History of computing hardware
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The history of computing hardware covers the developments from early simple devices to aid calculation to modern day computers.
The first aids to computation were purely mechanical devices which required the operator to set up the initial values of an elementary
Early devices
Ancient and medieval
Devices have been used to aid computation for thousands of years, mostly using
Several
Renaissance calculating tools
Scottish mathematician and physicist John Napier discovered that the multiplication and division of numbers could be performed by the addition and subtraction, respectively, of the logarithms of those numbers. While producing the first logarithmic tables, Napier needed to perform many tedious multiplications. It was at this point that he designed his 'Napier's bones', an abacus-like device that greatly simplified calculations that involved multiplication and division.[d]
Since
Mechanical calculators
In 1609 Guidobaldo del Monte made a mechanical multiplier to calculate fractions of a degree. Based on a system of four gears, the rotation of an index on one quadrant corresponds to 60 rotations of another index on an opposite quadrant.[15] Thanks to this machine, errors in the calculation of first, second, third and quarter degrees can be avoided. Guidobaldo is the first to document the use of gears for mechanical calculation.
Wilhelm Schickard, a German polymath, designed a calculating machine in 1623 which combined a mechanized form of Napier's rods with the world's first mechanical adding machine built into the base. Because it made use of a single-tooth gear there were circumstances in which its carry mechanism would jam.[16] A fire destroyed at least one of the machines in 1624 and it is believed Schickard was too disheartened to build another.
In 1642, while still a teenager, Blaise Pascal started some pioneering work on calculating machines and after three years of effort and 50 prototypes[17] he invented a mechanical calculator.[18][19] He built twenty of these machines (called Pascal's calculator or Pascaline) in the following ten years.[20] Nine Pascalines have survived, most of which are on display in European museums.[e] A continuing debate exists over whether Schickard or Pascal should be regarded as the "inventor of the mechanical calculator" and the range of issues to be considered is discussed elsewhere.[21]
Around 1820, Charles Xavier Thomas de Colmar created what would over the rest of the century become the first successful, mass-produced mechanical calculator, the Thomas Arithmometer. It could be used to add and subtract, and with a moveable carriage the operator could also multiply, and divide by a process of long multiplication and long division.[24] It utilised a stepped drum similar in conception to that invented by Leibniz. Mechanical calculators remained in use until the 1970s.
Punched-card data processing
In 1804, French weaver
In the late 1880s, the American
By 1920, electromechanical tabulating machines could add, subtract, and print accumulated totals.[28] Machine functions were directed by inserting dozens of wire jumpers into removable control panels. When the United States instituted Social Security in 1935, IBM punched-card systems were used to process records of 26 million workers.[29] Punched cards became ubiquitous in industry and government for accounting and administration.
Calculators
By the 20th century, earlier mechanical calculators, cash registers, accounting machines, and so on were redesigned to use electric motors, with gear position as the representation for the state of a variable. The word "computer" was a job title assigned to primarily women who used these calculators to perform mathematical calculations.
Companies like
The world's first all-electronic desktop calculator was the British Bell Punch ANITA, released in 1961.[37][38] It used vacuum tubes, cold-cathode tubes and Dekatrons in its circuits, with 12 cold-cathode "Nixie" tubes for its display. The ANITA sold well since it was the only electronic desktop calculator available, and was silent and quick. The tube technology was superseded in June 1963 by the U.S. manufactured Friden EC-130, which had an all-transistor design, a stack of four 13-digit numbers displayed on a 5-inch (13 cm) CRT, and introduced reverse Polish notation (RPN).
First general-purpose computing device
The Engine incorporated an
There was to be a store (that is, a memory) capable of holding 1,000 numbers of 50 decimal digits each (ca. 16.6
The programming language to be employed by users was akin to modern day
The machine was about a century ahead of its time. However, the project was slowed by various problems including disputes with the chief machinist building parts for it. All the parts for his machine had to be made by hand—this was a major problem for a machine with thousands of parts. Eventually, the project was dissolved with the decision of the British Government to cease funding. Babbage's failure to complete the analytical engine can be chiefly attributed to difficulties not only of politics and financing, but also to his desire to develop an increasingly sophisticated computer and to move ahead faster than anyone else could follow.
Following Babbage, although at first unaware of his earlier work, was Percy Ludgate, a clerk to a corn merchant in Dublin, Ireland. He independently designed a programmable mechanical computer, which he described in a work that was published in 1909.[46][47]
Two other inventors,
Analog computers
In the first half of the 20th century,
The first modern analog computer was a
The differential analyser, a mechanical analog computer designed to solve differential equations by integration using wheel-and-disc mechanisms, was conceptualized in 1876 by James Thomson, the brother of the more famous Lord Kelvin. He explored the possible construction of such calculators, but was stymied by the limited output torque of the ball-and-disk integrators.[55] In a differential analyzer, the output of one integrator drove the input of the next integrator, or a graphing output.
A notable series of analog calculating machines were developed by Leonardo Torres Quevedo since 1895, including one that was able to compute the roots of arbitrary polynomials of order eight, including the complex ones, with a precision down to thousandths.[56][57][58]
An important advance in analog computing was the development of the first
Mechanical devices were also used to aid the accuracy of aerial bombing. Drift Sight was the first such aid, developed by Harry Wimperis in 1916 for the Royal Naval Air Service; it measured the wind speed from the air, and used that measurement to calculate the wind's effects on the trajectory of the bombs. The system was later improved with the Course Setting Bomb Sight, and reached a climax with World War II bomb sights, Mark XIV bomb sight (RAF Bomber Command) and the Norden[59] (United States Army Air Forces).
The art of mechanical analog computing reached its zenith with the
A fully electronic analog computer was built by Helmut Hölzer in 1942 at Peenemünde Army Research Center.[61][62][63]
By the 1950s the success of digital electronic computers had spelled the end for most analog computing machines, but hybrid analog computers, controlled by digital electronics, remained in substantial use into the 1950s and 1960s, and later in some specialized applications.
Advent of the digital computer
The principle of the modern computer was first described by computer scientist Alan Turing, who set out the idea in his seminal 1936 paper,[64] On Computable Numbers. Turing reformulated Kurt Gödel's 1931 results on the limits of proof and computation, replacing Gödel's universal arithmetic-based formal language with the formal and simple hypothetical devices that became known as Turing machines. He proved that some such machine would be capable of performing any conceivable mathematical computation if it were representable as an algorithm. He went on to prove that there was no solution to the Entscheidungsproblem by first showing that the halting problem for Turing machines is undecidable: in general, it is not possible to decide algorithmically whether a given Turing machine will ever halt.
He also introduced the notion of a "universal machine" (now known as a
Electromechanical computers
The era of modern computing began with a flurry of development before and during World War II. Most digital computers built in this period were electromechanical – electric switches drove mechanical relays to perform the calculation. These devices had a low operating speed and were eventually superseded by much faster all-electric computers, originally using vacuum tubes.
The Z2 was one of the earliest examples of an electromechanical relay computer, and was created by German engineer Konrad Zuse in 1940. It was an improvement on his earlier, mechanical Z1; although it used the same mechanical memory, it replaced the arithmetic and control logic with electrical relay circuits.[66]
In the same year, electro-mechanical devices called
: "bomba kryptologiczna").In 1941, Zuse followed his earlier machine up with the
Zuse suffered setbacks during World War II when some of his machines were destroyed in the course of Allied bombing campaigns. Apparently his work remained largely unknown to engineers in the UK and US until much later, although at least IBM was aware of it as it financed his post-war startup company in 1946 in return for an option on Zuse's patents.
In 1944, the Harvard Mark I was constructed at IBM's Endicott laboratories.[74] It was a similar general purpose electro-mechanical computer to the Z3, but was not quite Turing-complete.
Digital computation
The term digital was first suggested by
The mathematical basis of digital computing is
In the 1930s and working independently, American
Electronic data processing
Purely
Engineer Tommy Flowers joined the telecommunications branch of the General Post Office in 1926. While working at the research station in Dollis Hill in the 1930s, he began to explore the possible use of electronics for the telephone exchange. Experimental equipment that he built in 1934 went into operation 5 years later, converting a portion of the telephone exchange network into an electronic data processing system, using thousands of vacuum tubes.[54]
In the US, in 1940 Arthur Dickinson (IBM) invented the first digital electronic computer.[83] This calculating device was fully electronic – control, calculations and output (the first electronic display).[84] John Vincent Atanasoff and Clifford E. Berry of Iowa State University developed the Atanasoff–Berry Computer (ABC) in 1942,[85] the first binary electronic digital calculating device.[86] This design was semi-electronic (electro-mechanical control and electronic calculations), and used about 300 vacuum tubes, with capacitors fixed in a mechanically rotating drum for memory. However, its paper card writer/reader was unreliable and the regenerative drum contact system was mechanical. The machine's special-purpose nature and lack of changeable, stored program distinguish it from modern computers.[87]
Computers whose logic was primarily built using vacuum tubes are now known as first generation computers.
The electronic programmable computer
During World War II, British codebreakers at
They ruled out possible Enigma settings by performing chains of logical deductions implemented electrically. Most possibilities led to a contradiction, and the few remaining could be tested by hand.The Germans also developed a series of teleprinter encryption systems, quite different from Enigma. The
Colossus was the world's first
Most of the use of Colossus was in determining the start positions of the Tunny rotors for a message, which was called "wheel setting". Colossus included the first-ever use of shift registers and systolic arrays, enabling five simultaneous tests, each involving up to 100 Boolean calculations. This enabled five different possible start positions to be examined for one transit of the paper tape.[99] As well as wheel setting some later Colossi included mechanisms intended to help determine pin patterns known as "wheel breaking". Both models were programmable using switches and plug panels in a way their predecessors had not been.
Without the use of these machines, the
The ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) was the first electronic programmable computer built in the US. Although the ENIAC used similar technology to the Colossi, it was much faster and more flexible and was Turing-complete. Like the Colossi, a "program" on the ENIAC was defined by the states of its patch cables and switches, a far cry from the stored-program electronic machines that came later. Once a program was ready to be run, it had to be mechanically set into the machine with manual resetting of plugs and switches. The programmers of the ENIAC were women who had been trained as mathematicians.[101]
It combined the high speed of electronics with the ability to be programmed for many complex problems. It could add or subtract 5000 times a second, a thousand times faster than any other machine. It also had modules to multiply, divide, and square root. High-speed memory was limited to 20 words (equivalent to about 80 bytes). Built under the direction of John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert at the University of Pennsylvania, ENIAC's development and construction lasted from 1943 to full operation at the end of 1945. The machine was huge, weighing 30 tons, using 200 kilowatts of electric power and contained over 18,000 vacuum tubes, 1,500 relays, and hundreds of thousands of resistors, capacitors, and inductors.[102] One of its major engineering feats was to minimize the effects of tube burnout, which was a common problem in machine reliability at that time. The machine was in almost constant use for the next ten years.
Stored-program computer
The theoretical basis for the stored-program computer was proposed by Alan Turing in his 1936 paper On Computable Numbers.[64] Whilst Turing was at Princeton working on his PhD, John von Neumann got to know him and became intrigued by his concept of a universal computing machine.[103]
Early computing machines executed the set sequence of steps, known as a 'program', that could be altered by changing electrical connections using switches or a patch panel (or plugboard). However, this process of 'reprogramming' was often difficult and time-consuming, requiring engineers to create flowcharts and physically re-wire the machines.[104] Stored-program computers, by contrast, were designed to store a set of instructions (a program), in memory – typically the same memory as stored data.
ENIAC inventors John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert proposed, in August 1944, the construction of a machine called the Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer (EDVAC) and design work for it commenced at the University of Pennsylvania's Moore School of Electrical Engineering, before the ENIAC was fully operational. The design implemented a number of important architectural and logical improvements conceived during the ENIAC's construction, and a high-speed serial-access memory.[105] However, Eckert and Mauchly left the project and its construction floundered.
In 1945, von Neumann visited the Moore School and wrote notes on what he saw, which he sent to the project. The U.S. Army liaison there had them typed and circulated as the First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC. The draft did not mention Eckert and Mauchly and, despite its incomplete nature and questionable lack of attribution of the sources of some of the ideas,[54] the computer architecture it outlined became known as the 'von Neumann architecture'.
In 1945, Turing joined the
Turing considered that the speed and the size of
Manchester Baby
The
The machine was not intended to be a practical computer but was instead designed as a
Described as small and primitive in a 1998 retrospective, the Baby was the first working machine to contain all of the elements essential to a modern electronic computer.[111] As soon as it had demonstrated the feasibility of its design, a project was initiated at the university to develop the design into a more usable computer, the Manchester Mark 1. The Mark 1 in turn quickly became the prototype for the Ferranti Mark 1, the world's first commercially available general-purpose computer.[112]
The Baby had a
Manchester Mark 1
The SSEM led to the development of the Manchester Mark 1 at the University of Manchester.[113] Work began in August 1948, and the first version was operational by April 1949; a program written to search for Mersenne primes ran error-free for nine hours on the night of 16/17 June 1949. The machine's successful operation was widely reported in the British press, which used the phrase "electronic brain" in describing it to their readers.
The computer is especially historically significant because of its pioneering inclusion of
EDSAC
The other contender for being the first recognizably modern digital stored-program computer
EDSAC ran its first programs on 6 May 1949, when it calculated a table of squares[118] and a list of prime numbers.The EDSAC also served as the basis for the first commercially applied computer, the LEO I, used by food manufacturing company J. Lyons & Co. Ltd. EDSAC 1 was finally shut down on 11 July 1958, having been superseded by EDSAC 2 which stayed in use until 1965.[119]
The "brain" [computer] may one day come down to our level [of the common people] and help with our income-tax and book-keeping calculations. But this is speculation and there is no sign of it so far.
EDVAC
ENIAC inventors John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert proposed the EDVAC's construction in August 1944, and design work for the EDVAC commenced at the University of Pennsylvania's Moore School of Electrical Engineering, before the ENIAC was fully operational. The design implemented a number of important architectural and logical improvements conceived during the ENIAC's construction, and a high-speed serial-access memory.[105] However, Eckert and Mauchly left the project and its construction floundered.
It was finally delivered to the
Commercial computers
The first commercial computer was the
In October 1947, the directors of
In June 1951, the
In 1952, Compagnie des Machines Bull released the Gamma 3 computer, which became a large success in Europe, eventually selling more than 1,200 units, and the first computer produced in more than 1,000 units.[125] The Gamma 3 had innovative features for its time including a dual-mode, software switchable, BCD and binary ALU, as well as a hardwired floating-point library for scientific computing.[125] In its E.T configuration, the Gamma 3 drum memory could fit about 50,000 instructions for a capacity of 16,384 words (around 100 kB), a large amount for the time.[125]
Compared to the UNIVAC, IBM introduced a smaller, more affordable computer in 1954 that proved very popular.[j][127] The IBM 650 weighed over 900 kg, the attached power supply weighed around 1350 kg and both were held in separate cabinets of roughly 1.5 × 0.9 × 1.8 m. The system cost US$500,000[128] ($5.67 million as of 2024) or could be leased for US$3,500 a month ($40,000 as of 2024).[124] Its drum memory was originally 2,000 ten-digit words, later expanded to 4,000 words. Memory limitations such as this were to dominate programming for decades afterward. The program instructions were fetched from the spinning drum as the code ran. Efficient execution using drum memory was provided by a combination of hardware architecture – the instruction format included the address of the next instruction – and software: the Symbolic Optimal Assembly Program, SOAP,[129] assigned instructions to the optimal addresses (to the extent possible by static analysis of the source program). Thus many instructions were, when needed, located in the next row of the drum to be read and additional wait time for drum rotation was reduced.
Microprogramming
In 1951, British scientist Maurice Wilkes developed the concept of microprogramming from the realisation that the central processing unit of a computer could be controlled by a miniature, highly specialized computer program in high-speed ROM. Microprogramming allows the base instruction set to be defined or extended by built-in programs (now called firmware or microcode).[130] This concept greatly simplified CPU development. He first described this at the University of Manchester Computer Inaugural Conference in 1951, then published in expanded form in IEEE Spectrum in 1955.[citation needed]
It was widely used in the CPUs and
Magnetic memory
Magnetic drum memories were developed for the US Navy during WW II with the work continuing at Engineering Research Associates (ERA) in 1946 and 1947. ERA, then a part of Univac included a drum memory in its 1103, announced in February 1953. The first mass-produced computer, the IBM 650, also announced in 1953 had about 8.5 kilobytes of drum memory.
Magnetic core memory patented in 1949[133] with its first usage demonstrated for the Whirlwind computer in August 1953.[134] Commercialization followed quickly. Magnetic core was used in peripherals of the IBM 702 delivered in July 1955, and later in the 702 itself. The IBM 704 (1955) and the Ferranti Mercury (1957) used magnetic-core memory. It went on to dominate the field into the 1970s, when it was replaced with semiconductor memory. Magnetic core peaked in volume about 1975 and declined in usage and market share thereafter.[135]
As late as 1980, PDP-11/45 machines using magnetic-core main memory and drums for swapping were still in use at many of the original UNIX sites.
Early digital computer characteristics
Name | First operational | Numeral system | Computing mechanism | Programming | Turing-complete |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Arthur H. Dickinson IBM (US) | Jan 1940 | Decimal | Electronic | Not programmable | No |
NCR (US) |
March 1940 | Decimal | Electronic | Not programmable | No |
Zuse Z3 (Germany) | May 1941 | Binary floating point | Electro-mechanical | Program-controlled by punched 35 mm film stock (but no conditional branch) | In theory (1998) |
Atanasoff–Berry Computer (US) |
1942 | Binary | Electronic | Not programmable — single purpose | No |
Colossus Mark 1 (UK) | Feb 1944 | Binary | Electronic | Program-controlled by patch cables and switches | No |
Harvard Mark I – IBM ASCC (US) | May 1944 | Decimal | Electro-mechanical | Program-controlled by 24-channel punched paper tape (but no conditional branch) | Debatable |
Colossus Mark 2 (UK) | June 1944 | Binary | Electronic | Program-controlled by patch cables and switches | Conjectured[136] |
Zuse Z4 (Germany) | March 1945 | Binary floating point | Electro-mechanical | Program-controlled by punched 35 mm film stock | In 1950 |
ENIAC (US) | December 1945 | Decimal | Electronic | Program-controlled by patch cables and switches | Yes |
Modified ENIAC (US) | April 1948 | Decimal | Electronic | Read-only stored-programming mechanism using the Function Tables as program ROM | Yes |
ARC2 (SEC) (UK) | May 1948 | Binary | Electronic | Stored-program in rotating drum memory | Yes |
Manchester Baby (UK) | June 1948 | Binary | Electronic | Stored-program in Williams cathode-ray tube memory | Yes |
Manchester Mark 1 (UK) | April 1949 | Binary | Electronic | Stored-program in Williams cathode-ray tube memory and magnetic drum memory | Yes |
EDSAC (UK) | May 1949 | Binary | Electronic | Stored-program in mercury delay-line memory | Yes |
CSIRAC (Australia) | Nov 1949 | Binary | Electronic | Stored-program in mercury delay-line memory | Yes |
Transistor computers
The bipolar transistor was invented in 1947. From 1955 onward transistors replaced vacuum tubes in computer designs,[137] giving rise to the "second generation" of computers. Compared to vacuum tubes, transistors have many advantages: they are smaller, and require less power than vacuum tubes, so give off less heat. Silicon junction transistors were much more reliable than vacuum tubes and had longer service life. Transistorized computers could contain tens of thousands of binary logic circuits in a relatively compact space. Transistors greatly reduced computers' size, initial cost, and operating cost. Typically, second-generation computers were composed of large numbers of printed circuit boards such as the IBM Standard Modular System,[138] each carrying one to four logic gates or flip-flops.
At the University of Manchester, a team under the leadership of Tom Kilburn designed and built a machine using the newly developed transistors instead of valves. Initially the only devices available were germanium point-contact transistors, less reliable than the valves they replaced but which consumed far less power.[139] Their first transistorized computer, and the first in the world, was operational by 1953,[140] and a second version was completed there in April 1955.[140] The 1955 version used 200 transistors, 1,300 solid-state diodes, and had a power consumption of 150 watts. However, the machine did make use of valves to generate its 125 kHz clock waveforms and in the circuitry to read and write on its magnetic drum memory, so it was not the first completely transistorized computer.
That distinction goes to the Harwell CADET of 1955,[141] built by the electronics division of the Atomic Energy Research Establishment at Harwell. The design featured a 64-kilobyte magnetic drum memory store with multiple moving heads that had been designed at the National Physical Laboratory, UK. By 1953 this team had transistor circuits operating to read and write on a smaller magnetic drum from the Royal Radar Establishment. The machine used a low clock speed of only 58 kHz to avoid having to use any valves to generate the clock waveforms.[142][141]
CADET used 324-point-contact transistors provided by the UK company Standard Telephones and Cables; 76 junction transistors were used for the first stage amplifiers for data read from the drum, since point-contact transistors were too noisy. From August 1956, CADET was offering a regular computing service, during which it often executed continuous computing runs of 80 hours or more.[143][144] Problems with the reliability of early batches of point contact and alloyed junction transistors meant that the machine's mean time between failures was about 90 minutes, but this improved once the more reliable bipolar junction transistors became available.[145]
The Manchester University Transistor Computer's design was adopted by the local engineering firm of Metropolitan-Vickers in their Metrovick 950, the first commercial transistor computer anywhere.[146] Six Metrovick 950s were built, the first completed in 1956. They were successfully deployed within various departments of the company and were in use for about five years.[140] A second generation computer, the IBM 1401, captured about one third of the world market. IBM installed more than ten thousand 1401s between 1960 and 1964.
Transistor peripherals
Transistorized electronics improved not only the CPU (Central Processing Unit), but also the
Many second-generation CPUs delegated peripheral device communications to a secondary processor. For example, while the communication processor controlled
During the second generation
Transistor supercomputers
The early 1960s saw the advent of
In the US, a series of computers at Control Data Corporation (CDC) were designed by Seymour Cray to use innovative designs and parallelism to achieve superior computational peak performance.[152] The CDC 6600, released in 1964, is generally considered the first supercomputer.[153][154] The CDC 6600 outperformed its predecessor, the IBM 7030 Stretch, by about a factor of 3. With performance of about 1 megaFLOPS, the CDC 6600 was the world's fastest computer from 1964 to 1969, when it relinquished that status to its successor, the CDC 7600.
Integrated circuit computers
The "third-generation" of digital electronic computers used integrated circuit (IC) chips as the basis of their logic.
The idea of an integrated circuit was conceived by a radar scientist working for the Royal Radar Establishment of the Ministry of Defence, Geoffrey W.A. Dummer.
The first working integrated circuits were invented by Jack Kilby at Texas Instruments and Robert Noyce at Fairchild Semiconductor.[155] Kilby recorded his initial ideas concerning the integrated circuit in July 1958, successfully demonstrating the first working integrated example on 12 September 1958.[156] Kilby's invention was a hybrid integrated circuit (hybrid IC).[157] It had external wire connections, which made it difficult to mass-produce.[158]
Noyce came up with his own idea of an integrated circuit half a year after Kilby.
Third generation (integrated circuit) computers first appeared in the early 1960s in computers developed for government purposes, and then in commercial computers beginning in the mid-1960s. The first silicon IC computer was the Apollo Guidance Computer or AGC.[164] Although not the most powerful computer of its time, the extreme constraints on size, mass, and power of the Apollo spacecraft required the AGC to be much smaller and denser than any prior computer, weighing in at only 70 pounds (32 kg). Each lunar landing mission carried two AGCs, one each in the command and lunar ascent modules.
Semiconductor memory
The
Microprocessor computers
The "fourth-generation" of digital electronic computers used
The subject of exactly which device was the first microprocessor is contentious, partly due to lack of agreement on the exact definition of the term "microprocessor". The earliest multi-chip microprocessors were the
While the earliest microprocessor ICs literally contained only the processor, i.e. the central processing unit, of a computer, their progressive development naturally led to chips containing most or all of the internal electronic parts of a computer. The integrated circuit in the image on the right, for example, an Intel 8742, is an 8-bit microcontroller that includes a CPU running at 12 MHz, 128 bytes of RAM, 2048 bytes of EPROM, and I/O in the same chip.
During the 1960s, there was considerable overlap between second and third generation technologies.
While which specific product is considered the first microcomputer system is a matter of debate, one of the earliest is R2E's
In April 1975, at the
language. It weighed 40 kg (88 lb). As a complete system, this was a significant step from the Altair, though it never achieved the same success. It was in competition with a similar product by IBM that had an external floppy disk drive.From 1975 to 1977, most microcomputers, such as the MOS Technology KIM-1, the Altair 8800, and some versions of the Apple I, were sold as kits for do-it-yourselfers. Pre-assembled systems did not gain much ground until 1977, with the introduction of the Apple II, the Tandy TRS-80, the first SWTPC computers, and the Commodore PET. Computing has evolved with microcomputer architectures, with features added from their larger brethren, now dominant in most market segments.
A NeXT Computer and its
Systems as complicated as computers require very high
In the 21st century,
CMOS circuits have allowed computing to become a
Quantum computing is an emerging technology in the field of computing. MIT Technology Review reported 10 November 2017 that IBM has created a 50-qubit computer; currently its quantum state lasts 50 microseconds.[185] Google researchers have been able to extend the 50 microsecond time limit, as reported 14 July 2021 in Nature;[186] stability has been extended 100-fold by spreading a single logical qubit over chains of data qubits for quantum error correction.[186] Physical Review X reported a technique for 'single-gate sensing as a viable readout method for spin qubits' (a singlet-triplet spin state in silicon) on 26 November 2018.[187] A Google team has succeeded in operating their RF pulse modulator chip at 3 kelvins, simplifying the cryogenics of their 72-qubit computer, which is set up to operate at 0.3 K; but the readout circuitry and another driver remain to be brought into the cryogenics.[188][p] See: Quantum supremacy[190][191] Silicon qubit systems have demonstrated entanglement at non-local distances.[192]
Computing hardware and its software have even become a metaphor for the operation of the universe.[193]
Epilogue
An indication of the rapidity of development of this field can be inferred from the history of the seminal 1947 article by Burks, Goldstine and von Neumann.[194] By the time that anyone had time to write anything down, it was obsolete. After 1945, others read John von Neumann's First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC, and immediately started implementing their own systems. To this day, the rapid pace of development has continued, worldwide.[q][r]
See also
- Antikythera mechanism
- History of computing
- History of computing hardware (1960s–present)
- History of laptops
- History of personal computers
- History of software
- Information Age
- IT History Society
- Retrocomputing
- Timeline of computing
- List of pioneers in computer science
- Vacuum-tube computer
Notes
- ^ The Ishango bone is a bone tool, dated to the Upper Paleolithic era, about 18,000 to 20,000 BC. It is a dark brown length of bone, the fibula of a baboon. It has a series of tally marks carved in three columns running the length of the tool. It was found in 1960 in Belgian Congo.[1]
- ^ According to Schmandt-Besserat 1981, these clay containers contained tokens, the total of which were the count of objects being transferred. The containers thus served as something of a bill of lading or an accounts book. In order to avoid breaking open the containers, first, clay impressions of the tokens were placed on the outside of the containers, for the count; the shapes of the impressions were abstracted into stylized marks; finally, the abstract marks were systematically used as numerals; these numerals were finally formalized as numbers. Eventually (Schmandt-Besserat estimates it took 5000 years.[5]) the marks on the outside of the containers were all that were needed to convey the count, and the clay containers evolved into clay tablets with marks for the count.
- ^ A Spanish implementation of Napier's bones (1617), is documented in Montaner & Simon 1887, pp. 19–20.
- ^ All nine machines are described in Vidal & Vogt 2011.
- ^ Binary-coded decimal (BCD) is a numeric representation, or character encoding, which is still widely used.
- ^ The existence of Colossus was kept secret by the UK Government for 30 years and so was not known to American computer scientists, such as Gordon Bell and Allen Newell. And was not in Bell & Newell (1971) Computing Structures, a standard reference work in the 1970s.
- ^ The Manchester Baby predated EDSAC as a stored-program computer, but was built as a test bed for the Williams tube and not as a machine for practical use.[116] However, the Manchester Mark 1 of 1949 (not to be confused with the 1948 prototype, the Baby) was available for university research in April 1949 despite being still under development.[117]
- ^ Martin 2008, p. 24 notes that David Caminer (1915–2008) served as the first corporate electronic systems analyst, for this first business computer system. LEO would calculate an employee's pay, handle billing, and other office automation tasks.
- ^ For example, Kara Platoni's article on Donald Knuth stated that "there was something special about the IBM 650".[126]
- ^ The microcode was implemented as extracode on Atlas.[132]
- RAND computers.[147]
- ^ Bob Taylor conceived of a generalized protocol to link together multiple networks to be viewed as a single session regardless of the specific network: "Wait a minute. Why not just have one terminal, and it connects to anything you want it to be connected to? And, hence, the Arpanet was born."[148]
- ^ The Intel 4004 (1971) die was 12 mm2, composed of 2300 transistors; by comparison, the Pentium Pro was 306 mm2, composed of 5.5 million transistors.[173]
- ^ In the defense field, considerable work was done in the computerized implementation of equations such as Kalman 1960, pp. 35–45.
- ^ IBM's 127-qubit computer cannot be simulated on traditional computers.[189]
- Annals of the History of Computing, year by year, back to 1979.[195]
- ^ Schultz, Phill (7 September 1999). "A very brief history of pure mathematics: The Ishango Bone". University of Western Australia School of Mathematics. Archived from the original on 2008-07-21.
- ISBN 978-1-4020-4559-2. Retrieved 2020-05-27.
- ^ Pegg, Ed Jr. "Lebombo Bone". MathWorld.
- ISBN 978-0-471-27047-8.
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- A PICTORIAL INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS – 06/1957
- A PICTORIAL MANUAL ON COMPUTERS – 12/1957
- A PICTORIAL MANUAL ON COMPUTERS, Part 2 – 01/1958
- 1958–1967 Pictorial Report on the Computer Field – December issues (195812.pdf, ..., 196712.pdf)
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External links
- Obsolete Technology – Old Computers
- Things That Count
- Historic Computers in Japan
- The History of Japanese Mechanical Calculating Machines
- Computer History — a collection of articles by Bob Bemer
- 25 Microchips that shook the world (archived) – a collection of articles by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
- Columbia University Computing History
- Computer Histories – An introductory course on the history of computing
- Revolution – The First 2000 Years Of Computing, Computer History Museum