History of chromatography
The history of chromatography spans from the mid-19th century to the 21st.
Precursors
The earliest use of chromatography—passing a mixture through an inert material to create separation of the solution components based on differential
In the 1860s, Christian Friedrich Schönbein and his student Friedrich Goppelsroeder published the first attempts to study the different rates at which different substances move through filter paper.[4][5][6] Schönbein, who thought capillary action (rather than adsorption) was responsible for the movement, called the technique capillary analysis, and Goppelsroeder spent much of his career using capillary analysis to test the movement rates of a wide variety of substances. Unlike modern paper chromatography, capillary analysis used reservoirs of the substance being analyzed, creating overlapping zones of the solution components rather than separate points or bands.[7][8]
Work on capillary analysis continued, but without much technical development, well into the 20th century. The first significant advances over Goppelsroeder's methods came with the work of
In 1897, the American chemist David Talbot Day (1859–1915), then serving with the U.S. Geological Survey, observed that crude petroleum generated bands of color as it seeped upwards through finely divided clay or limestone.[13] In 1900, he reported his findings at the First International Petroleum Congress in Paris, where they created a sensation.[14][15]
Tsvet and column chromatography
The first true chromatography is usually attributed to the Russian-Italian botanist
In a 1903 lecture (published in 1905), Tsvet also described using filter paper to approximate the properties of living plant fibers in his experiments on plant pigments—a precursor to
Tsvet's work saw little use until the 1930s.[17]
Martin and Synge and partition chromatography
Chromatography methods changed little after Tsvet's work until the explosion of mid-20th century research in new techniques, particularly thanks to the work of
In pursuit of better and easier methods of identifying the amino acid constituents of peptides, Martin and Synge turned to other chromatography media as well. A short abstract in 1943 followed by a detailed article in 1944 described the use of filter paper as the stationary phase for performing chromatography on amino acids:
Refining the techniques
Martin, in collaboration with Anthony T. James, went on to develop gas chromatography[25] (GC; the principles of which Martin and Synge had predicted in their landmark 1941 paper) beginning in 1949. In 1952, during his lecture for the Nobel Prize in Chemistry (shared with Synge, for their earlier chromatography work), Martin announced the successful separation of a wide variety of natural compounds by gas chromatography. Previously, Erika Cremer had laid the theoretical basis of GC in 1944 and Austrian chemist Fritz Prior, under the direction of Erika Cremer, constructed in 1947 the first prototype of a gas chromatograph[26] and achieved separating oxygen and carbon dioxide, in 1947 during his Ph.D. research.[27]
The ease and efficiency of gas chromatography for separating organic chemicals spurred the rapid adoption of the method, as well as the rapid development of new detection methods for analyzing the output. The
The work of Martin and Synge also set the stage for
Thin layer chromatography
The first developments in
Later developments
In 1987 Pedro Cuatrecasas and Meir Wilchek were awarded the Wolf Prize in Medicine for the invention and development of affinity chromatography and its applications to biomedical sciences.[citation needed]
References
- ^ "chromatography". Online Etymology Dictionary.
- ^ Runge placed drops of reactant solutions on blotting paper and then added a drop of a second reactant solution on top of the first drop. The solutions would react as they spread through the blotting paper, often producing colored patterns. His results were published in two books:
- Runge, F. F. (1850) Farbenchemie. Musterbilder für Freunde des Schönen und zum Gebrauch für Zeichner, Maler, Verzierer und Zeugdrucker, dargestellt durch chemische Wechselwirkung [Color chemistry. Sample images for friends of beauty and for use by sketchers, painters, decorators, and printers, prepared by chemical interaction]. Berlin, Germany, self-published.
- Runge, F. F. (1855) Der Bildungstrieb der Stoffe, veranschaulicht in selbstständig gewachsenen Bilder [The formative tendency of substances illustrated by autonomously developed images]. Oranienburg, Germany, self-published.
- ^ Ettre, p. 410. L.S. Ettre (1922–2010) was a Hungarian-American chemist and author of several publications on the history of chromatography.
- ^ Schönbein, Christian (1861). "Ueber einige durch die Haarröhrchenanziehung des Papiers hervorgebrachten Trennungswirkungen" [On some separation effects produced by capillary attraction of paper]. Verhandlungen der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft zu Basel. 3 (2): 249–255.
- ^ Goppelsröder, Friedrich (1861). "Ueber ein Verfahren, die Farbstoffe in ihren Gemischen zu erkennen" [On a method for detecting the colorings in mixtures of them]. Verhandlungen der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft zu Basel. 3 (2): 268–275.
- ^ Goppelsroeder, Friedrich (1901) Capillaranalyse beruhend auf Capillaritäts- und Adsorptionserscheinungen ... [Capillary analysis based on phenomena of capillarity and adsorption ... ] Basel, Switzerland: Emil Birkhäuser.
- ^ Ettre, pp. 411–412.
- ^ However, in his book Capillaranalyse ... (1901), Goppelsroeder stated (p. 168) that he had been separating plant colorants since 1880, and that he had achieved complete separations of those colorants. From p. 166:
"Bietet sich auch dem Auge bei Betrachtung der verschiedenen Pflanzenorgane eine wunderbare Mannigfaltigkeit der Farben und Farbenabstufungen dar, so bleibt ihm doch die wichtige Thatsache verborgen, dass meist nicht nur ein einziger Farbstoff, sondern mehrere nebeneinander in demselben Organe vorkommen. Während das Auge nur eine Färbung erkennt und wir desshalb glauben, dass dieselbe einem bestimmten einzelnen Farbstoff angehöre, lässt uns die Capillaranalyse meist mehrere verschieden gefärbte Zonen auf den Capillarstreifen in bestimmer, sehr oft von farblosen Zonen unterbrochener Reihenfolge erkennen. Das Chlorophyll oder Blattgrün z.B. findet sich nicht nur in den grünen, sonder auch in anders gefärbten Organen, beispielsweise verdeckt durch die rote Färbung des Zellsafts in den Blättern der Blutbuche neben dem roten Anthokyan, sowie neben roten Phycoerythrin in den Rotalgen, den Florideen. Diese verschiedenen Farbstoffe lassen sich durch Capillaranalyse in den gemeinschaftlichen Auszügen, ohne irgend welche sonstige Trennungsmanipulationen nebeneinander nachweisen. Sind sie capillarisch in Zonen getrennt, dann genügt deren spectroscopische und chemische Prüfung zur endgiltigen Feststellung ihrer Natur."
(If a wonderful variety of colors and color gradations presents itself to the eye when looking at the different plant organs, yet the important fact remains hidden to it: that usually not only a single colorant but several occur side by side in the same organs. While the eye perceives only one color and we believe therefore that it belongs to a certain individual colorant, capillary analysis [i.e., paper chromatography] allows us to detect usually several differently colored zones on the capillary strips in certain sequences [that are] very often interrupted by colorless zones. Chlorophyll or leaf green, for example, is found not only in the green, but also in differently colored organs; for example, obscured by the red color of the protoplasm in the leaves of the copper beech together with red anthocyanin, as well as together with red phycoerythrin in red algae, the Florideae. These various colorants can be detected by capillary analysis in extracts where they are present in combination, without any other concurrent separation treatments. If they are separated into zones by capillarity, then their spectroscopic and chemical examination suffices for the conclusive ascertaining of their nature.) - .
- S2CID 93590051.
- S2CID 264036131.
- ^ Ettre, p. 412.
- JSTOR 983464.
p. 115 ... by experimental work it may easily be demonstrated that if we saturate a limestone such as the Trenton limestone with the oils characteristic of that rock and exert slight pressure upon it, so that it may flow upward through finely divided clay, it is easy to change it in its color ...
- ^ Day, David Talbot (1900) "La variation des caracteres des huiles brutes de Pensylvanie et de l'Ohio" (Variation of the character of crude oil from Pennsylvania and Ohio), Congrès international du pétrole, première session, Paris, 1900. Notes, mémoires et documents , Paris, 1 : 52–56. Reprinted in: Day, David F. (November 1901). "La variation des caracteres des huiles brutes de Pensylvanie et de l'Ohio" [Variation of the character of crude oil from Pennsylvania and Ohio]. Revue de Chimie Industrielle. 12 (143): 308–310. Reprinted in English in Day, David T. (1900). "The variation in the character of Pennsylvania and Ohio crude oils". The Petroleum Review. 3 supp: 9–10.
- ^ Soon after David T. Day's discovery, other researchers investigated the diffusion of petroleum through finely divided earths; viz, the German organic chemist Karl Engler (1842–1925) of the Technical University Karlsruhe and the American chemist Joseph Elliot Gilpin (1866–1924) of Johns Hopkins University:
- Ettre, L. S. (February 1995). "Early petroleum chemists and the beginnings of chromatography". Chromatographia. 40 (3–4): 207–216. S2CID 97078778.
- Weil, Herbert and Williams, Trevor I. (1950). "History of chromatography". Nature. 166 (4232): 1000–1001. S2CID 4297568.)
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link
- Ettre, L. S. (February 1995). "Early petroleum chemists and the beginnings of chromatography". Chromatographia. 40 (3–4): 207–216.
- Engler, C. and Albrecht, E. (1901). "On filtering petroleum with fuller's earth". The Petroleum Review. 5: 354–357.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - Engler, Karl Oswald Viktor and von Heimhalt, Hans Höfer (1913) Das Erdöl: seine Physik, Chemie, Geologie, Technologie und Wirtschaftsbetrieb (Petroleum: Its physics, chemistry, geology, technology and commercial operation), vol. 1. Leipzig, Germany: S. Hirzel; p. 130: "Die Dayschen Versuche erregten damals Aufsehen, da er sie in Beziehung zur Genesis der Erdöle brachte, ... " (Day's experiments created a sensation at that time, since he related them [i.e., his experiments] to the creation of petroleum, ... )
- Gilpin, J. Elliott, and Cram, Marshall P. (1908). "The fractionation of crude petroleum by capillary diffusion". Bulletin of the U.S. Geological Survey. 365.
{{
S2CID 91783346. - Gilpin, J. Elliott and Bransky, Oscar E. (1911). "The diffusion of crude petroleum through fuller's earth with notes on its geologic significance". Bulletin of the U.S. Geological Survey. 475.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Reprinted in Gilpin, J. Elliott and Bransky, Oscar E. (1910). "The diffusion of crude petroleum through fuller's earth". American Chemical Journal. 44 (3): 251–303.{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - Gilpin, J. Elliott and Schneeberger, P. (1913). "Fractionation of California petroleum by diffusion through fuller's earth". American Chemical Journal. 50 (2): 59–100.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Ettre, pp. 412–413.
- ^ Martin, p. 359
- ^ Martin
- ^ Ettre, C. (2001). "Milestones in Chromatography: The Birth of Partition Chromatography" (PDF). LCGC. 19 (5): 506–512. Retrieved 2016-02-26.
- PMID 16747393.
- ^ Martin, pp. 362–366
- PMID 16747422.
- S2CID 20183786.
- PMID 2460023.
- ^ Jones, Mark. "Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry". American Chemical Society. Retrieved 19 Nov 2019.
- ISBN 9780123855404.
- ^ Lesney, Mark S. (1998). "Creating a Central Science: A brief history of 'color writing'". Today's Chemist at Work. 7 (8): 71–72. Archived from the original on 2005-09-03.
- ISBN 9781860949432.
- ^ Touchstone, p. 1650
- ^ Touchstone, pp. 1655–1656
- ^ Touchstone, pp. 1651–1652
Cited sources
- Martin, Archer J. P. (December 12, 1952). "The development of partition chromatography. Nobel Lecture" (PDF). Nobel Lectures, Chemistry 1942–1962. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
- Ettre, Leslie Stephen (2001). "The Predawn of Paper Chromatography". Chromatographia. 54 (5–6): 409–414. S2CID 95357195.
- Touchstone, Joseph C. (1993). "History of Chromatography". Journal of Liquid Chromatography. 16 (8): 1647–1665. .