamsburg rather than to Leeds Castle."
- ^ http://www.historichampshire.org/research/searching1.htm "in mid-March 1735, Lord Fairfax arrived in Virginia on board the Glasgow on his first inspection trip to America. The trip lasted over two years during which time Fairfax reasserted his claim to the Proprietary and made arrangements for the survey of the boundaries."
- ^ http://www.mountvernon.org/digital-encyclopedia/article/lord-fairfax/ "in 1748 hired, among others, the sixteen-year old Washington to survey the Northern Neck."
- Lawrence Washington (1718-1752) was married to Anne (1728–1761) a daughter of Col. William Fairfax of Belvoir—a land agent and cousin of Lord Thomas Fairfax. Anne's brother, George William Fairfax, was married to Sally Fairfax(nee Cary).
- ^ Historical Statement Relative to the Town of Winchester the Virginia – House of Burgesses granted the fourth city charter in Virginia to 'Winchester' as Frederick Town was renamed.
- ^ MacCorkle, William Alexander. "The historical and other relations of Pittsburgh and the Virginias". Historic Pittsburgh General Text Collection. University of Pittsburgh. Retrieved September 16, 2013.
- ^ Andrew Arnold Lambing; et al. "Allegheny County: its early history and subsequent development: from the earliest period till 1790". Historic Pittsburgh Text Collection. University of Pittsburgh. Retrieved September 12, 2013.
- ^ "Addresses delivered at the celebration of the one hundred and fiftieth anniversary of the Battle of Bushy Run, August 5th and 6th, 1913". Historic Pittsburgh General Text Collection. University of Pittsburgh. Retrieved September 16, 2013.
- ^ O'Meara, p. 48
- ^ Anderson (2000), pp. 42–43
- ^ "Royal Proclamation I". Archived from the original on October 20, 2013. Retrieved May 30, 2013.
- ISBN 0-8129-7041-1, p.22
- ^ Edward L. Bond and Joan R. Gundersen, The Episcopal Church in Virginia, 1607–2007 (2007)
- ^ Rountree p. 161–162, 168–170, 175
- ^ Edward L. Bond, "Anglican theology and devotion in James Blair's Virginia, 1685–1743," Virginia Magazine of History and Biography (1996) 104#3 pp 313–40
- ^ Charles Woodmason, The Carolina Backcountry on the Eve of the Revolution: The Journal and Other Writings of Charles Woodmason, Anglican Itinerant ed. by Richard J. Hooker (1969)
- ISBN 9780879351151.
- ISBN 9780195354249.
- ^ John A. Ragosta, "Fighting for Freedom: Virginia Dissenters' Struggle for Religious Liberty during the American Revolution," Virginia Magazine of History and Biography (2008) 116#3 pp. 226–261
- ^ Rhys Isaac, "Evangelical Revolt: The Nature of the Baptists' Challenge to the Traditional Order in Virginia, 1765 To 1775," William and Mary Quarterly (1974) 31#3 pp 345–368 in JSTOR
- ^ Pauline Maier, Ratification: The People Debate the Constitution, 1787–1788 (2010) pp. 235–319
- ^ Smith, Howard W. (1978). Benjamin Harrison and the American Revolution. Virginia Independence Bicentennial Commission.
- ^ Peter Kolchin, American Slavery: 1619–1877, New York: Hill and Wang, 1994, p. 73
- ^ Kolchin, American Slavery, p. 81
- ISBN 0-375-50865-1)
- ^ Scott Nesbit, "Scales Intimate and Sprawling: Slavery, Emancipation, and the Geography of Marriage in Virginia", Southern Spaces, July 19, 2011. http://southernspaces.org/2011/scales-intimate-and-sprawling-slavery-emancipation-and-geography-marriage-virginia.
- ^ Albert J. Raboteau, Slave Religion: The 'Invisible Institution' in the Antebellum South, New York: Oxford University Press, 2004, p. 137, accessed December 27, 2008
- ^ "Soil exhaustion in the Tidewater became chronic, and the Piedmont was "worn out, washed and gullied." Conditions were better in the Valley of Virginia, where wheat rather than tobacco was dominant, but even there people saw a brighter future outside Virginia." http://www.vahistorical.org/what-you-can-see/story-virginia/explore-story-virginia/1776-1860/becoming-southerners Archived April 3, 2016, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "In all, perhaps one million Virginians left the commonwealth between the Revolution and the Civil War." http://www.vahistorical.org/what-you-can-see/story-virginia/explore-story-virginia/1776-1860/becoming-southerners Archived April 3, 2016, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "Virginia fell from first to seventh place in population, and its number of congressmen dropped from twenty-three to eleven." http://www.vahistorical.org/what-you-can-see/story-virginia/explore-story-virginia/1776-1860/becoming-southerners Archived April 3, 2016, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ http://www.vahistorical.org/what-you-can-see/story-virginia/explore-story-virginia/1776-1860/becoming-southerners"Although Archived April 3, 2016, at the Wayback Machine this mass exodus of Virginians caused the state to slip into a secondary role both politically and economically, these westward-bound settlers spread their culture, laws, political ideas, and labor system across America."
- ^ "Washington Iron Furnace National Register Nomination" (PDF). Virginia Department of Historic Resources. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 23, 2010. Retrieved March 23, 2011.
- ^ S. Sydney Bradford, "The Negro Ironworker in Ante Bellum Virginia," Journal of Southern History, May 1959, Vol. 25 Issue 2, pp. 194–206; Ronald L. Lewis, "The Use and Extent of Slave Labor in the Virginia Iron Industry: The Antebellum Era," West Virginia History, Jan 1977, Vol. 38 Issue 2, pp. 141–156
- ^ For a comparison of Virginia and New Jersey see John Bezis-Selfa, "A Tale of Two Ironworks: Slavery, Free Labor, Work, and Resistance in the Early Republic," William & Mary Quarterly, Oct 1999, Vol. 56 Issue 4, pp. 677–700
- ^ "Virginia Museum of History & Culture |". Archived from the original on February 3, 2008. Retrieved December 4, 2007.
- ^ see "Libby Prison", Encyclopedia Virginia, accessed April 21, 2012
- ^ Aaron Sheehan-Dean, "Everyman's War: Confederate Enlistment in Civil War Virginia," Civil War History, March 2004, Vol. 50 Issue 1, pp. 5–26
- ^ The U.S Constitution requires permission of the old state for a new state to form. David R. Zimring, "'Secession in Favor of the Constitution': How West Virginia Justified Separate Statehood during the Civil War," West Virginia History, (2009) 3#2 pp. 23–51
- ^ Richard O. Curry, A House Divided, Statehood Politics & the Copperhead Movement in West Virginia, (1964), pp. 141–147.
- ^ Curry, A House Divided, pg. 73.
- ^ Curry, A House Divided, pgs. 141–152.
- ^ Charles H. Ambler and Festus P. Summers, West Virginia: The Mountain State ch 15–20
- ^ Otis K. Rice, West Virginia: A History (1985) ch 12–14
- ^ Kenneth C. Martis, The Historical Atlas of the Congresses of the Confederate States of America 1861–1865 (1994) p. 43-53.
- ^ The main scholarly histories are Hamilton James Eckenrode, The Political History of Virginia during the Reconstruction (1904); Richard Lowe, Republicans and Reconstruction in Virginia, 1856–70 (1991); and Jack P. Maddex, Jr., The Virginia Conservatives, 1867–1879: A Study in Reconstruction Politics (1970). See also Heinemann et al., New Commonwealth (2007) ch. 11
- ^ Mary Farmer-Kaiser, Freedwomen and the Freedmen's Bureau: Race, Gender, and Public Policy in the Age of Emancipation, (Fordham U.P., 2010), quotes pp. 51, 13
- ^ Richard Lowe, "Another Look at Reconstruction in Virginia," Civil War History, March 1986, Vol. 32 Issue 1, pp. 56–76
- ^ James L. McDonough, "John Schofield as Military Director of Reconstruction in Virginia.," Civil War History, Sept 1969, Vol. 15#3, pp. 237–256
- ^ Heinemann, et al. Old Dominion, New Commonwealth: A History of Virginia, 1607–2007 (2007) p 248.
- ^ Eric Foner, Politics and Ideology in the Age of the Civil War (1980) p 146
- ^ James E. Bond, No Easy Walk to Freedom: Reconstruction and the Ratification of the Fourteenth Amendment (Praeger, 1997) p. 156.
- ^ Eckenrode, The Political History of Virginia during the Reconstruction, ch 5
- ^ The Carpetbaggers were Northern whites who had moved to Virginia after the war. Heinemann et al., New Commonwealth (2007) p. 248
- ^ Note: In order to gain public education, black delegates had to accept segregation in the schools.
- ^ Eckenrode, The Political History of Virginia during the Reconstruction, ch 6
- ^ Eckenrode, The Political History of Virginia during the Reconstruction, ch 7
- ^ Walker had 119,535 votes and Wells 101,204. The new Underwood Constitution was approved overwhelmingly, but the disfranchisement clauses were rejected by 3:2 ratios. The new legislature was controlled by the Conservative Party, which soon absorbed the "True Republicans". Eckenrode, The Political History of Virginia during the Reconstruction, p. 411
- ^ Ku Klux Klan chapters were formed in Virginia in the early years after the war, but they played a negligible role in state politics and soon vanished. Heinemann et al., New Commonwealth (2007) p. 249
- ^ Nelson M. Blake, William Mahone of Virginia: Soldier and Political Insurgent (1935)
- ^ Richard Lowe, Republicans and Reconstruction in Virginia, 1856–70 (1991) p 119
- ^ Henry C. Ferrell, Claude A. Swanson of Virginia: a political biography (1985)
- ^ George Harrison Gilliam, "Making Virginia Progressive," Virginia Magazine of History and Biography, 1999, Vol. 107 Issue 2, pp. 189–222
- ^ Lex Renda, "The Advent of Agricultural Progressivism in Virginia," Virginia Magazine of History and Biography, 1988, Vol. 96 Issue 1, pp. 55–82
- ^ Lloyd C. Taylor, Jr. "Lila Meade Valentine: The FFV as Reformer," Virginia Magazine of History and Biography, 1962, Vol. 70 Issue 4, pp. 471–487
- ^ Sara Hunter Graham, "Woman Suffrage In Virginia: The Equal Suffrage League and Pressure-Group Politics, 1909–1920," Virginia Magazine of History and Biography, 1993, Vol. 101 Issue 2, pp. 227–250
- ^ Michael Dennis, "Reforming the 'academical village,'" Virginia Magazine of History and Biography, 1997, Vol. 105 Issue 1, pp. 53–86
- ^ James M. Lindgren, "Virginia Needs Living Heroes": Historic Preservation in the Progressive Era," Public Historian, Jan 1991, Vol. 13 Issue 1, pp. 9–24
- ^ "U-Boat Sinks Schooner Without Any Warning" (PDF). The New York Times. August 17, 1918. Retrieved July 28, 2011.
- ^ "Raiding U-Boat Sinks 2 Neutrals Off Virginia Coast". The New York Times. June 17, 1918. Retrieved July 28, 2011.
- ^ Arlington Connection, Michael Lee Pope, October 14–20, 2009, Alcohol as Budget Savior, page 3
- ISBN 978-1-118-22449-6.
- ISBN 978-0-8078-3343-8.
- ^ Morgan Kousser, The Shaping of Southern Politics (1974) p 181; Wallenstein, Cradle of America (2007) p 283–4
- ^ V.O. Key, Jr., Southern Politics (1949) p 32
- ^ Joe Freitus, Virginia in the War Years, 1938–1945: Military Bases, the U-Boat War and Daily Life (McFarland, 2014)
- ^ Charles Johnson, "V for Virginia: The Commonwealth Goes to War," Virginia Magazine of History and Biography, 100 (1992): 365–398 in JSTOR
- ^ "A Brief History of U.S. Fleet Forces Command". U.S. Fleet Forces Command, USN. Archived from the original on May 11, 2019. Retrieved March 17, 2011.
- ^ a b "Langley's Role in Project Mercury". NASA Langley Research Center. Retrieved March 20, 2011.
- ^ "Giant Leaps Began With "Little Joe"". NASA Langley Research Center. Retrieved March 20, 2011.
- ^ "Viking: Trialblazer For All Mars Research". NASA Langley Research Center. Archived from the original on March 17, 2021. Retrieved March 20, 2011.
- ^ James H. Hershman Jr., "Massive Resistance" Encyclopedia of Virginia (2011)
- ^ Wallenstein, Peter (Fall 1997). "Not Fast, But First: The Desegregation of Virginia Tech". VT Magazine. Virginia Tech. Archived from the original on April 13, 2008. Retrieved April 12, 2008.
- ^ a b "D.C. Dotcom". Time. March 3, 2001. Archived from the original on March 3, 2001. Retrieved August 1, 2023.
- ^ Freed, Benjamin (September 14, 2016). "70 Percent of the World's Web Traffic Flows Through Loudoun County". Washingtonian.
- ^ "OBIT -". May 25, 1995.
- ^ "Inside Vandy: Vanderbilt University's student news source". Nashville Luxury Hotels Guide. Archived from the original on September 30, 2011.
- ^ "Space Law Probe: Virginia leads the way". spacelawprobe. February 2007. Retrieved August 1, 2023.
- ^ "History". Fox News. August 1, 2023. Retrieved August 1, 2023.
Further reading
Surveys
- Dabney, Virginius. Virginia: The New Dominion (1971)
- Heatwole, Cornelius J. A history of education in Virginia (Macmillan, 1916) online.
- Heinemann, Ronald L., John G. Kolp, Anthony S. Parent Jr., and William G. Shade, Old Dominion, New Commonwealth: A History of Virginia, 1607–2007 (2007). ISBN 978-0-8139-2609-4.
- Kierner, Cynthia A., and Sandra Gioia Treadway. Virginia Women: Their Lives and Times, vol. 1. (University of Georgia Press, 2015) x, 378 pp
- Lebsock, Suzanne D. A Share of Honor: Virginia Women, 1600–1945 (1984)
- Rubin, Louis D. Virginia: A Bicentennial History. States and the Nation Series. (1977), popular
- Salmon, Emily J., and Edward D.C. Campbell Jr., eds. The Hornbook of Virginia History: A Ready-Reference Guide to the Old Dominion's People, Places, and Past 4th edition. (1994)
- Wallenstein, Peter. Cradle of America: Four Centuries of Virginia History (2007). ISBN 978-0-7006-1507-0.
- WPA. Virginia: A Guide to the Old Dominion (1940) famous guide to every locality; strong on society, economy and culture online edition
- Younger, Edward, and James Tice Moore, eds. The Governors of Virginia, 1860–1978 (1982)
Historiography
- Tarter, Brent, "Making History in Virginia," Virginia Magazine of History and Biography, Volume: 115. Issue: 1. 2007. pp. 3+. online edition
Prehistoric and colonial
- Appelbaum, Robert, and John Wood Sweet, eds. Envisioning an English empire: Jamestown and the making of the North Atlantic world (U of Pennsylvania Press, 2011)
- Billings, Warren M., John E. Selby, and Thad W, Tate. Colonial Virginia: A History (1986)
- Bond, Edward L. Damned Souls in the Tobacco Colony: Religion in Seventeenth-Century Virginia (2000),
- Breen T. H. Puritans and Adventurers: Change and Persistence in Early America (1980). 4 chapters on colonial social history online edition
- Breen, T. H. Tobacco Culture: The Mentality of the Great Tidewater Planters on the Eve of Revolution (1985)
- Breen, T. H., and Stephen D. Innes. "Myne Owne Ground": Race and Freedom on Virginia's Eastern Shore, 1640–1676 (1980)
- Brown, Kathleen M. Good Wives, Nasty Wenches, and Anxious Patriarchs: Gender, Race, and Power in Colonial Virginia (1996) excerpt and text search
- Byrd, William. The Secret Diary of William Byrd of Westover, 1709–1712 (1941) ed by Louis B. Wright and Marion Tinling online edition; famous primary source; very candid about his private life
- Bruce, Philip Alexander. Institutional History of Virginia in the Seventeenth Century: An Inquiry into the Religious, Moral, Educational, Legal, Military, and Political Condition of the People, Based on Original and Contemporaneous Records (1910) online edition
- Coombs, John C., "The Phases of Conversion: A New Chronology for the Rise of Slavery in Early Virginia," William and Mary Quarterly, 68 (July 2011), 332–60.
- Davis, Richard Beale. Intellectual Life in the Colonial South, 1585–1763 * 3 vol 1978), detailed coverage of Virginia
- Gray, Lewis C. History of Agriculture in the Southern United States to 1860 (2 vol. 1933) vol 1 online; .also see vol 2 online
- Herndon, Melvin. Tobacco in Colonial Virginia; "The Sovereign Remedy" (1957) online with images
- Isaac, Rhys. The Transformation of Virginia, 1740–1790 (1982, 1999) Pulitzer Prize winner, dealing with religion and morality online review
- Knight, Edgar W. “The Evolution of Public Education in Virginia: I. Colonial Theory and Practice.” The Sewanee Review 24#1 (1916), pp. 24–41. online
- Kolp, John Gilman. Gentlemen and Freeholders: Electoral Politics in Colonial Virginia (Johns Hopkins U.P. 1998)
- Menard, Russell R. "The Tobacco Industry in the Chesapeake Colonies, 1617–1730: An Interpretation." Research In Economic History 1980 5: 109–177. 0363–3268 the standard scholarly study
- Mook, Maurice A. "The Aboriginal Population of Tidewater Virginia." American Anthropologist (1944) 46#2 pp: 193–208. online
- Morgan, Edmund S. Virginians at Home: Family Life in the Eighteenth Century (1952). online edition
- Morgan, Edmund S. "Slavery and Freedom: The American Paradox." Journal of American History 1972 59(1): 5–29 in JSTOR
- Morgan, Edmund S. American Slavery, American Freedom: The Ordeal of Colonial Virginia (1975) online edition highly influential study
- Price, Jacob M. France and the Chesapeake: A History of the French Tobacco Monopoly, 1674–1791, and of its Relationship to the British and American Tobacco Trades (University of Michigan Press, 1973. 2 vols) online book review
- Ragsdale, Bruce A. "George Washington, the British tobacco trade, and economic opportunity in prerevolutionary Virginia." Virginia Magazine of History and Biography, 97.2 (1989): 132–162. online
- Rasmussen, William M.S. and Robert S. Tilton. Old Virginia: The Pursuit of a Pastoral Ideal (2003)
- Roeber, A. G. Faithful Magistrates and Republican Lawyers: Creators of Virginia Legal Culture, 1680–1810 (1981)
- Rountree, Helen C. Pocahontas, Powhatan, Opechancanough: Three Indian Lives Changed by Jamestown (University of Virginia press, 2005), early Virginia history from an Indian perspective by a scholar
- Rutman, Darrett B., and Anita H. Rutman. A Place in Time: Middlesex County, Virginia, 1650–1750 (1984), new social history
- Salmon, Emily & Salmon, John. Tobacco in Colonial Virginia In Encyclopedia Virginia (2020) online
- Walsh, Lorena S. Motives of Honor, Pleasure, and Profit: Plantation Management in the Colonial Chesapeake, 1607–1763 (2010) online
1776 to 1850
- Adams, Sean Patrick. Old Dominion, Industrial Commonwealth: Coal, Politics, and Economy in Antebellum America (2004)
- Ambler, Charles H. Sectionalism in Virginia from 1776 to 1861 (1910) full text online
- Beeman, Richard R. The Old Dominion and the New Nation, 1788–1801 (1972)
- Dill, Alonzo Thomas. "Sectional Conflict in Colonial Virginia," Virginia Magazine of History and Biography, 87 (1979): 300–315.
- Gray, Lewis C. History of Agriculture in the Southern United States to 1860 (2 vol. 1933) vol 1 online; .also see vol 2 online
- Link, William A. Roots of Secession: Slavery and Politics in Antebellum Virginia (2007) excerpt and text search
- Main, Jackson T. “Sections and Politics in Virginia, 1781–1787.” William and Mary Quarterly 12#1 1955, pp. 96–112. online
- Main, Jackson T. “The One Hundred.” William and Mary Quarterly 11#4 1954, pp. 354–384. online finds the 100 wealthiest men in the 1780s controlled only six percent of the land and six and one-half percent of the slaves. Entail and primogeniture had little effect on landholding.
- Majewski, John D. A House Dividing: Economic Development in Pennsylvania and Virginia Before the Civil War (2006) excerpt and text search
- OL 23272543M.
- Risjord, Norman K. Chesapeake Politics, 1781–1800 (1978). in-depth coverage of Virginia, Maryland and North Carolina online edition
- Selby, John E. The Revolution in Virginia, 1775–1783 (1988)
- Shade, William G. Democratizing the Old Dominion: Virginia and the Second Party System 1824–1861 (1996)
- Taylor, Alan. The Internal Enemy: Slavery and War in Virginia, 1772–1832 (2014). 624 pp online review
- Tillson Jr. Albert H. Gentry and Common Folk: Political Culture on a Virginia Frontier, 1740–1789 (1991),
- Varon; Elizabeth R.We Mean to Be Counted: White Women and Politics in Antebellum Virginia (1998)
- Virginia State Dept. of Education. The Road to Independence: Virginia 1763–1783 online edition; 80pp; with student projects
1850 to 1870
- Blair, William. Virginia's Private War: Feeding Body and Soul in the Confederacy, 1861–1865 (1998) online edition Archived June 28, 2011, at the Wayback Machine
- Crofts, Daniel W. Reluctant Confederates: Upper South Unionists in the Secession Crisis (1989)
- Eckenrode, Hamilton James. The political history of Virginia during the Reconstruction, (1904) online edition
- Kerr-Ritchie, Jeffrey R.Freedpeople in the Tobacco South: Virginia, 1860–1900 (1999)
- Lankford, Nelson. Richmond Burning: The Last Days of the Confederate Capital (2002)
- Lebsock, Suzanne D. "A Share of Honor": Virginia Women, 1600–1945 (1984)
- Lowe, Richard. Republicans and Reconstruction in Virginia, 1856–70 (1991)
- Maddex Jr., Jack P. The Virginia Conservatives, 1867–1879: A Study in Reconstruction Politics (1970).
- Majewski, John. A House Dividing: Economic Development in Pennsylvania and Virginia before the Civil War (2000)
- Noe, Kenneth W. Southwest Virginia's Railroad: Modernization and the Sectional Crisis (1994)
- Robertson, James I. Civil War Virginia: Battleground for a Nation (1993) 197 pages; excerpt and text search
- Shanks, Henry T. The Secession Movement in Virginia, 1847–1861 (1934) online edition Archived June 28, 2011, at the Wayback Machine
- Sheehan-Dean, Aaron Charles. Why Confederates fought: family and nation in Civil War Virginia (2007) 291 pages excerpt and text search
- Simpson, Craig M. A Good Southerner: The Life of Henry A. Wise of Virginia (1985), wide-ranging political history
- Wallenstein, Peter, and Bertram Wyatt-Brown, eds. Virginia's Civil War (2008) excerpt and text search
- Wills, Brian Steel. The war hits home: the Civil War in southeastern Virginia (2001) 345 pages; excerpt and text search
Since 1870
- Brundage, W. Fitzhugh. Lynching in the New South: Georgia and Virginia, 1880–1930 (1993)
- Buni, Andrew. The Negro in Virginia Politics, 1902–1965 (1967)
- Crofts, Daniel W. Reluctant Confederates: Upper South Unionists in the Secession Crisis (1989)
- Ferrell, Henry C. Jr. Claude A. Swanson of Virginia: A Political Biography (1985) early 20th century
- Freitus, Joe. Virginia in the War Years, 1938–1945: Military Bases, the U-Boat War and Daily Life (McFarland, 2014) online review
- Gilliam, George H. "Making Virginia Progressive: Courts and Parties, Railroads and Regulators, 1890–1910." Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 107 (Spring 1999): 189–222.
- Heinemann, Ronald L. Depression and the New Deal in Virginia: The Enduring Dominion (1983)
- Heinemann, Ronald L. Harry Byrd of Virginia (1996)
- Heinemann, Ronald L. "Virginia in the Twentieth Century: Recent Interpretations." Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 94 (April 1986): 131–60.
- Hunter, Robert F. "Virginia and the New Deal," in John Braeman et al. eds. The New Deal: Volume Two – the State and Local Levels (1975) pp. 103–36
- Johnson, Charles. "V for Virginia: The Commonwealth Goes to War," Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 100 (1992): 365–398 in JSTOR
- Kerr-Ritchie, Jeffrey R. Freedpeople in the Tobacco South: Virginia, 1860–1900 (1999)
- Key, V. O. Jr. Southern Politics in State and Nation (1949), important chapter on Virginia in the 1940s
- Lassiter, Matthew D., and Andrew B. Lewis, eds. The Moderates' Dilemma: Massive Resistance to School Desegregation in Virginia (1998)
- Lebsock, Suzanne D. "A Share of Honor": Virginia Women, 1600–1945 (1984)
- Link, William A. A Hard Country and a Lonely Place: Schooling, Society, and Reform in Rural Virginia, 1870–1920 (1986)
- Martin-Perdue, Nancy J., and Charles L. Perdue Jr., eds. Talk about Trouble: A New Deal Portrait of Virginians in the Great Depression (1996)
- Moger, Allen W. Virginia: Bourbonism to Byrd, 1870–1925 (1968)
- Muse, Benjamin. Virginia's Massive Resistance (1961)
- Pulley, Raymond H. Old Virginia Restored: An Interpretation of the Progressive Impulse, 1870–1930 (1968)
- Shiftlett, Crandall. Patronage and Poverty in the Tobacco South: Louisa County, Virginia, 1860–1900 (1982), new social history
- Smith, J. Douglas. Managing White Supremacy: Race, Politics, and Citizenship in Jim Crow Virginia (2002)
- Sweeney, James R. "Rum, Romanism, and Virginia Democrats: The Party Leaders and the Campaign of 1928" Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 90 (October 1982): 403–31.
- Wilkinson, J. Harvie, III. Harry Byrd and the Changing Face of Virginia Politics, 1945–1966 (1968)
- Wynes, Charles E. Race Relations in Virginia, 1870–1902 (1961)
Environment, geography, locales
- Adams, Stephen. The Best and Worst Country in the World: Perspectives on the Early Virginia Landscape (2002) excerpt and text search
- Gottmann, Jean. Virginia at mid-century (1955), by a leading geographer
- Gottmann, Jean. Virginia in Our Century (1969)
- Kirby, Jack Temple. "Virginia'S Environmental History: A Prospectus," Virginia Magazine of History and Biography, 1991, Vol. 99 Issue 4, pp. 449–488
- *Parramore, Thomas C., with Peter C. Stewart and Tommy L. Bogger. Norfolk: The First Four Centuries (1994)
- Terwilliger, Karen. Virginia's Endangered Species (2001), esp. ch 1
- Sawyer, Roy T. America's Wetland: An Environmental and Cultural History of Tidewater Virginia and North Carolina (University of Virginia Press; 2010) 248 pages; traces the human impact on the ecosystem of the Tidewater region.
Primary sources
- Jefferson, Thomas. Notes on the State of Virginia
- Billings, Warren M., ed. The old dominion in the seventeenth century: A documentary history of Virginia, 1606–1700 (U of North Carolina Press Books, 1975), online
- Duke, Maurice, and Daniel P. Jordan, eds. A Richmond Reader, 1733–1983 (1983)
- Eisenberg, Ralph. Virginia Votes, 1924–1968 (1971), all statistics
External links
- Encyclopedia Virginia
- Virginia Historical Society short history of state, with teacher guide
- Virginia Memory, digital collections and online classroom of the Library of Virginia
- How Counties Got Started in Virginia
- Union or Secession: Virginians Decide
- Virginia and the Civil War
- Civil War timeline
- Boston Public Library, Map Center. Maps of Virginia Archived October 24, 2012, at the Wayback Machine, various dates.