History of chemical warfare
Part of a series on |
War |
---|
Ancient and medieval times
Ancient Greek myths about Heracles poisoning his arrows with the venom of the Hydra monster are the earliest references to toxic weapons in western literature. Homer's epics, the Iliad and the Odyssey, allude to poisoned arrows used by both sides in the legendary Trojan War (Bronze Age Greece).[3]
Some of the earliest surviving references to toxic warfare appear in the
Arsenical smokes were known to the Chinese as far back as c. 1000 BC
The earliest recorded use of gas warfare in the West dates back to the fifth century BC, during the
The earliest
Quicklime (the old name for calcium oxide) may have been used in medieval naval warfare – up to the use of "lime-mortars" to throw it at the enemy ships.[10] Historian and philosopher David Hume, in his history of England, recounts how in the reign of Henry III (r.1216 – 1272) the English Navy destroyed an invading French fleet, by blinding the enemy fleet with quicklime. D’Albiney employed a stratagem against them, which is said to have contributed to the victory: Having gained the wind of the French, he came down upon them with violence; and gassing a great quantity of quicklime, which he purposely carried on board, he so blinded them, that they were disabled from defending themselves.[11]
In the late 15th century, Spanish
The natives of the Pernambuco province used pepper smoke during sieges; they would wait till the wind was blowing towards the enemy, and light a bonfire filled with peppers.[13]
Early modern era
Leonardo da Vinci proposed the use of a powder of sulfide, arsenic and verdigris in the 15th century:
- throw poison in the form of powder upon galleys. Chalk, fine sulfide of arsenic, and powdered verdegris may be thrown among enemy ships by means of small mangonels, and all those who, as they breathe, inhale the powder into their lungs will become asphyxiated.
It is unknown whether this powder was ever actually used.
In the 17th century during sieges, armies attempted to start fires by launching incendiary shells filled with sulfur, tallow, rosin, turpentine, saltpeter, and/or antimony. Even when fires were not started, the resulting smoke and fumes provided a considerable distraction. Although their primary function was never abandoned, a variety of fills for shells were developed to maximize the effects of the smoke.
In 1672, during his siege of the city of
Pirate
The Qing dynasty used stinkpots in naval operations.[15] Those earthenware incendiary weapons were in part filled with sulphur, gunpowder, nails, and shot, while the other part was filled with noxious materials designed to emanate a highly unpleasant and suffocating smell to its enemies when ignited.[15]
Stinkpots were used in the War of 1812 by the British Navy during a bombardment of Stonington, Connecticut, on August 9, 1814.[16]
Industrial era
The modern notion of chemical warfare emerged from the mid-19th century, with the development of modern chemistry and associated industries. The first recorded modern proposal for the use of chemical warfare was made by Lyon Playfair, Secretary of the Science and Art Department, in 1854 during the Crimean War. He proposed a cacodyl cyanide artillery shell for use against enemy ships as way to solve the stalemate during the siege of Sevastopol. The proposal was backed by Admiral Thomas Cochrane of the Royal Navy. It was considered by the Prime Minister, Lord Palmerston, but the British Ordnance Department rejected the proposal as "as bad a mode of warfare as poisoning the wells of the enemy." Playfair's response was used to justify chemical warfare into the next century: [17]
- There was no sense in this objection. It is considered a legitimate mode of warfare to fill shells with molten metal which scatters among the enemy, and produced the most frightful modes of death. Why a poisonous vapor which would kill men without suffering is to be considered illegitimate warfare is incomprehensible. War is destruction, and the more destructive it can be made with the least suffering the sooner will be ended that barbarous method of protecting national rights. No doubt in time chemistry will be used to lessen the suffering of combatants, and even of criminals condemned to death.
Later, during the
In March 1868, during the War of Triple Alliance, the Paraguayan troops threw lit tubes full of asphixiating mixtures in their attempt to board Brazilian ironclads with canoes. The attack failed since the tubes were easily put out by the defenders.[19]
A general concern over the use of poison gas manifested itself in 1899 at the
World War I
The French were the first to use chemical weapons during the First World War, using the tear gases ethyl bromoacetate and chloroacetone. They likely did not realize that effects might be more serious under wartime conditions than in riot control. It is also likely that their use of tear gas escalated to the use of poisonous gases.[21]
The
A total 50,965 tons of pulmonary, lachrymatory, and vesicant agents were deployed by both sides of the conflict, including chlorine, phosgene, and mustard gas. Official figures declare about 1.3 million casualties directly caused by chemical warfare agents during the course of the war. Of these, an estimated 100,000–260,000 casualties were civilians. Nearby civilian towns were at risk from winds blowing the poison gases through. Civilians rarely had a warning system put into place to alert their neighbors of the danger. In addition to poor warning systems, civilians often did not have access to effective gas masks.[27][28][29]
World War I-era chemical ammunition is still found, unexploded, at former battle, storage, or test sites and poses an ongoing threat to inhabitants of Belgium, France and other countries.
After the war, the most common method of disposal of chemical weapons was to dump them into the nearest large body of water.[33] As many as 65,000 tons of chemical warfare agents may have been dumped in the Baltic Sea alone; agents dumped in that sea included mustard gas, phosgene, lewisite (β-chlorovinyldichloroarsine), adamsite (diphenylaminechloroarsine), Clark I (diphenylchloroarsine) and Clark II (diphenylcyanoarsine).[34][35][36] Over time the containers corrode, and the chemicals leaked out. On the sea floor, at low temperatures, mustard gas tends to form lumps within a "skin" of chemical byproducts. These lumps can wash onto shore, where they look like chunks of waxy yellowish clay. They are extremely toxic, but the effects may not be immediately apparent.[33]
Interwar period
During the interwar period, chemical agents were occasionally used to subdue populations and suppress rebellion. In 1925, 16 of the world's major nations signed the Geneva Protocol, thereby pledging never to use chemical weapons in interstate warfare again. Notably, while the United States delegation under presidential authority signed the Protocol, it was not ratified until 1975. The Protocol does not ban the development or production of chemical weapons nor it applies to non-international armed conflicts.
Alleged British use in Mesopotamia
It has been alleged that the British used chemical weapons in Mesopotamia during the
According to some historians, including Geoff Simons and Charles Townshend, the British used chemical weapons in the conflict,[39][40] while according to Lawrence James and Niall Ferguson the weapons were agreed by Churchill but eventually not used;[41][42] R.M. Douglas of Colgate University also observed that Churchill's statement had served to convince observers of the existence of weapons of mass destruction which were not actually there.[43]
Soviet use in Tambov, Central Asia, and China
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (June 2022) |
Lenin's Soviet government employed poison gas in 1921 during the
In the 1930s, the Soviet Union used mustard gas deployed from planes against Basmachi rebels in Central Asia.[46]
During the Soviet invasion of Xinjiang in 1934, Ma Zhongying's New 36th Division put up a fierce resistance at the Battle of Dawan Cheng, but was forced to retreat after Soviets delivered mustard gas from planes.[47]
Chinese use
A chemical arms race developed during the
Spanish use in Morocco
Combined Spanish and French forces dropped mustard gas bombs against
In a telegram sent by the
According to military aviation general
Some have cited the chemical weapons used in the region as the main reason for the widespread occurrence of cancer among the population.
Italian use in Libya and Ethiopia
Italy used
Beginning in October 1935 and continuing into the following months,
The Italians' deployment of mustard gas prompted international criticism.[64][67] In April 1936, British Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin told Parliament: "If a great European nation, in spite of having given its signature to the Geneva Protocol against the use of such gases, employs them in Africa, what guarantee have we that they may not be used in Europe?"[67][69] Mussolini initially denied the use of chemical weapons; later, Mussolini and Italian government sought to justify their use as lawful retaliation for Ethiopian atrocities.[64][65][67]
After the
Following World War II, the Italian government denied that Italy had ever used chemical weapons in Africa; only in 1995 did Italy formally acknowledge that it had used chemical weapons in colonial wars.[70]
Nerve agents
Shortly after the end of World War I, Germany's General Staff enthusiastically pursued a recapture of their preeminent position in chemical warfare. In 1923, Hans von Seeckt pointed the way, by suggesting that German poison gas research move in the direction of delivery by aircraft in support of mobile warfare. Also in 1923, at the behest of the German army, poison gas expert Dr. Hugo Stoltzenberg negotiated with the USSR to build a huge chemical weapons plant at Trotsk, on the Volga river.
Collaboration between Germany and the Soviet Union in poison gas research continued on and off through the 1920s. In 1924, German officers debated the use of poison gas versus non-lethal chemical weapons against civilians.
Chemical warfare was revolutionized by Nazi Germany's discovery of the nerve agents tabun (in 1937) and sarin (in 1939) by Gerhard Schrader, a chemist of IG Farben.
IG Farben was Germany's premier poison gas manufacturer during World War II, so the weaponization of these agents cannot be considered accidental.[71] Both were turned over to the German Army Weapons Office prior to the outbreak of the war.
The nerve agent soman was later discovered by Nobel Prize laureate Richard Kuhn and his collaborator Konrad Henkel at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Medical Research in Heidelberg in the spring of 1944.[72][73] The Germans developed and manufactured large quantities of several agents, but chemical warfare was not extensively used by either side. Chemical troops were set up (in Germany since 1934) and delivery technology was actively developed.
World War II
Imperial Japanese Army
Despite the
According to historians
The Japanese also carried chemical weapons as they swept through Southeast Asia towards Australia. Some of these items were captured and analyzed by the Allies. Historian Geoff Plunkett has recorded how Australia covertly imported 1,000,000 chemical weapons from the United Kingdom from 1942 onwards and stored them in many storage depots around the country, including three tunnels in the Blue Mountains to the west of Sydney. They were to be used as a retaliatory measure if the Japanese first used chemical weapons.[79] Buried chemical weapons have been recovered at Marrangaroo and Columboola.[80][81]
Nazi Germany
During
The Nazis' decision to avoid the use of chemical weapons on the battlefield has been variously attributed to a lack of technical ability in the German chemical weapons program and fears that the Allies would retaliate with their own chemical weapons.[84] It also has been speculated to have arisen from the personal experiences of Adolf Hitler as a soldier in the Kaiser's army during World War I, where he was gassed by British troops in 1918.[86] After the Battle of Stalingrad, Joseph Goebbels, Robert Ley, and Martin Bormann urged Hitler to approve the use of tabun and other chemical weapons to slow the Soviet advance. At a May 1943 meeting in the Wolf's Lair, however, Hitler was told by Ambros that Germany had 45,000 tons of chemical gas stockpiled, but that the Allies likely had far more. Hitler responded by suddenly leaving the room and ordering production of tabun and sarin to be doubled, but "fearing some rogue officer would use them and spark Allied retaliation, he ordered that no chemical weapons be transported to the Russian front."[82] After the Allied invasion of Italy, the Germans rapidly moved to remove or destroy both German and Italian chemical-weapon stockpiles, "for the same reason that Hitler had ordered them pulled from the Russian front—they feared that local commanders would use them and trigger Allied chemical retaliation."[82]
Stanley P. Lovell, deputy director for Research and Development of the Office of Strategic Services, reports in his book Of Spies and Stratagems that the Allies knew the Germans had quantities of Gas Blau available for use in the defense of the Atlantic Wall. The use of nerve gas on the Normandy beachhead would have seriously impeded the Allies and possibly caused the invasion to fail altogether. He submitted the question "Why was nerve gas not used in Normandy?" to be asked of Hermann Göring during his interrogation after the war had ended. Göring answered that the reason was that the Wehrmacht was dependent upon horse-drawn transport to move supplies to their combat units, and had never been able to devise a gas mask horses could tolerate; the versions they developed would not pass enough pure air to allow the horses to pull a cart. Thus, gas was of no use to the German Army under most conditions.[87]
The Nazis did use chemical weapons in combat on several occasions along the
In February 1943, German troops stationed in Kuban received a telegram: "Russians might have to be cleared out of the mountain range with gas."[91] The troops also received two wagons of toxin antidotes.[91]
Western Allies
The
The mustard gas stockpile was enlarged in 1942–1943 for possible use by RAF Bomber Command against German cities, and in 1944 for possible retaliatory use if German forces used chemical weapons against the D-Day landings.[92]
In July 1944, fearing that rocket attacks on London would get even worse, and saying he would only use chemical weapons if it were "life or death for us" or would "shorten the war by a year",[97] Churchill wrote a secret memorandum asking his military chiefs to "think very seriously over this question of using poison gas." He stated "it is absurd to consider morality on this topic when everybody used it in the last war without a word of complaint..."The Joint Planning Staff, however, advised against the use of gas because it would inevitably provoke Germany to retaliate with gas. They argued that this would be to the Allies' disadvantage in France both for military reasons and because it might "seriously impair our relations with the civilian population when it became generally known that chemical warfare was first employed by us."[98]
In 1945, the
Accidental release
On the night of December 2, 1943, German Ju 88 bombers attacked the port of Bari in Southern Italy, sinking several American ships—among them the SS John Harvey, which was carrying mustard gas intended for use in retaliation by the Allies if German forces initiated gas warfare. The presence of the gas was highly classified, and authorities ashore had no knowledge of it, which increased the number of fatalities since physicians, who had no idea that they were dealing with the effects of mustard gas, prescribed treatment improper for those suffering from exposure and immersion.
The whole affair was kept secret at the time and for many years after the war. According to the U.S. military account, "Sixty-nine deaths were attributed in whole or in part to the mustard gas, most of them American merchant seamen"[103] out of 628 mustard gas military casualties.[104]
The large number of
Rick Atkinson, in his book The Day of Battle, describes the intelligence that prompted Allied leaders to deploy mustard gas to Italy. This included Italian intelligence that Adolf Hitler had threatened to use gas against Italy if the state changed sides, and prisoner of war interrogations suggesting that preparations were being made to use a "new, egregiously potent gas" if the war turned decisively against Germany. Atkinson concludes, "No commander in 1943 could be cavalier about a manifest threat by Germany to use gas."
Development during the Cold War
After World War II, the Allies recovered German artillery shells containing the three German nerve agents of the day (tabun, sarin, and soman), prompting further research into nerve agents by all of the former Allies.
Although the threat of global thermonuclear war was foremost in the minds of most during the Cold War, both the Soviet and Western governments put enormous resources into developing chemical and biological weapons.
Britain
In the late 1940s and early 1950s, British postwar chemical weapons research was based at the Porton Down facility. Research was aimed at providing Britain with the means to arm itself with a modern nerve-agent-based capability and to develop specific means of defense against these agents.
Ranajit Ghosh, a chemist at the Plant Protection Laboratories of
The toxicity did not go unnoticed, and samples of it were sent to the research facility at
On the defensive side, there were years of difficult work to develop the means of prophylaxis, therapy, rapid detection and identification, decontamination and more effective protection of the body against nerve agents, capable of exerting effects through the skin, the eyes and respiratory tract.
Tests were carried out on servicemen to determine the effects of nerve agents on human subjects, with one recorded death due to a nerve gas experiment. There have been persistent allegations of unethical
In the 1950s, the Chemical Defence Experimental Establishment became involved with the development of CS, a riot control agent, and took an increasing role in trauma and wound ballistics work. Both these facets of Porton Down's work had become more important because of the situation in Northern Ireland.[110]
In the early 1950s, nerve agents such as sarin were produced— about 20 tons were made from 1954 until 1956.
United States
In 1952, the U.S. Army patented a process for the "Preparation of Toxic Ricin", publishing a method of producing this powerful toxin. In 1958 the British government traded their VX technology with the United States in exchange for information on thermonuclear weapons[citation needed]. By 1961 the U.S. was producing large amounts of VX and performing its own nerve agent research. This research produced at least three more agents; the four agents (VE, VG, VM, VX) are collectively known as the "V-Series" class of nerve agents.
Between 1951 and 1969, Dugway Proving Ground was the site of testing for various chemical and biological agents, including an open-air aerodynamic dissemination test in 1968 that accidentally killed, on neighboring farms, approximately 6,400 sheep by an unspecified nerve agent.[112]
From 1962 to 1973, the Department of Defense planned 134 tests under Project 112, a chemical and biological weapons "vulnerability-testing program." In 2002, the Pentagon admitted for the first time that some of tests used real chemical and biological weapons, not just harmless simulants.[113]
Specifically under Project SHAD, 37 secret tests were conducted in California, Alaska, Florida, Hawaii, Maryland, and Utah. Land tests in Alaska and Hawaii used artillery shells filled with sarin and VX, while Navy trials off the coasts of Florida, California and Hawaii tested the ability of ships and crew to perform under biological and chemical warfare, without the crew's knowledge. The code name for the sea tests was Project Shipboard Hazard and Defense—"SHAD" for short.[113]
In October 2002, the Senate Armed Forces Subcommittee on Personnel held hearings as the controversial news broke that chemical agents had been tested on thousands of American military personnel. The hearings were chaired by Senator Max Cleland, former VA administrator and Vietnam War veteran.
United States chemical respiratory protection standardization
In December 2001, the
To date NIOSH/NPPTL has published six new respirator performance standards based on a tiered approach that relies on traditional industrial respirator certification policy, next-generation emergency response respirator performance requirements, and special live chemical warfare agent testing requirements of the classes of respirators identified to offer respiratory protection against chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear (CBRN) agent inhalation hazards. These CBRN respirators are commonly known as open-circuit self-contained breathing apparatus (CBRN SCBA), air-purifying respirator (CBRN APR), air-purifying escape respirator (CBRN APER), self-contained escape respirator (CBRN SCER) and loose- or tight-fitting powered air-purifying respirators (CBRN PAPR).
Soviet Union
Due to the secrecy of the Soviet Union's government, very little information was available about the direction and progress of the Soviet chemical weapons until relatively recently. After the fall of the Soviet Union, Russian chemist Vil Mirzayanov published articles revealing illegal chemical weapons experimentation in Russia.
In 1993, Mirzayanov was imprisoned and fired from his job at the State Research Institute of Organic Chemistry and Technology, where he had worked for 26 years. In March 1994, after a major campaign by U.S. scientists on his behalf, Mirzayanov was released.[114]
Among the information related by Vil Mirzayanov was the direction of Soviet research into the development of even more toxic nerve agents, which saw most of its success during the mid-1980s. Several highly toxic agents were developed during this period; the only unclassified information regarding these agents is that they are known in the open literature only as "
According to Mirzayanov, the Soviets also developed weapons that were safer to handle, leading to the development of
Additionally, precursors to the agents are usually much easier to stabilize than the agents themselves, so this technique also made it possible to increase the shelf life of the agents a great deal. During the 1980s and 1990s, binary versions of several Soviet agents were developed and designated "Novichok" agents (after the Russian word for "newcomer").[116] Together with Lev Fedorov, he told the secret Novichok story exposed in the newspaper The Moscow News.[117]
Use in conflicts after World War II
North Yemen
The first attack of the
There were no reports of gas during 1964, and only a few were reported in 1965. The reports grew more frequent in late 1966. On December 11, 1966, fifteen gas bombs killed two people and injured thirty-five. On January 5, 1967, the biggest gas attack came against the village of Kitaf, causing 270 casualties, including 140 fatalities. The target may have been Prince Hassan bin Yahya, who had installed his headquarters nearby. The Egyptian government denied using poison gas, and alleged that Britain and the US were using the reports as psychological warfare against Egypt. On February 12, 1967, it said it would welcome a UN investigation. On March 1, U Thant, the then Secretary-General of the United Nations, said he was "powerless" to deal with the matter.
On May 10, 1967, the twin villages of Gahar and Gadafa in Wadi Hirran, where Prince Mohamed bin Mohsin was in command, were gas bombed, killing at least seventy-five. The Red Cross was alerted and on June 2, 1967, it issued a statement in Geneva expressing concern. The Institute of Forensic Medicine at the University of Berne made a statement, based on a Red Cross report, that the gas was likely to have been halogenous derivatives—phosgene, mustard gas, lewisite, chloride or cyanogen bromide.
Rhodesian Bush War
Evidence points to a top-secret
Angola
During the
The UN first accused Cuba of deploying chemical weapons against Angolan civilians and partisans in 1988.[119] Wouter Basson later disclosed that South African military intelligence had long verified the use of unidentified chemical weapons on Angolan soil; this was to provide the impetus for their own biological warfare programme, Project Coast.[119] During the Battle of Cuito Cuanavale, South African troops then fighting in Angola were issued with gas masks and ordered to rehearse chemical weapons drills. Although the status of its own chemical weapons program remained uncertain, South Africa also deceptively bombarded Cuban and Angolan units with colored smoke in an attempt to induce hysteria or mass panic.[121] According to Defence Minister Magnus Malan, this would force the Cubans to share the inconvenience of having to take preventative measures such as donning NBC suits, which would cut combat effectiveness in half. The tactic was effective: beginning in early 1988 Cuban units posted to Angola were issued with full protective gear in anticipation of a South African chemical strike.[121]
On October 29, 1988, personnel attached to Angola's 59 Brigade, accompanied by six Soviet military advisors, reported being struck with chemical weapons on the banks of the Mianei River.[123] The attack occurred shortly after one in the afternoon. Four Angolan soldiers lost consciousness while the others complained of violent headaches and nausea. That November the Angolan representative to the UN accused South Africa of employing poison gas near Cuito Cuanavale for the first time.[123]
Falklands War
Technically, the reported employment of
Afghanistan
There were reports of chemical weapons being used by Soviet forces during the Soviet–Afghan War, sometimes against civilians.[126][127]
Vietnamese border raids in Thailand
There is some evidence suggesting that Vietnamese troops used phosgene gas against Cambodian resistance forces in Thailand during the 1984–1985 dry-season offensive on the Thai-Cambodian border.[128][129][130]
Iran–Iraq War
Chemical weapons employed by Saddam Hussein killed and injured numerous Iranians and Iraqi Kurds. According to Iraqi documents, assistance in developing chemical weapons was obtained from firms in many countries, including the United States, West Germany, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, and France.[131]
About 100,000 Iranian soldiers were victims of Iraq's chemical attacks. Many were hit by mustard gas. The official estimate does not include the civilian population contaminated in bordering towns or the children and relatives of veterans, many of whom have developed blood, lung and skin complications, according to the Organization for Veterans. Nerve gas agents killed about 20,000 Iranian soldiers immediately, according to official reports. Of the 80,000 survivors, some 5,000 seek medical treatment regularly and about 1,000 are still hospitalized with severe, chronic conditions.[132][133][134]
According to the Foreign Policy, the "Iraqis used mustard gas and sarin prior to four major offensives in early 1988 that relied on U.S. satellite imagery, maps, and other intelligence. ... According to recently declassified CIA documents and interviews with former intelligence officials like Francona, the U.S. had firm evidence of Iraqi chemical attacks beginning in 1983."[135][136]
Halabja
In March 1988, the Iraqi
Persian Gulf War
The
However, chemical weapons expert Jonathan B. Tucker, writing in the Nonproliferation Review in 1997, determined that although "[t]he absence of severe chemical injuries or fatalities among Coalition forces makes it clear that no large-scale Iraqi employment of chemical weapons occurred," an array of "circumstantial evidence from a variety of sources suggests that Iraq deployed chemical weapons into the Kuwait Theater of Operations (KTO)—the area including Kuwait and Iraq south of the 31st Parallel, where the ground war was fought—and engaged in sporadic chemical warfare against Coalition forces."[138] In addition to intercepts of Iraqi military communications and publicly available reporting:
Other sources of evidence for sporadic Iraqi chemical warfare include U.S. intelligence reports on the presence of Iraqi chemical weapons in the KTO; military log entries describing the discovery by U.S. units of chemical munitions in Iraqi bunkers during and after the ground war; incidents in which troops reported acute symptoms of toxic chemical exposure; and credible detections of chemical-warfare agents by Czech, French, and American forces.[138]
Nerve agents (specifically, tabun, sarin, and cyclosarin) and blister agents (specifically, sulfur-mustard and lewisite) were detected at Iraqi sites.[138]
The threat itself of gas warfare had a major effect on
In 2014, tapes from Saddam Hussain's archives revealed that Saddam had given orders to use gas against Israel as a last resort if his military communications with the army were cut off.[142]
In 2015, The New York Times published an article about the declassified report of operation Avarice in 2005 in which over 400 chemical weapons including many rockets and missiles from the Iran-Iraq war period were recovered and subsequently destroyed by the CIA.[143] Many other stockpiles, estimated by UNSCOM up to 600 metric tons of chemical weapons, were known to have existed and even admitted by Saddam's regime, but claimed by them to have been destroyed. These have never been found but are believed to still exist.[144][145]
Iraq War
During
Syrian civil war
Sarin, mustard gas, and chlorine have been used during the conflict. Numerous casualties led to an international reaction, especially the
Many countries, including the United States and the European Union have accused the Syrian government of conducting several chemical attacks. Following the 2013 Ghouta attacks and international pressure, Syria acceded to the
Ukrainian-Russian War
Russians have used tear gas against Ukrainian forces.[152] It has been done by having a drone drop a grenade with K-51 aerosol CS gas in it. [153] As of March 2024, Ukrainian forces reported an increase of Russian drones dropping “grenades with suffocating and tear gas”. 371 Cases of gas usage was reported over the past month, an increase of 90 incidents was recorded compared to February. Compared to Ukrainian soldiers are receiving training to deal with such attacks but lack modern gas masks. Old Soviet issued masks are “ineffective” and soldiers are having to crowd fund newer masks. Tear Gas or Captir Spray is banned under the Chemical Weapons Convention [154][155]
Terrorism and anti-terrorism
For many terrorist organizations, chemical weapons might be considered an ideal choice for a mode of attack, if they are available: they are cheap, relatively accessible, and easy to transport. A skilled chemist can readily synthesize most chemical agents if the precursors are available.
In July 1974, a group calling themselves the Aliens of America successfully firebombed the houses of a judge, two police commissioners, and one of the commissioner's cars, burned down two apartment buildings, and
The first successful use of chemical agents by terrorists against a general civilian population was on June 27, 1994, when
On December 29, 1999, four days after Russian forces began an assault of Grozny, Chechen terrorists exploded two chlorine tanks in the town. Because of the wind conditions, no Russian soldiers were injured.[157]
Following the September 11 attacks on the U.S. cities of New York City and Washington, D.C., the organization Al-Qaeda responsible for the attacks announced that they were attempting to acquire radiological, biological, and chemical weapons. This threat was lent a great deal of credibility when a large archive of videotapes was obtained by the cable television network CNN in August 2002 showing, among other things, the killing of three dogs by an apparent nerve agent.[158]
In an anti-terrorist attack on October 26, 2002,
In early 2007, multiple terrorist bombings had been reported in
Chemical weapons treaties
The Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in War of Asphyxiating, Poisonous or other Gases, and the Bacteriological Methods of Warfare, or the Geneva Protocol, is an international treaty which prohibits the use of chemical and biological weapons between signatory nations in international armed conflicts. Signed into international law at Geneva on June 17, 1925, and entered into force on February 8, 1928, this treaty states that chemical and biological weapons are "justly condemned by the general opinion of the civilised world."[162]
Chemical Weapons Convention
The most recent arms control agreement in
References
- ^ "Chemical Warfare – an overview | ScienceDirect Topics". www.sciencedirect.com. Retrieved 2023-08-29.
- ^ "History". OPCW. Retrieved 2023-08-29.
- ^ a b c Adrienne Mayor, "Greek Fire, Poison Arrows & Scorpion Bombs: Biological and Chemical Warfare in the Ancient World" Overlook-Duckworth, 2003, rev ed with new Introduction 2008
- ISBN 978-90-411-1099-2
- ^ ISBN 978-3-527-32413-2
- ^ Science Daily, dated January 19, 2009 Sciencedaily.com
- ^ “Death Underground: Gas Warfare at Dura-Europos,” Current Archaeology, November 26, 2009 (online feature) http://www.archaeology.co.uk/cwa/world-news/death-underground-gas-warfare-at-dura-europos.htm (accessed October 3, 2014)
- ^ Samir S. Patel, “Early Chemical Warfare – Dura-Europos, Syria,” Archaeology, Vol. 63, No. 1, January/February 2010, http://www.archaeology.org/1001/topten/syria.html (accessed October 3, 2014)
- ^ Stephanie Pappas, “Buried Soldiers May Be Victims of Ancient Chemical Weapon,” LiveScience, March 8, 2011, http://www.livescience.com/13113-ancient-chemical-warfare-romans-persians.html (accessed October 3, 2014).
- ^ Sayers W. The Use of Quicklime in Medieval Naval Warfare // The Mariner's Mirror. – Volume 92 (2006). – Issue 3. – PP. 262–269.
- ^ David Hume, History of England, Volume II.
- ISBN 978-0-307-59672-7
- ISSN 0100-4042.
- ^ Headlam, Cecil (1933). America and West Indies: January 1719 | British History Online (January 1719 ed.). London: His Majesty's Stationery Office. pp. 1–21. Retrieved 28 July 2017.
- ^ a b Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 7, Military Technology: the gunpowder epic. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd. Pages 189.
- ISBN 1347974431
- ISBN 9780387950761.
- ^ Smart, Jeffery K. "CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL WARFARE RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT DURING THE CIVIL WAR" (PDF). United States Army. US Army Soldier and Biological Chemical Command. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 14, 2015. Retrieved November 7, 2014.
- ISSN 2763-6267.
- ISBN 9780241968253. Retrieved June 23, 2020.
- ISBN 9789028603363. Retrieved April 13, 2017.
- ^ "About this Service | Federal Research Division | Services | Library of Congress". Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA.
- ^ "The First World War" (a Channel 4 documentary based on the book by Hew Strachan)
- ^ "Chemical weapon | History, Facts, Types, & Effects".
- ISBN 978-0252080265. Retrieved April 14, 2017.
- ^ "April 22, 1915: Germans introduce poison gas". This Day In History. Retrieved April 14, 2017.
- ^ a b Gross, Daniel A. (Spring 2015). "Chemical Warfare: From the European Battlefield to the American Laboratory". Distillations. 1 (1): 16–23. Retrieved March 20, 2018.
- ISBN 978-0-8493-1434-6.
- ISBN 978-1-5924-0315-8.
- ISBN 978-1412949897. Retrieved April 14, 2017.
- ISBN 978-1-4377-3477-5. Retrieved April 13, 2017.
- ^ Ashooh, Emma (December 7, 2015). "A Hidden History: American University's Role in World War I". American Word. Retrieved April 13, 2017.
- ^ a b Curry, Andrew (November 10, 2016). "Weapons of War Litter the Ocean Floor". Hakai Magazine. Retrieved April 14, 2017.
- ISBN 978-0415995948. Retrieved April 14, 2017.
- ISBN 978-1-4020-5526-3.
- ^ HELCOM (1994). Report on Chemical Munitions Dumped in the Baltic Sea Report to the 16th Meeting of Helsinki Commission 8 - 11 March 1994 from the Ad Hoc Working Group on Dumped Chemical Munition (HELCOM CHEMU) January 1994 (PDF). Danish Environmental Protection Agency.
- ^ Glancey, Jonathan (19 April 2003). "Our last occupation". The Guardian.
- ^ Chomsky, Noam (1996). World Orders Old and New. New York: Columbia University Press.
- ISBN 978-0-241-11789-7.
- ISBN 9780312102098, pp. 179–81.
- ISBN 9780312140397, p. 392.
- ISBN 9780713997088, p. 412.
- S2CID 154708409.
- ISBN 9780307754684.
- ISBN 0-674-07608-7
- ISBN 9780313385520.
- ISBN 9781598849486.
- OCLC 495781134.
- ^ Rada, Javier (September 2006). "Los últimos de Alhucemas" (in Spanish). 20minutos.es. Retrieved 2007-04-13.
Durante la guerra del Rif (1921–1927), la última pesadilla colonial, España fue una de las primeras potencias en utilizar armas químicas contra población civil.
- ^ Noguer, Miquel (July 2005). "ERC exige que España pida perdón por el uso de armas químicas en la guerra del Rif". El País (in Spanish). Retrieved 2007-04-13.
Tras tan estrepitosa derrota, el ejército español no tuvo reparos en utilizar productos como fosgeno, difosgeno, cloropicrina o el mismo gas mostaza contra la población civil.
- ^ a b Enrique Cerro Aguilar. "España fue el primer país que utilizó armas químicas contra civiles en Marruecos en 1920". Revista Rebelión. 13 de enero de 2001. – (in Spanish)
- ^ a b Espinosa, Javier (April 2001). "Gas mostaza sobre el Rif" (in Spanish). El Mundo. Retrieved 2007-04-13.
Juan Pando en su reciente libro Historia secreta de Annual han documentado su uso
- ^ Hidalgo, de Cisneros. Cambio de Rumbo – p. 193-7
- ISBN 0-19-925296-3.
- ^ Informe sobre la actuación de la Aviación en el Protectorado. 4 Mar. 1924. AGA Africa, caja M12, exp. 2.
- ^ Hidalgo, de Cisneros. Cambio de Rumbo – p. 193-4
- ISBN 0-19-925296-3.
- ^ Yabiladi.com. "حرب الريف: عريضة تدعو إسبانيا وفرنسا وألمانيا والولايات المتحدة لتحمل مسؤولياتهم". www.yabiladi.ma (in Arabic). Retrieved 2021-05-06.
- ^ Rosa Maria Bonàs. "Esquerra lamenta que ni PSC ni CiU no donin suport a reconèixer la barbàrie espanyola contra la població del Rif" (in Catalan). Esquerra Republicana de Catalunya. Archived from the original on 2011-07-16. Retrieved 2007-04-11.
- ^ "Spanish parliament refuses to discuss Spain's use of chemical weapons during Rif war in Morocco". Maghreb Arab Press. Archived from the original on 2007-09-27. Retrieved 2007-04-11.
- ^ Saskia van Genugten, Libya in Western Foreign Policies, 1911–2011 (Palgrave Macmillan, 2016), p. 31.
- ^ Ronald Bruce St. John, Libya: Continuity and Change (Routledge, 2015), p. 16.
- ^ Andrew Jackson Waskey & Spencer C. Tucker, "Senussi and Sultan of Darfur Rebellions" in Encyclopedia of Insurgency and Counterinsurgency: A New Era of Modern Warfare (ed. Spencer C. Tucker: ABC-CLIO, 2013), p. 498.
- ^ a b c d e f "Chemical Weapons" in Historical Dictionary of Ethiopia, 2d ed. (eds. David H. Shinn & Thomas P. Ofcansky: Scarecrow Press, 2013).
- ^ a b c Rainer Baudendistel, Between Bombs and Good Intentions: The International Committee of the Red Cross and the Italo-Ethiopian War, 1935–1936, pp. 264–67.
- ^ William R. Cullen, Is Arsenic an Aphrodisiac?: Th Sociochemistry of an Element (Royal Society of Chemistry, 2008), p. 241.
- ^ a b c d Jeffrey Legro, Cooperation Under Fire: Anglo-German Restraint During World War II (Cornell University Press, 2005).
- ^ Walter Laqueur, The New Terrorism: Fanaticism and the Arms of Mass Destruction (Oxford University Press, 1999), p. 57.
- ^ Edward M. Spiers, Chemical and Biological Weapons: A Study of Proliferation (Macmillan: 1994).
- ^ "Introduction" in Italian Colonialism (eds. Ruth Ben-Ghiat & Mia Fuller: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005), p. 6.
- ^ Corum, James S., The Roots of Blitzkrieg, University Press of Kansas, USA, 1992, pp.106–107.
- ^ Schmaltz, Florian (2005), Kampfstoff-Forschung im Nationalsozialismus Zur Kooperation von Kaiser-Wilhelm-Instituten, Militär und Industrie, Wallstein Verlag
- S2CID 46250604
- ^ "Laws of War: Declaration on the Use of Projectiles the Object of Which is the Diffusion of Asphyxiating or Deleterious Gases; July 29, 1899". Avalon.law.yale.edu. Retrieved January 18, 2014.
- ^ "Convention (IV) respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its annex: Regulations concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land. The Hague, 18 October 1907". International Committee of the Red Cross. Retrieved January 18, 2014.
- ^ Yuki Tanaka, Poison Gas, the Story Japan Would Like to Forget, Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, October 1988, p. 16-17
- ^ Y. Yoshimi and S. Matsuno, Dokugasusen Kankei Shiryô II, Kaisetsu, Jugonen Sensô Gokuhi Shiryoshu, 1997, p.27-29
- ^ Yoshimi and Matsuno, idem, Herbert Bix, Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan, 2001, p.360-364
- ^ Army History Unit, Chemical Warfare in Australia (2nd Edn) 2013 (Army Military History Series)
- ^ Geoff Plunkett, Chemical Warfare in Australia
- ^ Geoff Plunkett, Death By Mustard Gas, archived from the original on November 10, 2014, retrieved November 10, 2014
- ^ a b c d e f g Patrick Coffey, American Arsenal: A Century of Weapon Technology and Strategy (Oxford University Press, 2014), p. 152-54.
- ^ a b James J. Wirtz, "Weapons of Mass Destruction" in Contemporary Security Studies (4th ed.), ed. Alan Collins, Contemporary Security Studies (Oxford University Press, 2016), p. 302.
- ^ a b Callum Borchers, Sean Spicer takes his questionable claims to a new level in Hitler-Assad comparison, The Washington Post (April 11, 2017).
- ^ Germany and the Second World War, Vol. 5, Issue 2 (Clarendon Press, 2003), p. 764.
- ^ "Century of biological and chemical weapons". BBC News. September 25, 2001.
- ^ Stanley P. Lovell, Of Spies & Strategems (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1963), p. 78.
- ^ a b Chris Bellamy, Absolute War: Soviet Russia in the Second World War (Knopf, 2008).
- ^ ISBN 978-0271047737.
- ^ Merridale, Catherine, Ivan's War, Faber & Faber: pp. 148–150.
- ^ a b Гречко, p. 468.
- ^ a b Bellamy, Christopher (June 4, 1996). "Sixty secret mustard gas sites uncovered". The Independent.
- ^ "Chemical Warfare -Suffolk". Anti-Invasion defences Suffolk World War II. Archived from the original on August 24, 2011. Retrieved June 18, 2008.
- ^ a b Pears, Brian. "Chapter 5 Invasion". Rowlands Gill and the North-East 1939 – 1945. Archived from the original on August 6, 2006.
- ^ Alanbrooke, 2001. Entry July 22, 1940.
- ^ BBC2 Newsnight, 1/5/81; The Guardian, 7,9,13,20,30/5, 2/6/81; The Times, 11/5/81, 20/5/81, 15/6/81; The Listener, 25/6, 2/7, 17/8/81; Daily Telegraph, 18,21,25,29/5, 2,11/6/81; Encounter magazine, Vol.58–9 no.2; New Society, Vol.60; Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, Vol.4 no.4 and 'Churchill's Anthrax Bombs – a debate', Vol.4 no.12, November 1987.
- OCLC 268949025.
I want the matter studied in cold blood by sensible people
- ^ "Paxman and Harris", p132-35.
- ^ a b c Smart, Jeffrey (1997), "2", History of Chemical and Biological Warfare: An American Perspective, Aberdeen, MD, USA: Army Chemical and Biological Defense Command, p. 32.
- ^ "Cyanogen chloride (CK): Systemic Agent | NIOSH | CDC". 9 July 2021.
- ^ "Characteristics and Employment of Ground Chemical Munitions", Field Manual 3–5, Washington, DC: War Department, 1946, pp. 108–19.
- ISBN 978-1-57003-354-4
- ^ US Naval Historical Center, Naval Armed Guard Service: Tragedy at Bari, Italy on 2 December 1943, archived from the original on January 12, 2008
- ^ Niderost, Eric (12 June 2006), World War II: German Raid on Bari, HistoryNet.com
- ^ Infield, Glenn B. Infield, Disaster at Bari
- ^ Reminick, Gerald, Nightmare in Bari: The World War II Liberty Ship Poison Gas Disaster and Coverup
- ^ Ghosh, R.; Newman, J.E. (Jan 29, 1955). "A new group of organophosphorus pesticides". Chemistry and Industry: 118.
- ^ G B Carter. Porton Down: a brief history.
- ^ G B Carter (2000). Chemical and Biological Defence at Porton Down 1916–2000. The Stationery Office.
- ISBN 9781900747479.
- ^ a b "Nancekuke Remediation Project". Ministry of Defence (Archived by The National Archives). Archived from the original on December 8, 2010. Retrieved April 25, 2012.
- ^ Staff, Committee on Veterans' Affairs, US Senate (December 8, 1994), Is Military Research Hazardous to Veterans' Health? Lessons spanning half a century, 103d Congress, 2d Session – Committee Print – S. Prt. 103–97, archived from the original on August 13, 2006, retrieved December 22, 2018
{{citation}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ a b Philip Huang (October 17, 2002), "Sickening strategy", Oregon Daily Emerald[dead link]
- ISBN 0-374-18104-7(see pages 325–328)
- ^ Fedorov, Lev (July 27, 1994), Chemical Weapons in Russia: History, Ecology, Politics, Center of Ecological Policy of Russia
- ISBN 978-0-8133-4280-1
- ^ Federov, Lev; Mirzayanov, Vil (1992), "A Poisoned Policy", Moscow News (weekly No. 39)
- ISBN 978-1-911512-12-7
- ^ ISBN 978-0817318376. Retrieved October 11, 2014.
- ^ "Chemical weapons being used in Angola?". Park City Daily News. Bowling Green, Kentucky. August 22, 1986. Retrieved July 28, 2015.
- ^ a b c Helen E. Purkitt, Stephen F. Burgess: The Rollback of South Africa's Chemical and Biological Warfare Program, Air University, Counterproliferation Center, Maxwell Airforce Base, Alabama, 2001
- ^ "Cubans using poison gas in Angola". The Lewiston Journal. Lewiston–Auburn, Maine. August 26, 1988. Retrieved July 28, 2015.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-4314-0185-7.
- ^ The Argentine Fight for The Falklands, Lieutenant-Commander Sanchez-Sabarots
- ISBN 1-84415-429-7.
- ^ The Story of Genocide in Afghanistan Hassan Kakar
- ^ Report from Afghanistan Archived 2017-01-28 at the Wayback Machine Claude Malhuret
- ^ "KPNLF says Vietnamese Using Suffocant Gas," Bangkok World, January 4, 1985, p. 1.
- ^ "Viets Accused of Using Gas Against Rebels," Associated Press, February 19, 1985.
- ^ "Thais Report a Clash with Vietnamese Troops," Associated Press, February 20, 1985.
- ^ Lafayette, Lev (July 26, 2002), "Who armed Saddam?", World History Archives
- ^ Fassihi, Farnaz (October 27, 2002), "In Iran, grim reminders of Saddam's arsenal", New Jersey Star Ledger
- ^ Paul Hughes (January 21, 2003), "It's like a knife stabbing into me", The Star (South Africa)
- ^ Sciolino, Elaine (February 13, 2003), "Iraq Chemical Arms Condemned, but West Once Looked the Other Way", The New York Times, archived from the original on May 27, 2013
- ^ "Exclusive: CIA Files Prove America Helped Saddam as He Gassed Iran". Foreign Policy. August 26, 2013.
- ^ "Chemical attacks on Iran: When the US looked the other way". Al-Jazeera. 19 April 2018.
- ^ a b c d On this day: 1988: Thousands die in Halabja gas attack, BBC News (March 16, 1988).
- ^ a b c d Jonathan B. Tucker, Evidence Iraq Used Chemical Weapons During the 1991 Persian Gulf War, The Nonproliferation Review (Spring-Summer 1997), pp. 114–22.
- ^ Israeli Responses to the Threat of Chemical Warfare, Prof. Gerald Steinberg, Published in Armed Forces and Society, Vol. 20., No. 1 Fall 1993, pp.85–101 (Faculty of Chemistry, Bar Ilan University website)
- Israel ministry of foreign affairswebsite)
- ^ The distribution of special gas masks for bearded men in footnote 19 about Prof. Yosseph Shilhav's research. Sticking Together page 139, Yakov Kop and Robert E. Litan (Google Books)
- ^ Saddam gave orders to fire chemical weapons at Tel-Aviv if he was toppled in first gulf war January 25, 2014 (Times of Israel website)
- ^ Chivers, C.J.; Schmitt, Eric (February 15, 2015). "CIA is said to have bought and destroyed Iraqi chemical weapons". The New York Times. Retrieved May 21, 2016.
- ^ The chief U.N. weapons inspector said on Monday that Iraq could not account for stocks of anthrax and a deadly nerve gas that it said it had destroyed January 27, 2003, Cnn
- ^ Deadly arsenals Joseph Cirincione et al. Page 343 quoting UNSCOM reports. (Google Books)
- ^ "Chemical Warfare Agents". U.S. Army Public Health Command. Archived from the original on November 16, 2015. Retrieved July 10, 2015.
- ^ a b C. J. Chivers (October 14, 2014). "The Secret Casualties of Iraq's Abandoned Chemical Weapons". The New York Times. Archived from the original on October 15, 2014.
- ^ "CDC | Facts About Sarin". www.bt.cdc.gov. Archived from the original on April 14, 2003. Retrieved October 7, 2015.
- ^ Syria Used Chlorine in Bombs Against Civilians, Report Says, The New York Times, Rick Gladstone, August 24, 2016 retrieved August 25, 2016.
- ^ "Kurdish Officials: Rebels May Have Used Chemicals in Aleppo". Voice of America. April 8, 2016. Archived from the original on April 11, 2016. Retrieved April 11, 2017.
- ^ Louisa Loveluck (May 9, 2015). "UN inspectors find undeclared sarin-linked chemicals at Syrian military site". The Telegraph. London. Retrieved May 9, 2015.
- ^ "Military: 465 documented cases of Russia using chemical weapons in Ukraine since Feb. 24, 2022". The Kyiv Independent. 2023-12-27. Retrieved 2024-01-02.
- ^ "Have Chemical Weapons been Used in Ukraine?". rusi.orghttps. Retrieved 2024-01-02.
- ^ Kateryna Hodunova (5 April 2024). "Military: Russian use of prohibited chemical weapons has become 'systemic'". The Kyiv Independent.
- ^ James Rushton (6 April 2024). "Russia inflicting illegal chemical attacks against Ukrainian soldiers". The Telegraph.
- ^ "T Is for Terror: A mad bomber who stalked Los Angeles in the '70s could be the poster boy for the kind of terrorist the FBI fears today", Newsweek Web Exclusive, July 9, 2003
- ^ Ксения Мяло. Россия и последние войны XX века: к истории падения сверхдержавы. Глава 5: Чеченский узел. М.: Вече, 2002
- ^ Nic Robertson (August 19, 2002), "Disturbing scenes of death show capability with chemical gas", CNN, archived from the original on April 7, 2013
- ^ Multi-National Force Iraq, Combined Press Information Center (April 20, 2007), Chlorine Tanks Destroyed, Terrorists Killed in Raids, Press Release A070420a, archived from the original on August 7, 2009
- ^ Multi-National Force Iraq, Combined Press Information Center (April 6, 2007), Suicide Vehicle Detonates outside Police Checkpoint, Press Release 20070406-34, archived from the original on September 12, 2009
- ^ Ban, Ki-Moon (March 19, 2007), "Secretary-General Condemns Chlorine Attack in Iraq", United Nations Radio
- ^ "Text of the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention". Brad.ac.uk. Archived from the original on September 7, 2013. Retrieved September 5, 2013.
- ^ "UNTC". Treaties.un.org. Archived from the original on April 7, 2015. Retrieved September 16, 2011.
Bibliography
- CBWInfo.com (2001). A Brief History of Chemical and Biological Weapons: Ancient Times to the 19th Century. Retrieved November 24, 2004.
- Chomsky, Noam (March 4, 2001). Prospects for Peace in the Middle East, page 2. Lecture.
- Cordette, Jessica, MPH(c) (2003). Chemical Weapons of Mass Destruction. Retrieved November 29, 2004.
- Croddy, Eric (2001), Chemical and Biological Warfare, Copernicus, ISBN 978-0-387-95076-1
- Smart, Jeffery K., M.A. (1997). History of Biological and Chemical Warfare. Retrieved November 24, 2004.
- United States Senate, 103d Congress, 2d Session. (May 25, 1994). The Riegle Report. Retrieved November 6, 2004.
- Gerard J Fitzgerald. American Journal of Public Health. Washington: Apr 2008. Vol. 98, Iss. 4; p. 611
- Гречко, А.А. (1976). Годы Войны. Военное Издательство Министерства Оборонны СССР.Москва.
Further reading
- Leo P. Brophy and George J. B. Fisher; The Chemical Warfare Service: Organizing for War Office of the Chief of Military History, 1959; L. P. Brophy, W. D. Miles and C. C. Cochrane, The Chemical Warfare Service: From Laboratory to Field (1959); and B. E. Kleber and D. Birdsell, The Chemical Warfare Service in Combat (1966). official US history;
- Glenn Cross, Dirty War: Rhodesia and Chemical Biological Warfare, 1975–1980, Helion & Company, 2017
- Gordon M. Burck and Charles C. Flowerree; International Handbook on Chemical Weapons Proliferation 1991
- L. F. Haber. The Poisonous Cloud: Chemical Warfare in the First World War Oxford University Press: 1986
- James W. Hammond Jr; Poison Gas: The Myths Versus Reality Greenwood Press, 1999
- Jiri Janata, Role of Analytical Chemistry in Defense Strategies Against Chemical and Biological Attack, Annual Review of Analytical Chemistry, 2009
- Ishmael Jones, The Human Factor: Inside the CIA's Dysfunctional Intelligence Culture, Encounter Books, New York 2008, revised 2010, ISBN 978-1-59403-382-7. WMD espionage.
- Benoit Morel and Kyle Olson; Shadows and Substance: The Chemical Weapons Convention Westview Press, 1993
- Geoff Plunkett, Chemical Warfare in Australia: Australia's Involvement In Chemical Warfare 1914 – Today, (2nd Edition), 2013.. Leech Cup Books. A volume in the Army Military History Series published in association with the Army History Unit.
- Jonathan B. Tucker. Chemical Warfare from World War I to Al-Qaeda (2006)