History of chess
This article needs to be updated.(January 2021) |
The history of chess can be traced back nearly 1,500 years to its earliest known predecessor, called
"Romantic chess" was the predominant playing style from the late 18th century to the 1880s.[1] Chess games of this period emphasized quick, tactical maneuvers rather than long-term strategic planning.[1] The Romantic era of play was followed by the Scientific, Hypermodern, and New Dynamism eras.[1] In the second half of the 19th century, modern chess tournament play began, and the first official World Chess Championship was held in 1886. The 20th century saw great leaps forward in chess theory and the establishment of the World Chess Federation. In 1997, an IBM supercomputer beat Garry Kasparov, the then world chess champion, in the famous Deep Blue versus Garry Kasparov match, ushering the game into an era of computer domination. Since then, computer analysis – which originated in the 1970s with the first programmed chess games on the market – has contributed to much of the development in chess theory and has become an important part of preparation in professional human chess. Later developments in the 21st century made the use of computer analysis far surpassing the ability of any human player accessible to the public. Online chess, which first appeared in the mid-1990s, also became popular in the 21st century.
Origin
Precursors to
Chess was introduced to
The game was taken up by the Muslim world after the early Arab Muslims conquered the Sassanid Empire, with the pieces largely keeping their Persian names. The Moors of North Africa rendered the Persian term "shatranj" as shaṭerej, which gave rise to the Spanish acedrex, axedrez and ajedrez; in Portuguese it became xadrez, and in Greek zatrikion (ζατρίκιον), but in the rest of Europe it was replaced by versions of the Persian shāh ("king"). Thus, the game came to be called lūdus scacc(h)ōrum or scacc(h)ī in Latin, scacchi in Italian, escacs in Catalan, échecs in French (Old French eschecs), schaken in Dutch, Schach in German, szachy in Polish, šahs in Latvian, skak in Danish, sjakk in Norwegian, schack in Swedish, šakki in Finnish, šah in South Slavic languages, sakk in Hungarian and şah in Romanian; there are two theories about why this change happened:
- From the exclamation "check" or "checkmate" as it was pronounced in various languages.
- From the first chessmen known of in Western Europe (except Iberia and Greece) being ornamental chess kings brought in as curios by Muslim traders.
The Mongols call the game shatar, and in Ethiopia it is called senterej, both evidently derived from shatranj.
Chess spread directly from the Middle East to Russia, where chess became known as шахматы (shakhmaty, literally "checkmates", a plurale tantum).
The game reached Western Europe and Russia by at least three routes, the earliest being in the 9th century. By the year 1000 it had spread throughout Europe.
Chess spread throughout the world and many variants of the game soon began taking shape.
The game was developed extensively in Europe. By the late 15th century, it had survived a series of prohibitions and
India
The earliest precursor of modern chess is a game called
Chess was designed for an ashtāpada (Sanskrit for "having eight feet", i.e. an 8×8 squared board), which may have been used earlier for a backgammon-type race game (perhaps related to a dice-driven race game still played in south India where the track starts at the middle of a side and spirals into the center).[19] Ashtāpada, the uncheckered 8×8 board served as the main board for playing chaturanga.[20] Other Indian boards included the 10×10 Dasapada and the 9×9 Saturankam.[20] Traditional Indian chessboards often have X markings on some or all of squares a1 a4 a5 a8 d1 d4 d5 d8 e1 e4 e5 e8 h1 h4 h5 h8: these may have been "safe squares" where capturing was not allowed in a dice-driven backgammon-type race game played on the ashtāpada before chess was invented.[21]
The
In
Some people formerly played chess using a
Scholars in areas to which the game subsequently spread, for example the Arab
In some variants, a win was by checkmate, or by stalemate, or by "bare king" (taking all of an opponent's pieces except the king).
In some parts of India the pieces in the places of the rook, knight and bishop were renamed by words meaning (in this order) Boat, Horse, and Elephant, or Elephant, Horse, and Camel, but keeping the same moves.[27] In early chess the moves of the pieces were:
Original name | Modern name | Version | Original move |
---|---|---|---|
king | king | all | as now |
adviser | queen | all | one square diagonally, only |
elephant | bishop | Persia and west | two squares diagonally (no more or less), but could jump over a piece between |
an old Indian version | two squares sideways or front-and-back (no more or less), but could jump over a piece between | ||
southeast and east Asia | one square diagonally, or one square forwards, like four legs and trunk of elephant | ||
horse | knight | all | as now |
chariot | rook | all | as now |
foot-soldier | pawn | all | one square forwards (not two squares from initial position), capturing one square diagonally forward; promoted to queen only |
Two Arab travelers each recorded a severe Indian chess rule against stalemate:[28]
- A stalemated player thereby at once wins.
- A stalemated king can take one of the enemy pieces that would check the king if the king moves.
Iran (Persia)
-
New York Metropolitan Museum of Art[29]
-
Persianmanuscript from the 14th century describing how an ambassador from India brought chess to the Persian court
-
Shams-i Tabrīzī as portrayed in a 1500 painting in a page of a copy of Rumi's poem dedicated to Shams
-
Chess game betweenTha'ālibī and Bākhazarī, 1896 painting by Ludwig Deutsch
The
A manuscript explaining the rules of the game, called "Matikan-i-chatrang" (the book of chess) in Middle Persian or Pahlavi, still exists.[31] In the 11th-century Shahnameh, Ferdowsi describes a Raja visiting from India who re-enacts the past battles on the chessboard.[26] A translation in English, based on the manuscripts in the British Museum, is given below:[30]
One day an ambassador from the king of
Chosroes, and after an oriental exchange of courtesies, the ambassador produced rich presents from his sovereign and amongst them was an elaborate board with curiously carved pieces of ebony and ivory. He then issued a challenge:
"Oh great king, fetch your wise men and let them solve the mysteries of this game. If they succeed my master the king of Hind will pay tribute as an overlord, but if they fail it will be proof that the Persians are of lower intellect and we shall demand tribute from Iran."
The courtiers were shown the board, and after a day and a night in deep thought one of them, Bozorgmehr, solved the mystery and was richly rewarded by his delighted sovereign.[a]
The Shahnameh goes on to offer an apocryphal account of the origins of the game of chess in the story of Talhand and Gav, two half-brothers who vie for the throne of Hind (India). They meet in battle and Talhand dies on his elephant without a wound. Believing that Gav had killed Talhand, their mother is distraught. Gav tells his mother that Talhand did not die by the hands of him or his men, but she does not understand how this could be. So the sages of the court invent the game of chess, detailing the pieces and how they move, to show the mother of the princes how the battle unfolded and how Talhand died of fatigue when surrounded by his enemies.[32] The poem uses the Persian term "Shāh māt" (check mate) to describe the fate of Talhand.[33]
The philosopher and theologian
Indeed, a person who has become habituated to gaming with pigeons, playing chess, or gambling, so that it becomes second-nature to him, will give all the comforts of the world and all that he has for those (pursuits) and cannot keep away from them.
The appearance of the
East Asia
China
As a strategy board game played in China, chess is believed to have been derived from the Indian chaturanga.
An alternative origin theory contends that chess arose from
Japan
A prominent variant of chess in East Asia is the game of shogi, transmitted from India to China and Korea before finally reaching Japan.[42] The three distinguishing features of shogi are:
- The captured pieces may be reused by the captor and played as a part of the captor's forces.
- Pawns capture as they move, one square straight ahead.[43]
- The board is 9×9, with a second gold general on the other side of the king.
Drops were not originally part of shogi. In the 13th century, shogi underwent an expansion, creating the game of dai shogi, played on a 15×15 board with many new pieces, including the independently invented rook, bishop and queen of modern Western chess, the drunk elephant that promotes to a second king, and also the even more powerful lion, which among other idiosyncrasies has the power to move or capture twice per turn. Around the 14th or 15th centuries, the popularity of dai shogi then waned in favour of the smaller chu shogi, played on a smaller 12×12 board which removed the weakest pieces from dai shogi, similarly to the development of Courier chess in the West. In the meantime, the original 9×9 shogi, now termed sho shogi, continued to be played, but was regarded as less prestigious than chu shogi and dai shogi. Chu shogi was very popular in Japan, and the rook, bishop, and drunk elephant from it were added to sho shogi, where the first two remain today.
In the 15th and 16th centuries, yet more shogi variants were described, on large boards and with many more pieces. The 1694 book Shōgi Zushiki details tenjiku shogi (16×16), dai dai shogi (17×17), maka dai dai shogi (19×19), and tai shogi (25×25); it also mentions wa shogi (11×11), ko shogi (19×19), and taikyoku shogi (36×36). It is not thought that these games were played very much.
Chu shogi declined in popularity after the addition of drops to sho shogi and the removal of the drunk elephant in the 16th century, becoming moribund around the late 20th century. These changes to sho shogi created what is essentially the modern game of shogi.
Thailand
The Thai variant of chess, makruk is a close living relative to chaturanga, retaining the vizier, non-checkered board, limited promotion, offset kings, and elephant-like bishop move.[44]
Mongolia
Chess is recorded from Mongolian-inhabited areas, where the pieces are now called:
- King: Noyon – Ноён – lord
- Queen: Bers / Nohoi – Бэрс / Нохой – dog (to guard the livestock)
- Bishop: Temē – Тэмээ – camel
- Knight: Morĭ – Морь – horse
- Rook: Tereg – Тэрэг – cart
- Pawn: Hū – Хүү – boy (the piece often showed a puppy)
Names recorded from the 1880s by Russian sources, quoted in Murray,
The change with the queen is likely due to the Arabic word
Western chess is now the prevalent form of the game in Mongolia.
East Siberia
Chess was also recorded from the
Arab world
Chess passed from Persia to the Arab world, where its name changed to Arabic shatranj. From there it passed to Western Europe, probably via Spain.
Over the centuries, features of European chess (e.g. the modern moves of queen and bishop, and castling) found their way via trade into Islamic areas. Murray's sources found the old moves of queen and bishop still current in Ethiopia.[47] The game became so popular it was used in writing at that time, played by nobility and regular people. The poet al-Katib once said, "The skilled player places his pieces in such a way as to discover consequences that the ignorant man never sees... thus, he serves the Sultan's interests, by showing how to foresee disaster."[6]
Russia
Chess has 1000 years of history in Russia. Chess was probably brought to
Europe
Early history
This paragraph may be confusing or unclear to readers. (May 2013) |
In the 14th century, Timur played an enlarged variation of the game which is commonly referred to as Tamerlane chess. This complex game involved each pawn having a particular purpose, as well as additional pieces.[52]
The sides are conventionally called White and Black. But, in earlier European chess writings, the sides were often called Red and Black because those were the commonly available colours of ink when handwriting drawing a chess game layout. In such layouts, each piece was represented by its name, often abbreviated (e.g. "ch'r" for French "chevalier" = "knight").
The social value attached to the game – seen as a prestigious pastime associated with nobility and high culture – is clear from the expensive and exquisitely made chessboards of the medieval era.
The practice of playing chess for money became so widespread during the 13th century that Louis IX of France issued an ordinance against gambling in 1254.[53] This ordinance turned out to be unenforceable and was largely neglected by the common public, and even the courtly society, which continued to enjoy the now-prohibited chess tournaments uninterrupted.[53]
-
Knights Templar playing chess, Libro de los juegos, 1283
-
Alfonso X's Libro del axedrez dados et tablas ("Book of chess, dices and tables"), c. 1283.
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Otto IV of Brandenburgplaying chess with a woman, 1305 to 1340
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A couple playing chess, ivory mirror case c. 1300
Shapes of pieces
The pieces, which had been nonrepresentational in Islamic countries (see piece values in shatranj), changed shape in Christian cultures. Carved images of men and animals reappeared. The shape of the rook, originally a rectangular block with a V-shaped cut in the top, changed; the two top parts separated by the split tended to get long and hang over, and in some old pictures look like horses' heads. The split top of the piece now called the bishop was interpreted as a bishop's mitre or a fool's cap.
By the mid-12th century, the pieces of the chess set were depicted as kings, queens, bishops, knights and
Names of pieces
The following table provides a glimpse of the changes in names and character of chess pieces as they crossed from India through Persia to Europe:[60][61]
Sanskrit | Bengali | Persian | Arabic | Turkish | Latin | English | Spanish | Portuguese | Italian | French | Catalan | Romanian |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Raja (King) | Raja (King) | Shah | Malik | Şah | Rex | King | Rey | Rei | Re | Roi | Rei | Rege |
Mantri (Minister) | Mantri (Minister) | Vazīr ( Vizir ) |
Wazīr/Firz | Vezir | Regina | Queen | Reina/Dama | Rainha/Dama | Regina | Dame | Dama/Reina | Regină |
Gajah (war elephant) | Hati | Pil | Al-Fīl | Fil | Episcopus/Comes/Calvus | Bishop/Count/Councillor | Alfil/Obispo | Bispo | Alfiere | Fou | Alfil | Nebun |
Ashva (horse) | Ghora (horse) | Asp | Fars/Hisan | At | Miles/ Eques |
Knight | Caballo | Cavalo | Cavallo | Cavalier | Cavall | Cal |
Ratha (chariot) | Nowka | Rokh | Qal`a/Rukhkh | Kale | Rochus/Marchio | Rook/Margrave/Castle | Torre/Roque | Torre | Torre/Rocco | Tour | Torre | Turn/Tură |
Padati (footman/footsoldier) | Shoinnya | Piadeh | Baidaq/Jondi | Piyon | Pedes/Pedinus | Pawn | Peón | Peão | Pedone/Pedina | Pion | Peó | Pion |
The game, as played during the early Middle Ages, was slow, with many games lasting days.[13] Some variations in rules began to change the shape of the game by the year 1300. A notable, but initially unpopular, change was the ability of the pawn to move two places in the first move instead of one.[62]
In Europe some of the pieces gradually received new names:
- Fers: "queen", because it starts beside the king.
- Aufin: "bishop", because its two points looked like a bishop's mitre. Its Latin name alfinus was reinterpreted many ways.
Early changes to the rules
a | b | c | d | e | f | g | h | ||
8 | 8 | ||||||||
7 | 7 | ||||||||
6 | 6 | ||||||||
5 | 5 | ||||||||
4 | 4 | ||||||||
3 | 3 | ||||||||
2 | 2 | ||||||||
1 | 1 | ||||||||
a | b | c | d | e | f | g | h |
Attempts to make the start of the game run faster to get the opposing pieces in contact sooner included:
- Pawn moving two squares in its first move. This led to the en passant rule: a pawn placed so that it could have captured the enemy pawn if it had moved one square forward was allowed to capture it on the passed square. In Italy, the contrary rule (passar battaglia = "to pass battle") applied: a pawn that moved two squares forward had passed the danger of attack on the intermediate square. It was sometimes not allowed to do this to cover check.[63]
- King jumping once, to make it quicker to put the king safe in a corner. (This eventually led to castling.)
- Queen on its first move moving two squares straight or diagonally to a same-coloured square, with jump. (This rule sometimes also applied to a queen made by promoting a pawn.)
- The short assize. ("assize" = "sitting") Here the pawns started on the third rank; the queens started on d3 and d6 along with the queens' pawns; the players arranged their other pieces as they wished behind their pawns at the start of the game. This idea did not endure.[64]
Other sporadic variations in the rules of chess included:
- Ignoring check from a piece which was covering check, as some said that in theory (in the diagram on the right), Bxe7 would allow Rxc8 in reply.[65]
Introduction of new rules
The queen and bishop remained relatively weak until between 1475 AD and 1500 AD, in
In some areas (e.g. Russia), the queen could also move like a knight.
A poem Caïssa published in 1527 led to the chess rook being often renamed as "castle", and the modern shape of the rook chess piece; see Vida's poem for more information.
An Italian player,
The first full work dealing with the various winning combinations was written by François-André Danican Philidor of France, regarded as the best chess player in the world for nearly 50 years, and published in the 18th century.[14][non-tertiary source needed] He wrote and published L'Analyse des échecs (The Analysis of Chess), an influential work which appeared in more than 100 editions.[14][non-tertiary source needed]
-
A tactical puzzle fromLucena's1497 book
-
A gaming table with chessboard (Germany, 1735).
-
A Russian set made of walrus ivory, 1750s
-
Portrait of François-André Danican Philidor from L'analyse des échecs. London, second edition, 1777
-
Original Staunton chess pieces by Nathaniel Cooke from 1849
Writings on the
As the 19th century progressed, chess organization developed quickly. Many
Modern competitive chess
The first recorded chess tournament took place in 1575 in El Escorial, Spain. It was won by the Calabrese Leonardo di Bona.[78]
Competitive chess became visible in 1834 with the
In 1861 the first time limits, using sandglasses, were employed in a tournament match at Bristol, England. The sandglasses were later replaced by pendulums. Modern clocks, consisting of two parallel timers with a small button for a player to press after completing a move, were later employed to aid the players. A tiny latch called a flag further helped settle arguments over players exceeding time limit at the turn of the 19th century.[15][non-tertiary source needed]
A Russian composer, Vladimir Korolkov, authored a work entitled "Excelsior" in 1958 in which the White side wins only by making six consecutive captures by a pawn.[79][non-tertiary source needed] Position analysis became particularly popular in the 19th century.[79][non-tertiary source needed] Many leading players were also accomplished analysts, including Max Euwe, Mikhail Botvinnik, Vasily Smyslov and Jan Timman.[79][non-tertiary source needed] Digital clocks appeared in the 1980s.[15][non-tertiary source needed]
Another problem that arose in competitive chess was when adjourning a game for a meal break or overnight. The player who moved last before adjournment would be at a disadvantage, as the other player would have a long period to analyze before having to make a reply when the game was resumed. Preventing access to a chess set to work out moves during the adjournment would not stop him from analyzing the position in his head. Various strange ideas were attempted, but the eventual solution was the "
Birth of a sport (1850–1945)
The first modern chess tournament was
Deeper insight into the nature of chess came with two younger players. American Paul Morphy, an extraordinary chess prodigy, won against all important competitors, including Anderssen, during his short chess career between 1857 and 1863. Morphy's success stemmed from a combination of brilliant attacks and sound strategy; he intuitively knew how to prepare attacks.[83] Prague-born Wilhelm Steinitz later described how to avoid weaknesses in one's own position and how to create and exploit such weaknesses in the opponent's position.[84] In addition to his theoretical achievements, Steinitz founded an important tradition: his triumph over the leading Polish-German master Johannes Zukertort in 1886 is regarded as the first official World Chess Championship. Steinitz lost his crown in 1894 to a much younger German mathematician Emanuel Lasker, who maintained this title for 27 years, the longest tenure of all World Champions.[85]
It took a prodigy from Cuba, José Raúl Capablanca (World champion 1921–27), who loved simple positions and endgames, to end the German-speaking dominance in chess; he was undefeated in tournament play for eight years until 1924. His successor was Russian-French Alexander Alekhine, a strong attacking player, who died as the World champion in 1946, having briefly lost the title to Dutch player Max Euwe in 1935, regaining it two years later.[86]
Between the world wars, chess was revolutionized by the new theoretical school of so-called hypermodernists like Aron Nimzowitsch and Richard Réti. They advocated controlling the center of the board with distant pieces rather than with pawns, inviting opponents to occupy the center with pawns which become objects of attack.[87]
Since the end of 19th century, the number of annually held master tournaments and matches quickly grew. Some sources state that in 1914 the title of
During World War II, many prominent chess players died or were killed, including:
Post-war era (1945 and later)
After the death of Alekhine, a new World Champion was sought in a tournament of elite players ruled by FIDE, who have controlled the title since then, with a sole interruption. The winner of the 1948 tournament, Russian Mikhail Botvinnik, ushered in an era of Soviet dominance in the chess world. Until the end of the Soviet Union, there was only one non-Soviet champion, American Bobby Fischer (champion 1972–75).[91]
In the previous informal system, the World Champion decided which challenger he would play for the title and the challenger was forced to seek sponsors for the match.
Botvinnik participated in championship matches over a period of fifteen years. He won the world championship tournament in 1948 and retained the title in tied matches in 1951 and 1954. In 1957, he lost to Vasily Smyslov, but regained the title in a rematch in 1958. In 1960, he lost the title to the Latvian prodigy Mikhail Tal, an accomplished tactician and attacking player. Botvinnik again regained the title in a rematch in 1961.
Following the 1961 event, FIDE abolished the automatic right of a deposed champion to a rematch, and the next champion, Armenian Tigran Petrosian, a genius of defense and strong positional player, was able to hold the title for two cycles, 1963–69. His successor, Boris Spassky from Russia (1969–72), was a player able to win in both positional and sharp tactical style.[93]
The next championship saw the first non-Soviet challenger since World War II, Bobby Fischer, who defeated his Candidates opponents by unheard-of margins and won the world championship match. In 1975, however, Fischer refused to defend his title against Soviet Anatoly Karpov when FIDE refused to meet his demands, and Karpov obtained the title by default. Karpov defended his title twice against Viktor Korchnoi and dominated the 1970s and early 1980s with a string of tournament successes.[94]
Karpov's reign finally ended in 1985 at the hands of another Russian player, Garry Kasparov. Kasparov and Karpov contested five world title matches between 1984 and 1990; Karpov never won his title back.[95]
In 1993, Garry Kasparov and Nigel Short cut ties with FIDE to organize their own match for the title and formed a competing Professional Chess Association (PCA). From then until 2006, there were two simultaneous World Champions and World Championships: the PCA or Classical champion extending the Steinitzian tradition in which the current champion plays a challenger in a series of many games; the other following FIDE's new format of many players competing in a tournament to determine the champion. Kasparov lost his Classical title in 2000 to Vladimir Kramnik of Russia.
Earlier in 1999, Kasparov as the reigning world champion played a game online against the world team composed of more than 50,000 participants from more than 75 countries. The moves of the world team were decided by plurality vote, and after 62 moves played over four months Kasparov won the game.[96]
The
Rule changes
Stalemate was originally considered an inferior form of victory; at various times it has been considered a win, a draw, or even a loss for the player delivering it. Since the 18th century, it has been considered a draw.
The convention that White moves first was established in the 19th century; previously either White or Black could move first.
Castling rules have varied, variations persisting in Italy until the late 19th century.
Rules concerning
There have been no recent changes to the moves of the pieces, but the wording of some rules has been changed for the purposes of clarity.
The
In line with the rule against receiving outside assistance, if a player's mobile phone or other electronic device generates sound, the player is immediately forfeited.[104] In amateur tournaments players are asked to hand their phones to the tournament director; in professional tournaments they may be required to go through a metal detector.
See also
- Outline of chess § History of chess
- Chess in the arts
- Computer chess
- History of chess engines
- List of chess historians
- List of chess variants
- List of games that Buddha would not play
- School of chess
- Timeline of chess
- Wheat and chessboard problem
Notes
- ^ R. C. Bell, commenting on the objective impossibility of divining the rules of the game by scrutinizing the equipment, suggested in Board and Table Games from Many Civilizations (Vol. I p. 57) that Bozorgmehr likely found the rules by bribing the Indian ambassador.
References
- ^ ISBN 9780385510103.
- ^ "The History Of Chess". ChessZone. Retrieved 29 March 2011.
- ^ Murray (1913), pp. 26-27, pp. 51-52
- ^ Murray, Davidson, Hooper & Whyld, and Golombek all give this correspondence, with the bishop corresponding to the elephant and the rook corresponding to a chariot. Bird (pp 4, 46) exchanges the bishop and rook.
- ^ a b c Meri 2005: 148
- ^ a b c d Shenk, David. "The Immortal Game." Doubleday, 2006.
- ^ Hooper and Whyld, 144-45 (first edition)
- ^ Gollon, John. Chess Variations, Ancient, Regional, and Modern. Charles E. Tuttle Co.: Publishers, Rutland, Vermont and Tokyo, Japan, 1968. Sec. One, Sec. Two
- ^ Murray (1913), pp. 119ff.
- ^ Remus, Horst, "The Origin of Chess and the Silk Road" Archived 2011-05-16 at the Wayback Machine, The Silk Road journal, The Silkroad Foundation, v.1(1), January 15, 2003.
- ^ a b c Chess: Introduction to Europe (Encyclopædia Britannica 2007)
- ^ Murray (1913), p. 402
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Riddler 1998
- ^ a b c d e Chess: Development of Theory (Encyclopædia Britannica 2002)
- ^ a b c d e f Chess: The time element and competition (Encyclopædia Britannica 2002)
- ^ Lasker, Edward. The Adventure of Chess. Dover Publications, Inc., New York, New York, 1949, 1950, 1959. pp. 87–117
- ^ Lasker, Edward. The Adventure of Chess. Dover Publications, Inc., New York, New York, 1949, 1950, 1959. pp. 3–4
- ^ a b c Chess: Ancient precursors and related games (Encyclopædia Britannica 2002)
- ^ Murray (1913), p. 40
- ^ a b Wilkins 2002: 46
- ^ a b Murray (1913), p. 42
- ^ Bell (1979) Vol. I, pp.52-57
- ^ Hooper 1992: 74
- ^ Kulke 2004: 9
- ^ Wilkins 2002: 48
- ^ a b c Wilkinson 1943
- ^ Murray (1913), p. 27
- ^ A History of Chess
- ^ See the chess set's page on the Museum's website.
- ^ a b Bell 1979: 57
- ^ Warner & Warner 2008, p. 394-402.
- ^ Yalom 2004, p. 5.
- ^ Al-Ghazali, The Alchemy of Happiness, Mohammad Nur Abdus Salam, p. 27-28
- ^ Eales 1985.
- ^ Gollon, John. Chess Variations, Ancient, Regional, and Modern. Charles E. Tuttle Co.: Publishers, Rutland, Vermont and Tokyo, Japan, 1968. p.139
- ^ a b Bell 1979, V.I p.66
- ^ Murray 1913, p.126
- ^ "The History Of Chess". ChessZone. Retrieved 11 December 2012.
- ^ a b Li 1998
- ^ "Banaschak: A story well told is not necessarily true – being a critical assessment of David H. Li's "The Genealogy of Chess"". Retrieved 1 October 2013.
- ^ Murray 1913, p.138
- ^ Gollon, John. Chess Variations, Ancient, Regional, and Modern. Charles E. Tuttle Co.: Publishers, Rutland, Vermont and Tokyo, Japan, 1968. p.167
- ^ Gollon, John. Chess Variations, Ancient, Regional, and Modern. Charles E. Tuttle Co.: Publishers, Rutland, Vermont and Tokyo, Japan, 1968. pp.197–198
- ^ a b Murray (1913), p. 367, p. 372
- ^ Murray (1913), pp. 373-374
- ^ Murray (1913), p. 364
- ^ Waliszewski, Kazimierz; Mary Loyd (1904). Ivan the Terrible. Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott. pp. 377–78.
- ^ Richards. "The Vocabulary of the Russian Chessboard". New Zealand Slavonic Journal. 2: 63–72 – via JSTOR.
- ^ "First Russian chessmen". history.chess.free.fr. Retrieved 2019-10-13.
- ^ правды», Никита КЛЮЧЕНКОВ | Сайт «Комсомольской (2019-08-05). "Шахматы стали обязательным школьным предметом". KP.RU - сайт «Комсомольской правды» (in Russian). Retrieved 2019-10-13.
- ^ Rudolph, Jess. "The History and Variants in West Asia." Case Western Reserve University.
- ^ a b c Vale 2001: 172
- ^ a b c Gamer 1954
- ^ a b Vale 2001: 177
- ^ a b Vale 2001: 171
- ^ Vale 2001: 152
- ^ a b Vale 2001: 173
- ^ Vale 2001: 151
- ^ Vale 2001: 174
- ^ Murray, H. J. R.: 1913
- ^ Bell (1979), pp. 62–64
- ISBN 0-87817-211-4.
- ^ Murray (1913), pp. 476-478
- ^ Murray (1913), p. 509
- ^ "Francesco di Castellvi vs Narciso Vinyoles (1475) "Old in Chess"". www.chessgames.com.
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